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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION 

FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


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Electric  Railway  Journal  American   Machinist 

Metallurgical  and  QKemical  Engineering 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION 

FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

A  BOOK  FOR  STUDENTS,  ELECTRICAL  AND    MECHANICAL 
ENGINEERS,  SUPERINTENDENTS  OF  MOTIVE  POWER 
AND  OTHERS  INTERESTED  IN  THE  DEVELOP- 
MENT  OF   ELECTRIC  TRACTION   FOR 
RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE. 


BY 

EDWARD  P.    BURCH 

CONSULTING    ENGINEER;    MEMBER    NEW   YORK    RAILROAD    CLUB;    MEMBER    AMERICAN     INSTITUTE    OF 
ELECTRICAL    ENGINEERS;    LECTURER    ON    ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS,    UNIVERSITY    OF    MINNESOTA 


McGRAW-HILL    BOOK   COMPANY 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET,  NEW  YORK 

6  BOUVERIE  STREET,  LONDON,  E.  C. 

1911 


COPYRIGHT,  1911 

BY 
McGRAw-HiLL  BOOK  COMPANY 


Printed   by 

The  Maple  Press 

York.  Pa. 


TO 

FREDERICK  S.  JONES 

DEAN    OP  YALE    COLLEGE 

GEORGE  D.  SHEPARDSON 

PROFESSOR   OF   ELECTRICAL   ENGINEERING,    UNIVERSITY   OF   MINNESOTA 

CALVIN  S.  GOODRICH 

PRESIDENT,   TWIN    CITY   RAPID   TRANSIT   CO.,   MINNEAPOLIS,    MINNESOTA 

JOHN  T.  McCHESNEY 

PRESIDENT,   EVERETT   IMPROVEMENT   CO.,   EVERETT,    WASHINGTON 

IN   RECOGNITION   OF   THE   AUTHOR'S    INDEBTEDNESS 


227162 


PREFACE. 


A  development  in  electric  traction  for  railway  trains  is  in  progress 
the  extent  of  which  is  scarcely  realized  except  by  those  engaged  in  elec- 
tric railway  engineering. 

The  work  of  electrification  now  completed  by  four  large  steam  rail- 
roads, the  New  York  Central,  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford, 
the  Long  Island, -and  the  Pennsylvania,  at  their  New  York  terminals, 
and  by  the  Great  Northern  Railway  and  the  Spokane  and  Inland 
Empire  Railroad  in  the  state  of  Washington,  presents  notable  examples 
of  this  application  of  electric  motive  power.  It  has  led  other  important 
railway  companies  in  this  country  to  consider  the  advantages  of  electric 
power,  both  for  old  steam  roads  and  for  all  new  railways. 

The  opportunity  which  has  been  given  railroads  to  utilize  the  advan- 
tages of  electric  motive  power  has  already  resulted  in  a  remarkable 
growth.  No  more  striking  display  of  progress  in  electrical  engineering- 
can  be  obtained  than  that  shown  in  the  illustrations  of  the  various 
types  of  electric  transportation  equipment  built  since  1906.  Equipment 
has  been  strengthened  commensurate  with  the  needs;  details  of  design 
and  control  have  been  perfected;  manufacture,  maintenance,  and  in- 
spection have  been  simplified,  until  the  motive  power  of  electric  trains 
now  presents  no  serious  difficulties  in  modern  railroad  operation. 

No  publication  relating  particularly  to  the  subject  of  electric  traction 
for  railway  trains  has  appeared  in  America,  because  the  men  who  were 
qualified  by  experience  and  knowledge  to  write  have  not  found  time,  or 
have  been  prevented  by  business  reasons.  In  the  winter's  opinion  such 
a  work  is  needed,  and  this  book  has  been  published  in  the  hope  that  it 
may  meet  this  need.  It  is  not,  however,  intended  as  a  popular  treatise 
upon  the  subject,  for  it  is  assumed  that  the  reader  has  a  good  knowledge 
of  steam  and  electric  railway  practice. 

The  substance  of  the  work  was  delivered  in  24  lectures  on  electric 
railway  transportation,  in  1908-9-10-11,  to  the  senior  students  in  elec- 
trical engineering  at  the  University  of  Minnesota. 

The  material  has  been  systematically  collected  since  the  year  1900, 
which  marked  the  close  of  seven  years'  service  as  electrical  engineer  for 
the  Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  Company,  operating  the  electric  railways  and 
long  interurban  lines  in  and  near  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul.  This  was 
followed  by  much  valuable  experience  on  steam  locomotive  tests  and  on 

vii 


viii  PREFACE 

dynamometer  cars,  and  later  in  electrification  plans  for  several  steam 
roads.  Electrification  work  throughout  the  country  has  been  inspected 
and  studied  for  use  in  consulting  practice,  the  data  thus  collected  being- 
used  as  a  basis  for  the  material  contained  in  the  book.  Viewpoints  have 
been  obtained  from  many  sides  and  angles.  Ideas  of  steam  railroad  offi- 
cials, of  superintendents  of  motive  power,  of  steam  and  electric  locomotive 
enginemen,  of  manufacturers,  and  of  skeptical  bankers  have  been  weighed 
and  sifted.  Facts,  comparisons,  descriptions,  statistical  tables,  leading 
opinions,  results  in  operation,  and  references  to  the  best  current  litera- 
ture have  been  collected  to  constitute  a  book  of  reference  for  engineers. 
Manifestly  all  of  the  material  and  tables  could  not  be  presented,  but 
special  effort  has  been  made  to  avoid  passing  judgment  or  stating  con- 
clusions without  presenting  the  important  issues  and  sometimes  the 
details  of  the  case. 

In  the  use  of  the  work  as  a  text-book,  emphasis  should  be  given  to  a 
study  of  statistical  tables  to  bring  out  conclusions,  when,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  present  status  of  electric  railway  transportation,  it  is  possible 
to  do  so.  Classification  in  itself  is  not  valuable  and  stress  should  be  laid 
on  the  function  of  the  relations  of  the  elements  involved.  The  limitations 
on  practical  electrification  must  be  observed  to  get  good  foundations  for  a 
study  of  economic  problems  and  efficient  methods  of  train  operation. 
Technical  reports  by  students  on  the  relative  merits  of  mechanical 
connections,  electric  systems,  train  equipment,  on  methods  of  develop- 
ment, and  on  economies  of  train  operation  will  bring  out  good  results  if 
they  are  criticised,  revised,  and  discussed  pro  and  con,  by  the  students 
themselves. 

The  book  is  further  intended  as  a  guide  for  those  who  desire  to  follow 
the  development  and  practical  application  of  electric  traction  on  Ameri- 
can trunk-line  railroads.  The  history  and  present  status  are  carefully 
outlined  to  give  a  preliminary  survey;  and  in  general  the  subjects  are 
treated  from  the  view  point  of  steam  railroad  men  who  desire  to  study 
electric  motive  power.  Data  on  cars,  trucks,  power  station  design, 
substation  practice,  manufacturer's  data,  wiring  diagrams,  etc.,  are  not 
presented.  Electric  traction  for  street  railways  is  not  considered,  and 
details  of  interurban  railways  which  do  not  run  cars  in  trains  are  omitted. 
The  subject  has  been  limited,  as  the  title  indicates,  to  Electric  Traction 
for  Railway  Trains. 

EDWARD  P.  BUKCH. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

First-hand  information  has  been  received  from  a  host  of  railroad  men, 
from  consulting  engineers,  and  from  managers  of  properties;  and  their 
courtesies  are  appreciated,  as  otherwise  parts  of  the  statistical  tables  and 
operating  data,  ordinarily  kept  "  behind  a  stone  wall/'  could  not  have 
been  reviewed.  The  writer  is  indebted  to  the  leading  steam  and  electric 
railway  papers,  the  Railway  Age  Gazette  and  the  Electric  Railway 
Journal,  for  reliable,  up-to-date  information,  and  especially  for  the 
stimulus  received  from  their  able  and  comprehensive  editorials. 


DEFINITIONS. 

There  are  four  terms,  frequently  used  herein,  to  be  explained: 

Railways  refer  to  all  kinds  of  roads  where  vehicles  are  moved  on  metal- 
lic rails  by  steam  or  electric  motors. 

Railroads  refer  particularly  to  those  railways  which  have  4  feet  8^ 
inches  track  gage;  a  private  right-of-way  and  private  terminals;  freight 
and  passenger  traffic,  with  cars  in  trains;  and  the  Master  Car  Builders' 
standards,  for  interchange  of  equipment  with  other  railroads. 

Tons  refer  to  weights  of  2000  pounds;  not  to  British  or  metric  tons, 
of  2240  or  2204  pounds. 

Mileage  refers  to  single-track  miles,  not  route  miles. 


IX 


TEXT -BOOKS  ON  THE  SUBJECT  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 

DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  Van  Nostrand,  1909. 

PARSHALL  and  HOB  ART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  Van  Nostrand,  1907. 

ASHE  and  KEILEY:  "Electric  Railways."     Two  volumes,  Van  Nostrand,  1905. 

WILSON  and  LYDALL:  "Electric  Traction."     Two  volumes,  Arnold,  1907. 

GOTSHALL:  "Electric  Railway  Economics,"  McGraw,  1904. 

HERRICK  and  BOYNTON:  "American  Electric  Ry.  Practice,"  McGraw,  1907. 

ARMSTRONG:  "Electric  Traction,"  in  Standard  Handbook,  McGraw,  1910. 

"International  Electric  Congress,  St.  Louis,"  McGraw,  1904. 

"  Berlin-Zossen  Electric  Railway  Tests  of  1903,"  McGraw,  1905. 

"  Report  of  the  Electric  Railway  Test  Commission,"  McGraw,  1906. 


ELEMENTARY  BOOKS  FOR  TRAINMEN  AND  BEGINNERS. 

NORRIS:  "Study  of  Electrical  Engineering,"  Wiley,  1908. 
HOUSTON  and  KENNELLY:  "Electric  Street  Railways,"  McGraw,  1906. 
PARHAM  and  SHEDD:   "Shop  Tests  on  Car  Equipment,"  McGraw,  1909. 
AYLMER-SMALL:  "Electrical  Railroading,"  Drake,  1908. 
GUTMANN-GOULD:  "The  Motorman  and  His  Duties,"  McGraw,  1907. 


LITERATURE  AVAILABLE  FOR  GENERAL  STUDY. 

Electric  Railway  Journal,  New  York. 

p]lectric  Traction  Weekly,  Chicago. 

Railway  Age  Gazette,  New  York. 

The  Electrician,  London. 

Zeitschrift  Des  Vereines  Deutscher  Ingenieuie,  Berlin. 

State  Railroad  Commission,  Annual  Reports. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  Annual  Reports. 

American  Electric  Railway  Engineering  Assoc.,  Reports. 

Census  Bulletin  on  Electric  Railways,  1902-1907. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  Transactions. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  HISTORY  AND  PRESENT  STATUS  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION   ...  1 

II.  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     ....  50 

III.  ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS    ....  86 

IV.  ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION 126 

V.  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAINS .  158 

VI.  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 224 

VII.  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES 266 

VIII.  TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES.  302 

IX.  TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES   .    .  338 

X.  TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE*  LOCOMOTIVES  .    .  354 

XI.  POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 400 

XII.  TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 432 

XIII.  STEAM,  GAS,  AND  WATER  POWER  PLANTS 466 

XIV.  PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 496 

XV.   WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 530 

INDEX  .                                                                                               .  571 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR 
RAILWAY  TRAINS 


CHAPTER  I. 
HISTORY  AND   PRESENT   STATUS   OF  ELECTRIC   TRACTION. 

Outline. 

Introduction.  Third-rail  Lines. 

First  Electric  Railways.  Subways  and  Tunnels. 

Practical  Street  Railways.  Motor-car  Trains. 

Experimental  Work.  Mountain-grade  Lines. 

Interurban  Electric  Railways.  Railroad  Terminals. 

Competition  with  Steam  Roads.  Switching  Yards. 

Private  Right-of-Way.  Freight  Service. 

Elevated  Railways.  Electric  Locomotives. 

Electric  Traction  by  Electric  Railways  for  Ordinary  Service. 
Electric  Traction  by  Steam  Railroads  for  Special  Situations. 
Electric  Traction  in  General  Use  for  Trains  for  Economic  Reasons. 
Earnings  and  Mileage  of  Railways  Operating  Electric  Trains. 
Steam  and  Electric  Railway  Statistics  Summarized. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  history  of  electric  traction  for  railway-train  service  is  studied 
in  order  to  understand  the  progress  which  has  been  made  during  the  past 
twenty  years  in  transportation  methods,  and  to  understand  the  service 
conditions  surrounding  the  application  of  electric  power.  This  study 
gives  a  proper  view  point  for  a  perspective,  it  gages  the  value  of  present 
endeavor,  and  it  outlines  the  magnitude  of  some  of  the  problems 
which  are  now  before  railway  companies. 

The  history  of  transportation  shows  clearly  that  improvements  in 
motive  power  and  methods  are  attained  only  by  slow  development  and 
careful  experiment;  also  that  railway  service  demands  economy  of  power, 
ample  capacity,  reasonable  designs,  flexibility,  and  interchangeable 
equipment;  for  without  these  things  the  best  results  are  not  obtained, 
and  investments  are  not  most  productive. 

The  history  of  railway  electrical  engineering  may  state  the  sequence 
and  nature  of  the  development,  but  it  should  also  review  both  the 

1 


FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


mistakes  and  the  triumphs  of  the  past;  and  when  the  elements  in  the 
advancement  of  transportation  are  so  presented,  they  form  an  induce- 
ment to  present  thought  and  endeavor. 

In  a  study  of  railway  electrical  engineering  ii  is  well  to  acquire  specific 
information  on  approved  modern  engineering  methods,  and  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  technology  of  railways.  A  study  should  develop  the 
relations  of  separated  features,  and  bring  out  the  economic  principles 
underlying  all  transportation  work. 

FIRST  ELECTIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  years  1830  to  1860  mark  the  first  period  of  experiment  in  the 
application  of  electrical  energy  for  transportation.  The  work  of  experi- 
menters was  limited  to  the  application  of  permanent  magnets  and  recip- 
rocating motion,  and  by  the  lack  of  serviceability  and  capacity  from 
chemical  batteries. 

About  1835,  Thomas  Davenport,  of  Brandon,  Vermont,  made  over 
100  models  of  electric  railway  motor  cars,  which  he  operated  by  batteries. 
One  patent  specified  "the  production  of  rotary  motion  by  repeated 
changes  of  magnet  poles,"  and  the  use  of  a  commutator.  Third-rail 
conductors  and  track-return  circuits  were  used.  Elec.  World,  Oct. 
6,  1910. 

In  1842,  Davidson  built  a  7-ton,  2-axle  car  for  the  Edinburgh-Glasgow 
Railway.  Each  axle  carried  a  wooden  cylinder  on  which  were  fastened 
three  bars  of  iron,  parallel  to  the  axle.  Four  electromagnets  were  arranged 
in  pairs  on  each  side  of  each  cylinder.  Current  was  produced  by 
an  iron-zinc  sulphuric  acid  battery.  The  electromagnets  attracted  the 
bars  on  the  cylinder,  then  alternately  the  current  was  cut  off  and  on,  and 
rotation  was  produced.  A  speed  of  four  miles  per  hour  was  obtained. 
Aspinwall,  to  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1910. 

In  1847,  Lilley  and  Cotton,  of  Pittsburg,  and  also  Moses  G.  Farmer, 
of  Dover,  N.  H.,  operated  small  cars  in  which,  with  electricity  from  a 
battery,  alternate  attraction  and  repulsion  of  magnets  produced  motion. 

In  1851,  Thomas  Hall,  of  Boston,  exhibited  an  electric  motor  car 
at  the  Mechanics'  Fair.  An  electro-magnetic  armature  revolved  between 
the  poles  of  a  permanent  magnet. 

In  1851,  C.  G.  Page,  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  employed  a  100-cell  nitric- 
acid  battery.  His  car  received  motion  from  two  solenoids,  or  hollow 
magnets,  which  alternately  attracted  cores  on  a  plunger.  This  recipro- 
cating motion  was  transmitted  to  the  wheels  by  means  of  a  crank.  A 
speed  of  19  m.  p.  h.  was  attained,  yet  very  few  improvements  were  made, 
and  the  car  was  dubbed  the  "electro-magnetic  humbug." 

Between  1860  and  1866,  dynamos  or  electric  generators  were  being 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  3 

developed;  yet  it  was  some  time  before  it  was  discovered  that  an  electric 
generator  could  drive  a  similar  machine,  now  called  a  motor. 

In  1867,  Moses  G.  Farmer  operated  a  car  with  a  motor  and  dynamo. 

In  1879,  Siemens  and  Halske,  at  the  Berlin  Industrial  Exhibition, 
propelled  a  miniature  locomotive  and  three  cars,  with  electric  power 
from  a  dynamo.  The  track  rails,  1000  feet  long,  formed  a  160-yolt  circuit. 
Spur  and  bevel  gears  were  used  to  transmit  the  power  from  a  3-h.p. 
motor.  This  demonstration  was  repeated  at  Brussels  and  Dusseldorf, 
also  at  Frankfort,  in  1881.  See  photograph  in  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  8, 1904, 
p.  536. 

In  1880,  Thomas  A.  Edison  at  Menlo  Park,  New  Jersey,  ran  a  small 
locomotive,  using  power  from  a  dynamo.  See  section  on  electric  loco- 
motives in  this  chapter. 


FIG.   1. — ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CAR   AND  TRAIN.      VAN  DEPOELE,  TORONTO,   1884. 

In  1881,  Stephen  D.  Field  ran  a  large  motor  car  at  Stockbridge, 
Massachusetts,  using  a  dynamo,  a  positive  wire  enclosed  in  a  conduit,  and 
a  track-rail  return. 

In  1881,  Siemens  operated  cars  at  the  Baris  Exposition  with  current 
from  an  overhead  slotted  tube  in  which  a  contact  shoe  slid,  and  power 
was  transmitted  by  the  motor  to  the  axle  thru  a  chain;  and,  in  1885,  at 
the  Vienna  Exposition,  a  150-volt  Siemens  dynamo  supplied  current  thru 
two  insulated  rails  to  a  motor  in  a  car. 

In  1883,  Van  Depoele  built  experimental  and  exhibition  lines  at 
Chicago,  and  used  an  overhead  trolley  wire,  an  over-running  trolley  wheel, 


4  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

held  in  position  by  ballast,  the  trolley  wheel  being  connected  to  the  car  by 
means  of  a  flexible  cable. 

In  1884,  Van  Depoele  ran  an  electric  railway  train  at  the  Toronto 
Exposition,  using  a  1000-volt  contact  line  in  an  underground  conduit, 
3000  feet  long;  and  again  in  1885,  on  a  one-mile  road.  Van  Depoele  used 
an  under-running  trolley,  and  patented  the  scheme. 

In  1884,  Daft  built  an  electric  railway  on  one  of  the  piers  at  Coney 
Island ;  and  used  the  track  rails  for  the  two  conductors.  This  was  repeated 
at  expositions  in  Boston  and  in  New  Orleans. 

First  Public  Electric  Cars  for  City  Streets  (1880-1888).— In  1881, 
Siemens  and  Halske  constructed  a  short  commercial  road,  at  Lichterfelde, 
near  Berlin.  Two  insulated  track  rails  were  used  in  a  180-volt  circuit. 


FIG.  2. — DAFT  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CAR,  BALTIMORE,  1884. 

The  wheel  tire  was  insulated  from  the  hub  by  a  wooden  band.  Later  an 
overhead  trolley  line,  with  a  rolling  contact  at  the  wire,  was  used.  See 
photograph  in  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  535.  The  road  is  now 
running  as  a  600-volt  trolley  line. 

In  1883,  Siemens  cars  were  operated  in  Paris,  London,  and  elsewhere, 
by  storage  batteries  with  5-h.p.,  100-volt  motors. 

In  1883,  Siemens  and  Halske  constructed  a  third-rail,  narrow-gage 
line,  6  miles  long,  the  Portrush  Railway  near  the  Giants'  Causeway,  in 
northern  Ireland,  obtaining  from  a  water-fall  the  power  for  operating  a 
250-volt,  direct-current  dynamo. 

In  1884,  E.  M.  Bentley  and  Walter  H.  Knight  operated  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  a  road  having  two  miles  of  underground  conduit,  placed  between 
the  rails,  This  installation  was  perhaps  the  first  in  which  the  cars  were 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  5 

driven  by  a  series  motor,  placed  under  the  car  floor.  Wire-rope  and 
sprocket-chain  drive,  and  later,  bevel  gearing,  were  tried.  The  road  was 
operated  about  one  year.  See  Martin  and  Wetzler's  "The  Electric  Motor," 
1887;  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Feb.,  1889;  Bentley,  Elec.  World,  March  5,  1904. 

In  1884,  Daft  operated  a  pioneer  line,  2  miles  long,  for  the  Union 
Passenger  Railway  Co.,  between  Baltimore  and  Hampden.  Two  3-ton 
motor  cars  were  used  to  haul  trailers.  The  over-running  trolley  and  a 
third-rail  contact  were  both  installed.  The  motors  were  a  series,  130- 
volt,  direct-current,  single-geared  type.  Elec.  World,  March  5,  1904. 

In   1885,  John  C.  Henry  built  an  electric  railroad  in  Kansas  City. 


FIG.  3. — ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  CAR  AND  TRAIN.     VAN   DEPOELE,  MINNEAPOLIS,   1888. 


There  were  two  cars,  each  equipped  with  a  7-h.p.,  250-volt,  direct- 
current  motor.  The  overhead  trolley  wires  were  10  inches  apart,  and 
two  pairs  of  over-running  trolley  wheels  were  held  by  springs  in  lateral 
contact  with  each  wire,  the  trolley  wheels  being  mounted  on  a  single 
carriage,  and  connected  with  the  motors  by  means  of  flexible  cables. 
The  creditors  received  8  cents  on  a  dollar.  Elec.  World,  Oct.  20,  1910, 
p.  934. 

In  1886,  Van  Depoele,  working  at  Minneapolis  for  the  Minneapolis, 
Lyndale  and  Minnetonka  Railway,  which  had  been  obliged  to  discontinue 
the  use  of  steam  locomotives  in  the  business  portions  of  the  city,  equipped 
an  electric  locomotive  car  for  hauling  trains. 


6  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  4. — STANDARD  STREET  CAR  AND  MOTIVE  POWER,  1870-1890. 


FIG.  5 — DAFT  ELECTRIC  MOTOR  CAR.     MANSFIELD,  OHIO,  1887. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


A  Weston  bipolar,  20-h.p.  motor,  with  spocket-chain  drive  to  an  axle,  was 
located  above  the  floor  line  of  a  4-wheeled  open  car.  Current  was  taken  from  an 
overhead  copper  wire  by  means  of  an  over-running,  ballasted  trolley,  which  was 
attached  to  the  car  body  by  flexible  cables.  A  12x18  slide-valve  engine,  belted  to  an 
electric  generator,  furnished  energy,  which  was  transmitted  from  2  to  3  miles. 
Four  10-ton  open  excursion  coaches,  having  a  loaded  weight  with  passengers  of  about 
60  tons,  were  hauled  on  the  level,  but  two  were  a  load  for  the  curves  and  grades. 
The  trial  line  was  1.5  miles  long,  and  contained  one  long  3.5  per  cent,  grade  and  two 
sharp  curves.  Mr.  Thomas  J.  Janney,  superintendent  of  the  road,  recently  stated  to 
the  writer  that,  while  the  equipment  was  crude,  it  had  many  of  the  elements  for 
success.  The  president  of  the  road  decided  that  the  overhead  construction  at  curves 
and  the  serious  arcing  at  the  rail  joints  could  not  be  remedied.  The  heavy  main- 
tenance expense  and  lack  of  capacity  in  the  electric  motor  caused  it  to  be  condemned, 
and  it  was  abandoned  for  a  soda  motor.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  560. 

A  summary  on  public  street  railways  to  1888  shows  that  cars  were 
generally  propelled  by  horses  or  mules.  Animal  power  was  expensive  to 
operate,  depreciation  was  rapid,  service  was  slow,  and  sufficient  drawbar 
pull  and  speed  were  not  available.  -  Experiments  without  number  had 
been  tried  with  steam  engines,  electric  motors,  gas,  hot-air,  and  chemical 
motors,  as  the  motive  power  for  local  railway  transportation.  Electric 
street  railways  were  simply  an  experiment. 

EARLY  ELECTRIC  STREET  RAILWAYS  IN  AMERICA.1 


Year 

Month. 

Engineer. 

Miles. 

Cars. 

Motors. 

Location  of  road. 

1884 

July 

Bentley  and  Knight. 

2.0 

3 

1-14  h.p. 

Cleveland,  O. 

1885 

Aug. 

Leo  Daft  

2.0 

3 

1-8 

Baltimore,  Md. 

1885 

John  C.  Henry  

2 

1-7 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

1885 

John  C.  Henry  

1 



Orange,  N.  J. 

1885 

Oct. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele..  . 

1.0 

{' 

1-5] 

1-10  J 

South  Bend,  Ind.  ' 

1885 

Oct. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

1.0 

3 

1- 

Toronto,  Ont. 

1885 

Oct. 

S.  H.  Short  

0.5 

1 

1-8 

Denver,  Colo. 

1886 

Jan. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

1.5 

1 

1-20 

Minneapolis,  Minn. 

1886 

June 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

1.2 

2 

1-20 

Windsor,  Ont. 

1886 

July 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

5.0 

5 

1-10 

Appleton,  Wis. 

1886 

Sept. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

2.7 

4 

1-15 

Port  Huron,  Mich. 

1886 

Sept. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele. 

1.0 

1 

Detroit,  Mich. 

1886 

Oct. 

F.  E.  Fisher  

3.7 

4 

1-10 

Detroit,  Mich. 

1886 

Nov. 

C*  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 

5.0 

!9 
i3 

1-15J 

2-12  j 

Scranton,  Pa. 

1886 

Nov. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele 

12 

Montgomery   Ala. 

1886 

Dec. 

Leo  Daft  

1.0 

1 

Orange,  N.  J. 

See  references  on  early  electric  railways  at  end  of  this  chapter. 


8  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

EARLY  ELECTRIC  STREET   RAILWAYS  IN  AMERICA.— Continued. 


Year. 

Month. 

Engineer. 

Miles. 

Cars. 

Motors. 

Location  of  road.' 

1887 
1887 

July 
Aug. 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 
Leo  Daft  

4.0 
4.0 

8 
6 

1-15 

Lima,  Ohio. 
Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

1887 

Aug. 

Leo  Daft  

1 

Mansfield,  O. 

1887 

Aug. 

F,  J.  Sprague       .... 

1 

St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

1887 

Scot. 

F  E.  Fisher 

1 

San  Jose   Cal 

1887 

Sept 

S   H   Short 

1  0 

2 

1-18 

Columbus   O 

1887 

Nov 

S   H   Short 

Huntington   "W    Va 

1887 

Oct. 

W.  M.  Schlesinger.  . 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1887 

Oct. 

C  F.  Adams 

4  0 

o 

Wichita   Kansas 

1887 
1887 

Oct. 
Oct 

C.  J.  Van  Depoele.  . 
Leo  DaftT^ 

7.0 
4  0 

2 
18 

2-7 
1-12 

St.  Catharines,  Ont. 
Asbury  Park   N  J 

1887 
1888 

Nov. 
Jan 

John  C.  Henry  
Leo  Daft 

3.0 
1  0 

9 
2 

1-20 

2-7 

San  Diego,  Cal. 
Ithaca  N  Y 

1888 

Jan 

Bentley-Knight 

4  4 

Allegheny  Citv  Pa 

PRACTICAL  STREET  RAILWAYS. 

The  first  practical  electric  street  railway  embodied  many  of  the  essen- 
tial features  of  modern  practice.  It  was  installed  by  the  Sprague  Elec- 
tric Railway  &  Motor  Co.  for  an  11-mile  railway,  with  10  per  cent,  grades, 
at  Richmond,  Va.,  and  was  operated  in  February,  1888.  Energy  was 
furnished  from  a  central  station  by  a  300-h.p.  steam  engine  and  a  450- 
volt  direct-current,  belted  generator,  and  was  transmitted  by  copper  con- 
ductors to  small  cars,  each  equipped  with  two  7-h.p.  series-wound  motors. 
Thirty  cars  were  in  operation  by  July,  1888. 

Mr.  Frank  J.  Sprague  in  the  Transactions  of  the  International  Elec- 
tric Congress,  St.  Louis,  1904,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  331,  has  summarized  the 
features  of  this  now  historic  road  at  Richmond. 

"Distribution  was  effected  by  an  overhead  line  circuit  over  the  center  of  the 
track,  reinforced  by  a  continuous  main  conductor,  in  turn  supplied  at  central  dis- 
tributing points  by  feeders  from  a  constant  potential  plant,  operated  at  about  450 
volts,  with  reinforced  track  return.  The  current  was  taken  from  an  overhead  line, 
at  first  by  fixed  upper-pressure  contacts,  and  subsequently  by  a  wheel  carried  on  a 
pole  supported  over  the  center  of  the  car  and  having  free,  up-and-down,  reversible 
movement.  The  motors  were  centered  on  the  axles,  and  geared  to  them,  at  first  by 
single,  and  then  by  double-reduction  gearing,  the  outer  ends  being  spring-supported 
from  the  car  body  so  that  the  motors  were  individually  free  to  follow  every  variation 
of  axle  movement,  and  yet  maintain  at  all  times  a  yielding  touch  upon  the  gears  in 
absolute  parallelism.  All  the  weight  of  the  car  was  available  for  traction,  and  the 
cars  could  be  operated  in  either  direction  from  either  end  of  the  car.  The  controlling 
system  was  at  first  by  graded  resistances,  afterward  by  variation  of  the  field  coils 
from  series  to  multiple  relations,  and  series-parallel  control  of  armatures,  by  a  sepa- 
rate switch.  Motors  were  run  in  both  directions  with  fixed  brushes,  at  first  laminated 
ones  placed  at  an  angle,  and  later  solid  metallic  ones  with  radial  bearings." 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  9 

The  Development  of  Practical  Street  Railways  (1888-1896). — Sprague 
and  his  associates  now  proceeded  to  convince  street  railway  managers  that 
electric  power  could  be  made  an  economical  substitute  for  animal,  steam, 
and  cable  traction.  Sprague  electric  railway  lines  in  1890  included 
Minneapolis,  with  100  cars;  St.  Paul,  80  cars;  Cleveland,  99  cars;  St. 
Louis,  80  cars;  Tacoma,  56  cars;  Pittsburg,  45  cars;  Richmond,  42  cars; 
in  all  89  roads  and  2080  motor  cars.  Electrical  Engineer,  N.  Y.,  April 
30,  1890. 

Thomson -Houston  Electric  Co.  absorbed  the  Van  Depoele  interests  in 
1888.  Its  equipment  was  similar  to  that  used  by  Sprague,  and  included 
two  double-reduction,  geared  motors  per  car.  One  distinguishing  feature 
was  an  excellent  controller,  for  parallel  and  later  for  series-parallel  opera- 
tion of  motors,  in  which  a  magnetic  blow-out  devised  by  Elihu  Thomson 
was  used.  Its  first  lines  were  in  practical  service  at  Revere  Beach,  Bos- 
ton, with  one  car,  July  4,  1888;  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  also  at  Seattle  in 
1888;  and  at  Minneapolis  in  1889.  St.  Ry.  Jour.,  1889,  p.  374.  Thom- 
son-Houston railway  lines  in  1890  included  Boston,  with  127  cars  running 
and  130  ordered;  Omaha,  30  cars;  St.  Paul,  8  cars;  in  all  61  roads  and 
431  motor  cars.  Electrical  Engineer,  N.  Y.,  April  16;  1890. 

Short  Electric  Co.,  which  had  built  lines  in  Denver  in  1885, 
introduced  single-reduction,  geared  and  gearless,  motors  in  1891. 

Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Pittsburg,  entered 
the  electric  railway  field  in  1890  with  single-reduction,  geared  motors. 

General  Electric  Co.,  of  Schenectady,  was  formed  in  1891  as  a  con- 
solidation of  the  Thomson-Houston,  the  Edison  General  Electric,  the 
Sprague,  and  other  companies.  It  obtained  the  patent  rights  to  the 
inventions  of  Van  Depoele,  Bentley,  Knight,  Thomson,  and  Sprague. 

General  Electric  and  Westinghouse  Companies  have  fostered  most  of 
the  important  American  electric  railway  development  since  1893.  Patent 
litigation  was  stopped  when  the  two  companies  entered  into  contracts,  in 
1896  and  1899,  which  embodied  an  exchange  of  licenses  for  the  joint  use 
of  the  patents  of  each  company.  This  interchange  was  advantageous, 
for  it  developed  a  high  degree  of  co-operation  in  engineering  and  in 
manufacture. 

Allis -Chalmers  Co.,  which  consolidated  E.  P.  Allis  &  Co.,  Bullock 
Electric  Manufacturing  Co.,  and  others,  about  1896,  has  furnished  much 
of  the  power-plant  equipment,  but  little  of  the  electric  motor  and  trans- 
mission equipments  for  railways. 

Conduit  railways,  which  avoid  overhead  wires  by  placing  the  trolley 
conductor  in  a  conduit,  as  in  cable  railway  systems,  were  successfully 
installed  and  operated  in  Budapest  in  1889,  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
1895,  and  in  New  York  in  1896.  Few  roads  have  been  built  in  America, 
because  the  construction  cost  exceeds  $60,000  per  single-track  mile. 


10  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Conduit  roads  have  been  built  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Brussels,  Vienna,  Lyons, 
Nice,  Bordeaux,  and  London. 

Suburban  roads  were  a  simple  development  of  the  street  rail- 
way. These  lines  which  ran  to  the  territory  bordering  the  limits  of 
the  city  at  first  were  3  to  5  miles  long,  but  they  now  extend  even  12 
miles.  Electric  lines  running  on  public  streets  from  the  heart  of  the 
larger  European  and  American  cities  gave  rise  to  numerous  resident 
and  manufacturing  districts  situated  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
city.  The  suburban  roads  resulted  from  the  increase  in  population  and 
an  appreciation  by  the  public  of  electric  transportation.  Frequent  ser- 
vice, rather  than  high  speed,  was  the  distinguishing  feature. 

EXPERIMENTAL  WORK. 

Experimental  Work  of  all  Kinds  was  Done  until  1895. — Electricity 
had  now  been  recognized  as  an  improved  power  for  street  railway  trac- 
tion. The  cost  of  the  development  of  equipment  was  so  expensive,  how- 
ever, that  it  could  not  be  borne  by  the  inventors  themselves,  or  by 
the  manufacturing  companies,  and  much  of  it  was  assumed  by  energetic 
electric  railway  companies.  To  such  an  extent,  indeed,  did  they  burden 
themselves  in  this  way,  that  it  is  remarkable  that  more  of  them  did  not 
fall  into  the  hands  of  receivers.  Motor  equipment  which  was  started 
with  confidence  often  proved  too  expensive  to  operate.  It  was  there- 
fore abandoned,  and  replaced  by  an  entirely  new  equipment,  sometimes 
on  the  suggestion  of  a  manufacturing  company,  but  generally  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  electrical  engineer  and  the  master  mechanic  of 
the  operating  company.  Large  sums  of  money  were  allowed  for  experi- 
mental purposes  by  the  managers  of  these  pioneer  electric  railways. 
Engineers  and  operators  were  put  on  their  mettle,  and  their  courage, 
ingenuity,  and  ability  produced  results.  It  was  their  opportunity  and 
their  duty  to  progress  in  this  new  field.  Valuable  improvements  were 
readily  accepted;  apparatus  was  superseded  when  better  was  developed. 

In  these  early  days,  after  the  advantages  of  electric  power  were  appar- 
ent, the  stockholders  and  the  public  were  willing  to  have  improvements 
tried,  provided  they  were  not  greatly  inconvenienced  thereby.  The 
manufacturer  who  now-a-days  installs  equipment  which  has  not  been 
thoroly  tried,  or  who  plans  experiments  on  a  large  scale  at  the  expense  and 
inconvenience  of  the  public,  is  condemned. 

About  1896,  stockholders  of  electric  railways  began  to  receive  divi- 
dends on  their  investments.  Suitable  and  economical  power  plants 
were  built,  overhead  construction  was  simplified,  insulation  of  electric 
motor  windings  was  improved,  cost  of  maintenance  of  equipment  was 
reduced,  service  became  reliable,  and  experimental  work  was  lessened. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  11 

A  SUMMARY  OF  DISCARDED  IDEAS  IN  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 
"Count  your  Failures,  not  your  Successes." 

Many  engineering  ideas  were  well  tried,  and  then  abandoned,  between 
1885  and  1895,  certain  apparatus  was  found  to  be  unsuitable  for  ordinary 
electric  railway  work;  and  the  following  have  not  since  been  used: 

Batteries,  primary  and  storage. 

Over-running  trolley;  rigid  or  inflexible  trolley  contact;  two  trolleys 
for  city  streets. 

Unprotected  third  rail;  a  third  rail  between  track  rails;  or  a  third- 
rail  on  elevated  posts. 

Conduit  systems  for  ordinary  electric  railway  traffic;  and  surface 
contact  systems,  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  trolley. 

Track  rails  for  conducting  the  positive  electric  current. 

Insulation  of  track  rails  from  the  earth. 

Rail  returns,  without  adequate  bonding  at  the  rail  joints. 

Use  of  the  soil,  rivers,  or  lakes  for  a  heavy  return-current  circuit;  and 
the  artificial  grounding  of  rails. 

Magnetic  braking,  in  ordinary  railway-train  service. 

Magnetic    adhesion   increasers  between  rails  and  wheels  to  improve 
the  tractive  friction  or  the  economy  of  operation.     See  Elec.  Ry.  Journ. 
Dec.  13, 1909,  p.  1240;  electric  gearing,  Elec.  World,  July  21,  1910,  p.  166. 

Magnetic  systems,  wherein  alternate  attraction  and  repulsion  of 
magnets  produced  reciprocating  motion,  to  propel  the  car. 

Motors  placed  above  the  floor  at  the  end  of  passenger  cars. 

Continuous  rotation  of  armature  to  retain  its  kinetic  energy. 

Connection  between  armature  and  car  axle  by  means  of  a  magnetic 
coupling  and  quill,  or- a  friction  clutch;  friction  wheels,  pulleys,  grooves, 
and  disks;  wire  rope,  belt,  and  chain  drive;  sprockets  and  links;  cranks 
near  the  middle  of  the  axle;  bevel  gear,  worm  gear. 

Long-distance  transmission  of  direct-current  power. 

Direct-current  series  systems. — Short  experimented  at  Denver,  1885. 
See:  Sperry,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892;  Dalemont,  Elec.  World,  Oct.  14, 
1909;  Adams,  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Sept.,  1900,  page  810. 

Regeneration  of  direct-current  power. 

Shunt-wound  and  compound-wound  motors;  one  motor  per  car. 

Control  of  motors  with  liquid  resistance, — S.  D.  Field,  about  1886. 
Control  of  motors  with  wire  resistance  on  field  magnets.  Control  of 
motors  by  a  variation  of  field  coils  from  series  to  multiple  relation, — 
Field,  in  1886;  Sprague,in  1888.  Control  of  motor  speeds  by  weakening 
the  field.  Control  of  motors  involving  two  commutators  per  motor. 

Brushes  of  copper;  variation  of  position  of  brushes  with  load  or  direc- 
tion of  motion;  positions  other  than  radial.  Relatively  large  magneto- 
motive force  in  direct-current  armatures. 


12  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Field  poles  without  field  coils  mounted  thereon.  The  well-known 
"  W.  P."  motor  of  1891  had  consequent  poles. 

Armatures  with  a  large  diameter,  and  fly-wheel  effect .  Gearless 
armatures,  mounted  on  the  axle  without  an  elastic  coupling  to  absorb 
switch  and  crossing  shocks,  curve  thrusts,  and  track  variations. 

Motor  frames  insulated  from  axles,  supports,  or  rails;  motors  unpro- 
tected from  dust,  snow,  and  water  of  roadbed;  motors  with  unnecessary 
dead  weight,  and  motor  mounting  without  spring  supports. 

Mechanical  and  electrical  equipments  which  were  suitable  for  city  or 
interurban  trolley  lines,  for  electric  train  service. 

INTERURBAN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS  (1890). 

Interuban  railways  were  a  development  from  the  street  and  suburban 
railways.  In  the  whole  history  of  transportation,  no  development  has 
been  more  important  and  wonderful  than  that  of  the  electric  interurban 
railways.  It  comprises  the  period  from  1890  to  1894,  when  many  short 
interurban  lines  were  built,  then  the  period  of  hard  times,  from  1893  to 
1896,  when  many  of  these  lines  were  in  the  hands  of  receivers,  followed  by 
the  period,  from  1897  to  1907,  characterized  by  gradual  increase  in  the 
length  and  capacity  of  interurban  roads,  by  the  use  of  larger  cars  and 
heavier  motors,  by  greater  investments  and  more  economical  power 
plants;  and,  still  more  recently,  by  a  development  which,  following  steam- 
railroad  practice,  involves  the  use  of  a  complete  private  right-of-way  from 
terminal  to  terminal,  the  operation  of  motor  cars  in  trains,  freight  ser- 
vice with  motor  cars  and  electric  locomotives,  and  the  thru  routing  of 
interstate  traffic. 

Interurbans  several  years  ago  reached  the  limit  of  their  development 
for  local  traffic,  and  their  present  advance  is  toward  long-haul  freight  and 
passenger  traffic  in  competition,  or  in  conjunction,  with  steam  railroads. 
They  fill  an  important  position  between  the  street  railway  and  the  steam 
railroad.  Some  interurbans  are  mere  trolley  lines;  others  have  nearly 
every  function  of  a  railroad. 

The  development  of  long  interurban  roads  was  impossible  until  after 
the  introduction  of  economical  long-distance  power  transmission  by  the 
Tesla  three-phase,  high-voltage  system.  Niagara  power  was  not  sent  to 
Buffalo,  only  22  miles  away,  until  November  16,  1896. 

Car  service  has  been  perfected  to  outlying  amusement  parks,  and  to 
bathing  beaches,  where  recreation  is  obtainable  at  a  minimum  expense. 
By  improving  the  facilities  for  travel,  they  have  provided  for  a  diffusion 
of  city  population,  and  have  so  developed  country  life  that  rural  land 
values  have  increased. 

Interurban  passenger  service,  between  many  cities  of  the  central  and 
western  states,  equals,  in  passenger  equipment  and  speed,  that  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


13 


steam  railroads  of  the  district;  and,  in  convenience  and  frequency  of 
service,  excel  them  beyond  comparison.  The  long,  vestibuled  cars, 
M.  C.  B.  trucks,  high-speed  motors,  service  with  a  limited  number  of 
stops,  two-car  trains,  dining-car  service  (as  on  the  Chicago  &  Milwaukee 
Electric  R.  R.,  Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  R.  R.),  roadbeds  of  stone  ballast, 
standard  Tee-rails,  a  complete  private  right-of-way  including  terminals, 
adequate  power  houses,  telephone  dispatching,  block  signals,  and  auto- 
matic brakes  render  possible  a  high  degree  of  speed  with  absolute  safety. 
These  interurban  roads  are  profitable  and  permanent  investments. 

Interurban  railways  are  often  common  carriers,  with  the  right  of 
eminent  domain,  and  are  subject  to  the  reasonable  control  and  police 
power  of  the  municipalities  which  they  connect  and  thru  which  they  are 
operated,  and  to  the  state  railroad  commission. 

The  historical  development  in  America  is  now  tabulated  briefly. 

INTERURBAN  RAILWAY  DEVELOPMENT,  1890-1910. 


Name  of  railway. 

Terminal  cities. 

Miles: 

Year. 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit 

Minneapolis  —  St  Paul               .  . 

9 

1890 

Lake  Shore  Electric 

Sandusky  —  Norwalk 

17 

1893 

Toledo  —  Norwalk  
Toledo  —  Norwalk  —  Cleveland         .  . 

62 
19 

1900 
1902 

Cleveland    Berea   Elyria 

Cleveland  —  Berea 

14 

1894 

Akron,   Bedford    &    Cleveland 

Cleveland  —  Berea  —  Oberlin  
Cleveland  —  Akron               

34 
35 

1901 
1895 

(the  first  real  interurban) 
International  Traction     

Cleveland  —  Akron  —  Canton  
Buffalo  —  Niagara  Falls     

58 
22 

1901 
1895 

Lowell  —  Lynn,  Mass           

26 

1896 

Minneapolis  St    Paul  Suburban 

St  Paul  —  Stillwater 

23 

1898 

Puget  Sound  Electric  

Seattle  —  Tacoma  

34 

1902 

Boston    &    Worcester 

Boston  —  Worcester            

46 

1903 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.  &  Eastern.  . 

Spokane   &   Inland  Empire.  .  .  . 
Fort  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley. 

Terre  Haute  —  Indianapolis  
Terre  Haute  —  Indianapolis  —  Rich- 
mond. 
Spokane  —  Moscow,  Idaho  
Ft.  Wayne  —  Lafayette  

72 
140 

91 
114 

1906 
1907 

1907 
1907* 

Indianapolis   &  Columbus,  and 
Indianapolis  &  Louisville. 
Indiana  Union  Traction 

Indianapolis  —  Louisville,  Ky  
Indianapolis  —  Ft   Wayne 

117 
124 

1907 
1907 

Ohio  Electric  Railway  

Ft.  Wayne  —  Lima  —  Toledo  
Toledo  —  Lima  —  Dayton,  O 

137 
164 

1907 
1907 

Western  Ohio  Electric 

Toledo  —  Lima  —  Columbus,  O  
Toledo  —  Dayton   Ohio 

187 
162 

1909 
1907 

Illinois  Traction  

St.  Louis  —  Springfield  —  Peoria.  .  .  . 

172 

1909 

St.  Louis  —  Springfield  —  Danville.  .  . 

2,7 

1908 

14  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

INTERURBAN  RAILWAY  DEVELOPMENT,  1890-1910.— Continued. 


Name  of  railway. 

Terminal  cities. 

Miles. 

Year. 

Several   companies 

Toledo  —  Dayton 

162 

1908 

Thru  service 

Toledo  —  Columbus,  Ohio  
Chicago  —  Freeport,  111  

187 
125 

1908 
1908 

Indianapolis  —  Michigan  City,  Ind.  . 
Cleveland  —  Lima,  Ohio  
Cleveland  —  Detroit  

173 
160 
175 

1910 
1910 
1910 

Detroit  —  Kalamazoo    

145 

1910 

See:  "  Historical  Interurban  Roads,"  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  1909,  p.  571. 

Exclusive  of  street  railways,  there  are  in  Indiana  2300  miles,  in  Ohio 
2600  miles,  and  in  Illinois  1500  miles  of  interurban  road. 

Illinois  Traction  Company  has  the  longest  interurban  routes  and  the 
heaviest  freight  service;  and  has  operated  sleeping  cars  for  six  years. 

Indianapolis   is   the   great   interurban   railway   center. 

Pacific  Electric  Railway  has  560  miles  of  track,  operates  one-  to  five- 
car  passenger  trains,  and  58  freight  trains,  out  of  Los  Angeles  daily,  on 
fourteen  10-  to  40-mile  electric  routes. 


INTERURBAN  RAILWAY  PASSENGER  TRAFFIC,   1910. 


Pop 

Name  of  principal  ci  y. 

ulation           Radial             Cars 
1910.              routes.            daily. 

Los  Angele 
Indianapol 
Cleveland  . 
Toledo 

s                                                          '         3 

19,000                  14                650 
33,000                  12                318 
50,000                   8                 155 
58,000                   8                 173 
66,000                   7                 190 
16,000                   7                 155 
18,000                   6 
24,000                   5 
Sl,000                   8                 116 
94,000                   5                 100 
74,000                   5 
16,000                   5                 100 

is   '          2 

5 

1 

Detroit.  .  . 
Dayton 

4 
|          1 

Rochester. 
Buffalo... 
Columbus, 
Ft.  Wayne 
Milwaukee 
Minneapoli 

2 

4 
O  1 

3 

s  —  St.  Paul  5 

The  development  of  the  most  important  interurban  railways  in  each 
state  is  shown  by  the  tables  which  follow. 

The  order  of  listing  of  tables  is  geographical,  east  to  west. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


15 


NWYOR 

NEW  HAVEN 

HARTFORD 

SPRINGFIELD 

WORCESTER 

BOSTON 

PROVIDENCE 

NEWBEDFORD 

FITCHBURG 

tOWELL 

PORTSMOUTH 


FIG.  6. — MAP  OF  INTERURBAN  LINES  IN  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES,  1910. 
INTERURBAN  RAILWAYS. 


Name  of  electric  railway. 

Track  n 
Distance 

Name  of  terminal  cities.              between 
...              Inter- 
cities. 
urban. 

lileage. 

Grand 
total. 

Lewiston,  Augusta  &  Waterville  .  .  . 
Atlantic  Shore  Line  
New  Hampshire  Electric 

.  .    Lewiston  —  Waterville  55                  83 
.  .    Portsmouth  —  Townhouse  35                 60 
Lowell  —  Portsmouth                                  40                  60 

140 
110 
110 
933 

82 

Massachusetts  Electric  Co.  :  
Boston  &  Northern  Division  
Old  Colony  Southern  Division.  .  .  . 
Boston  &  Worcester  Electric  

.  .    Boston   radial   lines  300 

.  .    Boston  —  Worcester  :        46                 80 

16  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

INTERURBAN  RAILWAYS— Continued. 


Name  of  electric  railway. 


New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford: 

The  Rhode  Island  Company 

The  Connecticut  Company 

Shore  Line  Electric 

Albany  Southern  R.  R 

Hudson  Valley  Ry 

Delaware  &   Hudson,   and   New  York 

Central,  and  United  Traction  Co. 
New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River: 

New  York  State  Rys  Co 

The  Mohawk  Valley  Co. 

Schenectady  Ry 

Utica  &  Mohawk  Valley  Ry 

West  Shore  R.  R 

Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  R.  R. 

Ostego  &  Herkimer  R.R 

Rochester,  Syracuse  &  Eastern 

Buffalo,  Lockport  &  Rochester 

International  Traction 

Buffalo  &  Lake  Erie 

Dominion  Power  &  Transmission 

Mahoning  &  Shenango 

Pittsburg,  Harmony,  Butler  &  N.  C. 

West  Penn  Ry 

Philadelphia  &  Western  R.  R 

Public  Service  Corporation   

Lacka wanna  &  Wyoming  Valley 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton 

Lehigh  Valley  Transit 

Washington,  Baltimore  &  Annapolis. 

Maryland  Electric  Rys 

Cleveland,  Painesville  &  Eastern 

Northern  Ohio  Traction 

Cleveland,  Southwestern  &  Columbus 

Lake  Shore  Electric 

Ohio  Electric .  .  . 


Western  Ohio. 


Eastern  Ohio  Traction 

Columbus,  Delaware  &  Marion 


Providenc( 
City  and  i: 
New  Have 

Albany — Hudson 

Troy— Glen  Falls 

Saratoga — Warrensburg. . . 
Albany — Troy — Cohoes.  .  . 


Distance 

Track  mileag 

rminal  cities. 

between 
cities. 

Inter- 
urban. 

Gra 

tot. 

orcester.  

45 

200 

150 
31 

rban  

300 

78 

vx>ry  ton  

52 

52 

5 

Schenectady — Saratoga 


Schenectady — Albany 

Utica— Little  Falls 

Utica — Syracuse 

Gloversville — Schenectady 

Oneota — Herkimer 

Syracuse — Rochester 

Rochester — Lockport 

Lockport — Buffalo 

Buffalo — Niagara  Falls. 

Buffalo — Erie 

Hamilton— Beamsville — Oak- 
land— Brantford. 

Western  Pennsylvania 

Pittsburg— New  Castle 

McKeesport — Connellsville 

Philadelphia— Norristown 

Traction  lines,  New  Jersey I 

Wilkes-Barre —  Scranton —  Car-| 
bondale. 

Hazelton — Wilkes-Barre ! 

Philadelphia — Allen  town 

Washington — Baltimore 

Baltimore — Annapolis  short  line. 

Cleveland — Ashtabula 

Cleveland — Canton 

Canton — New  Philadelphia 

Cleveland — Wooster 

Cleveland — Bucyrus 

Cleveland— Toledo 

Lima — Fort  Wayne 

Lima — Toledo 

Lima — Defiance 

Lima — Springfield — Columbus .  . 

Dayton — Union  City 

Dayton — Richmond 

Dayton — Cincinnati 

Dayton — Columbus 

Columbus — Zanesville 

Dayton — Toledo 

Findlay — Celina 

Cleveland — Garrettsville 

Columbus — Marion . .  . 


37 
48 
35 
11 


57 
25 


37 
50 
50 
17 

27 
23 

31 

47 

41 

26 

59 

59] 

38  I 

57] 
116  J 
119 

65] 

72 

40 
110 

54 

40 

55 

76 

64 
150 

68 

50 

45 


38 
88 
35 

500 


58 
127 

44 

65 

58 
105 

57 

88 

80 
70 

70 
63 

80 

17     j        40* 
200     j     720 
45  50* 

32  34 

100  144 

96  :      100 
26  35* 

45  i        75 


51 

150 
170 


450 


84 

60 
51 


*  These  roads  operate  passenger  cars  in  trains,  and  handle  freight  under  the  Master  Car  Builders 
rules  of  interchange. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


17 


INTERURBAN  RAILWAYS— Continued. 


Track  mileage. 
Distance 

Name  of  electric  railway. 

Name  of  terminal  cities. 

between      T 

cities.         InKteI"  !    Gran,d 
urban.  |     total. 

1 

Scioto  Valley  Traction  
Cincinnati,  Georgetown  &  Portsmouth. 
Cincinnati  &  Columbus  Traction  
Windsor,  Essex  &  Lake  Shore  
Detroit  United  Ry  

Columbus  —  Chillicothe  
Cincinnati  —  Georgetown  
Cincinnati  —  Hillsboro  
Windsor  —  Leamington,  Ont  
Detroit  —  Port  Huron  
Detroit  —  Bay  City  
Detroit  —  Toledo 

47                 77             79 
41                 40             57* 
51                 48             57 
36                 36             40* 

74]   - 

"a*          247       ™ 

Detroit—  Jackson 

76 

Michigan  United  Rys  

Jackson  —  Kalamazoo 

j 
68  1 

Jackson  —  St.  Johns  ...  . 

125          254 

Toledo  &  Western  R.R  
Toledo,  Fostoria  &  Findlay  
Fort  Wayne  &  Northern  Indiana  
Terre  Haute,  Indiana  p'l's  &  Eastern. 

Toledo  —  Pioneer  —  Adrian  
Toledo—  Findlay  
Fort  Wayne  —  Lafayette  
Indianapolis  —  Terre  Haute  
Indianapolis  —  Richmond 

59                 80-           84 
52               100           121 
114               150          212 

72  1 
69 

Indianapolis  —  Lafayette 

69               349           4°° 
utf 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  
Indiana  Union  Traction  

Indianapolis  —  Crawfordsville  .... 
Indianapolis  —  Greensburg  
Indianapolis  —  Connersville  
Indianapolis  —  Union  City 

52  j 
49  1 
58  1              «           112 

90  1    * 

Indianapolis  —  Bluffton  

99 

Indianapolis  —  Wabash 

92  1            314          373* 

Indianapolis  —  Logansport  
Indianapolis—  Peru  .  . 

80 

77 

Indianapolis,  Crawsfordsville  &  West- 
ern. 
Indianapolis,    Columbus    &    Southern 
Indianapolis  &  Louisville. 
Indianapolis,  New  Castle  &  Toledo  .... 

Indianapolis  —  Fort  Wayne  
Indianapolis  —  Crawfordsville  .... 

Indianapolis  —  Louisville  
Indianapolis  —  New  Castle 

124  J 
45                  43             49 

/40             68 
117              I  42             55 
45                 90     '      100 

Chicago,    South    Bend    &     Northern 
Indiana. 
Winona  Interurban  
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend.  .  . 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  
Illinois  Traction  

Michigan  City  —  South  Bend  .... 
South  Bend  —  Goshen  
Goshen  —  Peru  
South  Bend—  Pullman  
Chicago  —  Aurora  —  Elgin  
St  Louis  —  Peoria 

30}       7°      "7* 

65                 60             70* 

78                 78            90 
42                 85           160* 
179  "1 

Springfield—  Danville  

123/           425          56°* 

East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban  
Rock  Island  Southern  
Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric  
Milwaukee  Electric  Ry.  &  Lt  

Milwaukee  Northern  
Milwaukee  Western  
Iowa  &  Illinois  
Inter-Urban  Ry  

Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &   Southern.  . 
Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls  &  Northern  
Northern  Texas  Traction 

St.  Louis  —  radial  lines  ; 
Rock  Island  —  Monmouth  
Evanston  —  Milwaukee  ' 
Milwaukee  —  Watertown  j 
Milwaukee  —  East  Troy  1 
Milwaukee  —  Burlington  j 
Milwaukee  —  Kenosha  j 
Milwaukee  —  Sheboygan  j 
Milwaukee  —  Fox  Lake  i 
Clinton—  Davenport,  Iowa  ! 
Des  Moines—  Colfax  ; 
Des  Moines—  Perry  j 
Fort  Dodge  —  Des-Moines  1 
Waterloo  —  Cedar  Falls  —  Waverly  ; 

25                100           181* 
52                 60             82* 
76                 80           186* 

511 

>6-  [           100          356* 
3i>  , 

33  J 
58                 54             64* 
60                 60               0 
40                 36            40 
24  1 
35/              64             72 
70                126           141* 
24                  55      !      100* 
63                 76            86* 

Colorado  &  Southern  Ry  

Denver  —  Boulder  i 
Colorado  Springs  —  Cripple  Creek,  j 

29                 32     :        54 
19                 20            20 

These  roads  operate  passenger  cars  in  trains,  and  handle  freight  under  the  Master  Car  Builders' 
rules  of  interchange. 


18 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
INTERURBAN   RAILWAYS.— Continued. 


Name  of  electric  railway. 


Name  of  terminal  cities. 


Distance 

between 

cities. 


Salt  Lake  &  Ogden  R.  R 

Washington  Water  Power 

Puget  Sound  Electric 

British  Columbia  Electric 

Portland  Ry.  Light  &  Power 

Oregon  Electric  Ry 

United  Rys.  Company 

Northern  Electric 

Central  California 

San  Francisco,  Oakland  &  San  Jose .  . 
Southern  Pacific  Company 

Peninsula  Ry 

Visalia  Electric  Ry 

Los  Angeles  Pacific  Company 

Los  Angeles  Ry.  Corporation 


Salt  Lake — Ogden 

Spokane — Medicine  Lake — Cheny 

Seattle — Tacoma 

New  Westminster — Chilliwack . . . 

Portland — Cazadero 

Portland — Salem — Eugene 

Portland— Tillamook 

Sacramento — Orville 

Sacramento — Stockton 

San  Francisco — San  Jose 

Oakland — Berkley 

San  Jose— Palo  Alto 

Visalia — Lemon  Cove 

Los  Angeles — Santa  Monica,  etc . 
Los  Angeles — Coast  Cities 


35 
20 
37 
04 
40 
70 
SO 
97 
50 


40 


Track  mileage. 


Inter- 
urban. 


38 

80 
64 
70 
75 
80 
102 
50 
30 


386 


Grand 
total. 


55* 
108* 
200* 
150* 
472* 

80* 
100 
130* 

51* 

64* 
200* 


260* 
600* 


*  These  roads  operate  passenger  cars  in  trains,  and  handle  freight  under  the  Master  Car  Builders' 
rules  of  interchange. 

THE  NEW  YORK— WISCONSIN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  TRIP. 


Stations. 


Miles. 


Via. 


Hudson  to  Albany,  N.  Y 38 

Albany  to  Schenectady \  16 

Schenectady  to  Johnstown j  29 

Johnstown  to  Little  Falls 28 

Little  Falls  to  Utica 23 

Utica  to  Syracuse 49 

Syracuse  to  Rochester 86 

Rochester  to  Lockport 56 

Lockport  to  Buffalo,  N.  Y 25 

Buffalo  to  Erie,  Pa 88 

Erie  to  Conneaut,  Ohio 33 

Conneaut  to  Ashtabula     |  «o 
Ashtabula  to  Cleveland    / 

Cleveland  to  Toledo ;  129 

Toledo  to  Ft.  Wayne,  via  Lima. .  |  137 

Ft.  Wayne  to  Peru 55 

Peru  to  Warsaw 44 

Warsaw  to  South  Bend 56 

South  Bend  to  Pullman 76 

Pullman  to  Chicago j  14 

Chicago  to  Evanston 6 

Evanston  to  Milwaukee i  74 

Milwaukee  to  Sheboygan,  or.  .  .  .  61 

Milwaukee  to  Watertown.  . .  51 


Albany  Southern  R.  R. 
Schenectady  Railway. 
Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  R.  R. 
Little  Falls  and  Johnstown  R.  R. 
Utica  and  Mohawk  Valley. 
West  Shore  R.  R.,  Oneida  Div. 
Rochester,  Syracuse  &  Eastern. 
Buffalo,  Lockport  &  Rochester. 
International  Railway. 
Buffalo  &  Lake  Erie  Traction. 
Conneaut  &  Erie  Traction. 
Pennsylvania  &  Ohio  Railway. 
Cleveland,  Ashtabula  &  Eastern. 
Lake  Shore  Electric  Railway. 
Ohio  Electric  Railway. 
Ft.  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley. 
Winona  Traction. 

Chicago,  South  Bend  &  North  Indiana. 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend. 
Chicago  City  Railway. 
Northwestern  Elevated  R.  R. 
Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric  R.  R. 
Milwaukee  Northern  Ry. 
Milwaukee  Electric  Ry. 


See  route  maps  in  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  24,  1910;  Jan.  7,  1911. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


19 


When  Traveling  in  the  Central  West  Use  the  Electric  Lines 

LOW    RATES— FREQUENT    SERVICE  —  FAST'  LIMITED     TRAINS  —  NO    SMOKE  — NO    DUST 


ACROSS   CENTRAL  OHIO 

on  the  Limited  Trains  of  the 
OHIO    ELECTRIC    RAILWAY 


e.  Newark.  Columbus, Sprlng- 
I.  Dayton.  Richmond  and 
IndUnapolU. 

ISO  MILES  IN  9  HOURS  TIME 


Springfield-  Urban*— BellefonUI 
Ima-Pt.  Wayne.  Lima-Delh 

Llm«-Toledo-Cinclnn.tl-D«yton. 
Dayton— Union  City. 


LIMA 

ROUTE 


NORTH  and  SOUTH 

Through    Western    Ohio 

Fourteen  Limited  Train*  Dally 
Between 


163  MILES  WITHOUT  CHANGE  OF  CARS 


The  Southwestern  Lines 

Connect 

CLEVELAND 


Elyria  Beare 

Norwalk        Lorain 
Ashland        Mansfield 


With 

Oberlin 
Medina 
Crestline 


Wellington 
Wooster 
Gallon        Bucyrus 


Frequent  Service        Fast  Limited  Trains 

THE  CLEVELAND,  SOUTHWESTERN  &  COLUMBUS 
RAILWAY    COMPANY 

375   MILES  IN  INDIANA  and  ILLINOIS 
Via 

Terre  Haute,  Indianapolis  &  Eastern  Traction  Company 

Hourly  Service  ||  Lebanon,  Crawfordsvllle,  Frankfort. 

Between  Lafayette,  Danville  (Ind.).  Greencaatle, 

INni  ANA  PHI  IS       Brazil,  Terre  Haute,  Sullivan, 
INDIANAPOLIS       par|,,  m.;  Martlnsvllle,  Greenfield, 

and  II    Knlghtstown,  Richmond  and  Dayton.O. 

FAST    LIMITED    TRAIN    SERVICE 

To 
TERRE  HAUTE.  LAFAYETTE.  NEW  CASTLE. 

RICHMOND.  DAYTON.  O..  and  PARIS.  ILL, 
Local  Freight  and  Express  Service  Between  AH  Points 


THROUGH  THE   HEART  OF  ILLINOIS 

ILLINOIS     TRACTION 
SYSTEM 

400  MILES 


CORN  BELT  LIMITEDS  " 

ST.  LOUIS  to 

Limited*  and 

SLEEPING  CARS 

St.  Louis  to 


223  Mllea  In  »/2  Hour* 

||  SPRINGFIELD 
I)  BLOOMINOTON 


Cleveland— Toledo—Detroit 

LORAIN-SANDUSKT-NORWALK— FRBMONT 
Vl» 

Lake  Shore  Electric  Railway 

SEVEN   LIMITED  TRAIN* 

180  Miiei  In  e  Hours 
«r  Through  Tickets  and  Low  Ratee  to  all  Point*  In  Michigan. 

The  Northern  Ohio  Traction  &  Light  Co. 

6  Limited  Train*  Daily    CLEVELAND— AKRON 

3  Limited  Train*  Daily    CLEVELAND— CANTON 

Regular    Local   Train*    Krery    Half-hour 


Connections  at  AKRON  for 


CUYAHOGA  FALLS, 
KENT,  RAVENNA, 
BARBERTON,  WADSWORTH. 


f  MAMILLON. 
Conn.ct.on.  at  CANTON  for   >  PA* AL  DOVER, 


Ft.  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley  Tract'n  Co. 

116  MILE*  — ALONQ—  4  HOUR* 

"The  Banks  of  the  Wabash" 
In  Our  Parlor  Buffet  Cars 

Connecting 

FT.   WAYNE,   HUNTINGTON,   PERU,   WABASH, 
LOGANSPORT  and   LAFAYETTE. 

"FT.  WAYNE-INDIANAPOLIS  LIMITEDS" 

136   Miie*-4/a  Hours 


INDIANA  UNION 
_       TRACTION  COMPANY 

166  Miles. 

SUPERB  TRAIN   SERVICE 

Between 
Indlanapolle,  Anderaon,    Marlon,   Wabash,    Munele,   Union   City, 

Bluff  ton,  Ft.  Wayne,  Kokomo,  Peru  and  Logansport. 

"INDIANAPOLIS-FT.   WAYNE    SPECIALS"  i 
"INDIANAPOLIS-MARION    FLYERS"  -    NflNF     ^0 

"INDIANAPOLIS-MUNICE    METEOR"  (    """£    ^U 

—FAST  FREIGHT  and  EXPRESS  SERVICE— 


Northern  Illinois  to  Southern  Wisconsin 

By  the  great 
THIRD   RAIL   ROUTE 

AURORA,  ELGIN  &  CHICAGO  R.  R. 

From  the  heart  of  Chicago  to 

WHEATON— AURORA— ELGIN— BELVIDERE 

ROCKFORD— FREEPORT—  BELOIT— JANESVILLB. 

125  Miles.         4>/a  Hours. 
CHAIR     CAR  S B  UFFET     SERVICE 


FIG.  7. — ADVERTISEMENT  USED  BY~!NTERURBAN  RAILWAYS. 


20  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


COMPETITION  WITH  STEAM  ROADS. 

Competition  between  steam  and  electric  roads  became  active  in  1890. 
Interurban  and  suburban  electric  railways  took  most  of  the  local  passen- 
ger business,  which  formerly  was  a  great  part  of  the  steam  railroad 
passenger  traffic;  and  the  total  number  of  passengers  carried  by  many 
steam  railroads  radically  decreased  between  1895  and  1900. 

The  paralleling  of  steam  roads  by  electric  roads  resulted  always  in  a 
financial  loss  to  the  steam  road.  Even  where  the  facilities  for  handling 
traffic  were  equal,  the  public  discriminated  in  favor  of  electric  traction. 
The  freight  traffic  of  electric  railways  grew;  and,  as  the  capacities  of  the 
power  houses  and  lines  were  increased,  the  handling  of  carload  freight 
originating  along  the  line  was  found  to  be  profitable.  This  naturally 
created  bad  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  steam  railroads,  because  of  the  loss 
of  a  monopoly  of  the  mileage  and  passenger  business. 

Action  by  the  steam  railroads  then  followed: 

They  leased  both  their  profitable  and  unprofitable  branch  lines  to 
electric  roads,  rather  than  have  these  branches  paralleled. 

They  leased  their  tracks  or  right-of-way  for  local  electric  passenger 
service  but,  in  most  cases,  reserved  the  use  of  the  tracks  for  thru  passenger 
and  freight  trains,  hauled  by  steam  locomotives.  This  action  gave  them 
greater  returns  on  the  capital  invested,  and  it  prevented  the  building 
of  a  parallel  line,  and  a  division  of  earnings.  The  joint  use  of  tracks  was 
thus  an  economical  procedure.  Examples  of  this  are  noted: 

Canadian  Pacific  R.  R.  lease  of  Hull-Aylmer  division,  near  Ottawa,  Ontario, 
for  35  years. 

Erie  Railroad  lease  of  Buffalo  &  Lockport  Division  for  999  years. 

Chicago  Great  Western  Railway  lease  of  Sumner-Denver  Jet.  branch  to  Waterloo, 
Cedar  Falls  &  Northern  Railway. 

Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis  R.  R.,  also  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  R.  R., 
leases  of  branch  lines  to  Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  Co. 

Northern  Pacific  R.  R.  lease  of  Everett  branch  to  Everett  Railway  and  Elec.  Co. 

Southern  Pacific  Co.  leases  of  branch  lines  to  Pacific  Electric  Railway,  Peninsula 
Railway,  etc. 

Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  R.  R.  leases  of  Monmouth-Galesburg  20-mile 
road,  for  25  years  to  Rock  Island  Southern  Railway. 

They  electrified  their  branch  lines,  to  head  off  trolley  competition. 
An  investment  of  $6,000  to  $8,000  per  mile,  for  trolley  and  electric  power 
equipment,  was  made  by  the  existing  steam  road;  while  not  only  this 
investment,  but  an  additional  $12,000  to  $15,000  would  have  been 
required  for  the  road  and  equipment  of  a  new  electric  railway.  Projected 
roads,  which  would  be  competing  or  paralleling,  were  often  headed  off  in 
this  manner  by  steam  railroads. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  21 

They  familiarized  themselves  with  the  use  of  gasoline  power  and 
electric  power,  and  studied  their  economic  advantages  for  branch  lines. 

They  reduced  the  passenger  fares  between  competing  points. 

They  purchased  competing  lines,  branch  lines,  and  feeders,  and  con- 
solidated them,  to  control  the  financial  or  railway  situation.  Some  steam 
railroads  (Boston  &  Maine,  New  Haven,  New  York  Central,  Delaware 
&  Hudson,  Colorado  &  Southern,  Great  Northern,  Northern  Pacific,  and 
Southern  Pacific),  to  protect  themselves,  have  purchased  several  thou- 
sand miles  of  interurban  railways,  thus  destroying  some  competition. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.  R.  had  acquired,  to  1909,  about 
1500  miles  of  trolley  line  in  New  England.  The  reason  for  this  enormous 
trolley  acquisition  was  given  in  1909  by  President  C.  S.  Mellin,  as  follows: 

"  The  thought  of  our  company  when  it  first  acquired  an  interest  in  Massachusetts 
trolleys  was  not  the  suppression  of  competition,  for  we  do  not  believe  there  is  any 
serious  competition  between  the  two  systems  of  traction,  electric  and  steam.  Rather, 
it  is  our  thought  that  all  systems  will  ultimately  develop  into  the  electric,  and  the 
street  railways,  so  called,  become  adjuncts  to,  or  supplementary  to,  the  present 
trunk  lines,  which  are  now  operated  by  steam,  but  which  we  believe  are  later  going 
to  be  transformed  into  electric  lines." 

New  York  Central  has  purchased  about  750  miles  of  interurban 
road  in  the  Mohawk  Valley.  This  proved  advantageous  to  the  public. 
The  service  was  bettered  by  expenditures  for  double  track,  terminals, 
improved  electric  motive  power,  more  private  right-of-way,  higher  speed, 
and  better  management.  Close  co-operation,  the  making  of  one  business 
the  auxiliary  to  the  other  business,  has  resulted  in  better  public  service. 
Later  on,  much  will  be  gained  by  joint  construction  and  maintenance  of 
power  plants.  A  desire  exists  to  operate  two-  and  three-car  trains,  and  a 
study  is  now  being  made  of  the  local  limitations  that  prevent  better  electric 
service,  viz.,  short-sighted  city  ordinances,  short-radius  curves,  long 
fenders,  weak  bridges,  etc. 

Delaware  &  Hudson  has  followed  the  examples  set  by  other  railroads. 

The  advantages  accruing  thru  the  acquisition  of  the  United  Traction  Company 
of  Albany,  the  Hudson  Valley  Railway  (owned  by  the  United  Traction  Company), 
the  Troy  &  New  England  Railway,  the  Plattsburg  Traction  Company,  and  a  half 
interest  in  the  Schenectady  Railway  (the  other  interest  in  which  is  owned  by  the 
Mohawk  Valley  Company  on  behalf  of  the  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River),  can 
best  be  understood  by  showing  the  relations  between  these  electric  roads  and  the 
steam  railroads  controlled  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson. 

The  electric  lines  furnish  a  complement  to  the  service  provided  by  the  steam 
railroads;  and  the  full  benefit  of  this  is  derived  when  the  running  schedules  of  the 
electric  roads  are  made  to  conform  to  those  of  the  steam  roads  so  as  to  afford  the  best 
service  possible  for  the  patrons  of  the  respective  companies. 

The  construction  of  trolley  lines,  even  where  paralleling  the  steam  railroads, 


22  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

may  materially  increase  the  traffic  on  the  latter.  The  steam  roads  cannot  afford  to 
make  the  frequent  stops  which  are  made  by  the  electric  lines,  and  the  traffic  is  mainly 
new  business  created  by  the  increased  transportation  facilities  afforded. 

Competition  between  electric  and  steam  roads  was  the  indirect  cause 
of  the  adoption  of  electric  power  by  many  short  steam  roads,  and  of 
parallel  suburban  steam  roads;  and  it  was  the  direct  cause  of  the  elec- 
trification of  the  following  steam  roads: 

Mersey  Railway  near  Liverpool,  1903. 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  1904. 
Manhattan  Elevated  Railway,  New  York,  1903. 
Some  of  the  elevated  roads  in  Chicago,  1896. 

Reference : 

The  result  of  these  electrifications  was  rapid  recovery  of  gross  earn- 
ings, a  decrease  in  operating  expenses,  and  the  improvement  of  a  bad 
financial  situation. 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway  regained  a  very  large  traffic,  which  was  pre- 
viously taken  away  by  competing  electric  lines,  after  it  was  electrified  in  1904,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  J.  A.  F.  Aspinwall,  General  Manager  and  Engineer,  in  an 
address  to  the  Institution  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1909. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,  operated  with  the  best  compound  steam  locomo- 
tives, might  have  failed,  so  severe  was  the  competition  of  the  electric  railways  which 
paralleled  it.  After  the  road  was  electrified  in  1903,  the  traffic  was  recovered. 

Competition  with  steam  railroads  still  exists,  to  a  limited  extent. 
Much  of  the  heavier  passenger  and  light  freight  business  of  the  steam 
railroads  has  been  taken,  and  will  be  held  by  the  long  electric  railways, 
until  the  steam  railroads  in  turn  adopt  electric  traction.  Competition 
in  the  future  will  therefore  be  interesting. 

Patronage  Will  Depend  on  the   Following   Determining  Features : 

—Routes  on  a  private  right-of-way,  including  city  terminals,  because 
schedule  speed,  not  distance,  will  be  paramount.  Interurban  roads 
which  use  the  city  streets  will  be  excluded  from  this  race. 

Accessibility  to  the  starting  point  and  destination  of  passengers. 
Probably,  in  the  future,  few  elevated  structures  will  be  allowed  on  city 
streets.  Many  railways  will  therefore  be  required  to  use  subways  and 
tunnels  under  city  streets.  These  tunnels  will  facilitate  the  gathering 
and  rapid  distribution  of  freight  at  terminals. 

Frequency,  convenience,  and  comfort  in  passenger-train  service. 
Facilities  for  handling  traffic  with  flexible  motive  power  at  terminals. 

Ownership  of  the  competing,  and  of  the  feeding  lines. 

Economy  in  train  operation. 

Freight  tariffs  will  seldom  govern  in  the  competition. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  23 

PRIVATE  RIGHT-OF-WAY. 

One  important  development  in  the  history  of  electric  railways  was 
due  to  the  use  of  a  private  right-of-way.  This  became  necessary  for  safe 
operation  at  high  speeds,  and  for  thru  traffic  on  the  interstate  roads 
which,  since  1900,  have  developed  so  rapidly.  Important  electric  rail- 
ways on  a  private  right-of-way  are  not  to  be  classified  with  interurbans 
which  run  along  the  public  highways.  The  use  of  a  private  right-of-way 
contributed  greatly  to  the  development  of  the  following  early  railways: 

Akron,  Bedford  &  Cleveland  Railroad,  1895. 

Buffalo  &  Lockport  Railway,  which  leased  its  21-mile  road,  1898. 
Albany  Southern  Railroad,  a  third-rail  road,  1901. 
Seattle-Tacoma  Interurban  Railway,  a  third-rail  road,  1902. 
Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton  Railway,  a  third-rail  road,  1903. 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley  Railroad,  a  third-rail  road,  1903. 
Scioto  Valley  Traction  Company,  a  third-rail  road,  1904. 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  Railroad,  a  third-rail  road,  1903. 

The  development   is  outlined  in  St.  Ry.  Jour.,  Jan.  2,  1904,  p.  26. 

The  first  electric  railways  on  a  private  right-of-way  and  e\en  branch 
lines  of  electrified  steam  railroads  used  city  streets  as  terminals  so  that 
passengers  could  be  received  and  delivered  nearer  the  heart  of  the  cities. 
Important  electric  railways,  which  operate  two-  or  three-car  trains,  now 
prefer  a  private  right-of-way  to  their  own  passenger  terminals,  and  a 
loop  around  the  cities  for  the  thru  freight  traffic. 

Lack  of  a  private  right-of-\vay,  and  the  use  of  turn-pikes,  highways, 
and  state  roads,  retard  the  development  of  many  interurban  railways, 
particularly  those  in  New  England  and  some  of  those  radiating  from 
Albany,  Detroit,  Indianapolis,  Columbus,  etc.  In  these  cases  the  short 
radius  street  curves  limit  the  length  of  cars,  the  grades  require  excessive 
power,  the  roadbed  is  crooked  and  badly  drained,  the  running  of  trains  is 
prevented,  the  schedule  speed  is  slow,  and  the  necessary  results  of  these 
restrictions  are  limited  traffic  and  poor  car  service. 

Electric  roads,  in  many  states,  operate  under  the  general  state  rail- 
road laws,  and  are  authorized  to  take  and  appropriate  private  property 
for  a  right-of-way  thru,  under,  and  across  any  land  needed  for  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  and  operation  of  the  road,  and  may  do  so  by 
instituting  condemnation  proceedings.  Consult:  U.  S.  Census  Report  on 
Street  and  Electric  Railways,  1902,  p.  136. 

Advantages  of  a  Private  Right-of-way  are  Found  to  be : 

High  speed,  which  is  practical  from  terminal  to  terminal.  This  secures  business 
in  competition.  In  heavy  electric  traction,  running  time  is  often  as  important  as 
frequent  service.  The  suburbs  of  large  cities  are  determined  and  measured  on  a 


24  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

time  basis  instead  of  by  distances.  Steam  railroads  which  have  electrified  their 
suburban  lines  have  an  opportunity  to  get,  or  regain,  the  bulk  of  the  passenger  traffic, 
particularly  where  the  electric  zone  extends  more  than  15  miles  from  the  city.  High 
speed  on  city  streets  and  country  highway  is  dangerous. 

Dead  mileage  on  city  loops  and  streets  is  eliminated. 

Cars  used  on  a  private  right-of-way  have  the  standard  width  of  10  feet,  thus 
allowing  comfortable  cross  seats. 

Trains  of  two  'or  more  passenger  cars  can  be  operated.  There  is  a  reasonable 
objection  to  two-  and  three-car  trains  on  city  streets,  and  they  are  seldom  allowed. 

Third  rails  and  high- voltage  trolleys  can  be  utilized  to  decrease  the  cost  of  trans- 
missions and  the  loss  of  power. 

Track  construction  may  be  better,  or  may  cost  less,  because  of  the  route,  the 
drainage,  the  higher  elevation,  and  the  absence  of  paving.  Tee-rails  supersede  girder 
rails,  and  the  special  work  required  is  cheaper. 

Maintenance  is  decreased.  Cost  of  tie  renewals,  bridge  up-keep,  and  track  repairs 
is  lower.  Removal  of  snow  is  facilitated.  Maintenance  of  equipment  per  seat-mile 
and  per  ton-mile  is  less  with  longer  cars,  heavier  switch  work,  and  long-radius  curves. 

Subways  and  tunnel  roads  at  the  terminals  may  deliver  freight  and  passengers 
to  convenient  points  in  the  city. 

Franchises  are  not  required  from  counties  and  from  some  municipalities,  altho 
reasonable  speed  and  police  restrictions  may  be  enforced.  Delays,  uncertainty, 
expense,  limitations,  and  unreasonable  restrictions  may  be  avoided. 

Freight  and  express  traffic  may  be  facilitated.  There  is  a  reasonable  objection 
to  freight  cars  on  city  streets,  day  or  night. 

Trainmen's  wages,  the  heaviest  expense  per  car  mile,  per  car-hour,  or  per  ton- 
mile  are  reduced  by  the  increased  schedule  speed,  and  by  the  use  of  two-  and  three-car 
trains.  Accident  and  legal  expenses  are  also  reduced. 

Cost  of  power  is  decreased.  A  two-  or  three-car  train  requires  from  70  to  60  per 
cent.-  of  the  power  of  a  single  car  train,  per  ton  moved.  The  power  required  is  decreased 
also  because  the  grades  and  sharp  curves  of  the  city  streets  are  avoided  and  because 
the  cleaner  Tee-rail  reduces  the  frictional  resistance.  The  load  factor  of  the  power 
plant  is  improved  when  freight  train  service  is  added. 

Economic  results  from  these  advantages  are  the  ability  to  secure  and 
retain  business,  on  the  time-honored  principle  that  "  facilities  create 
traffic,"  and  the  reduced  cost  of  handling  a  given  volume  of  business,  by 
utilizing  the  physical  advantages  incident  to  the  private  right-of-way. 

Disadvantages  to  be  noted  are  that  passengers  may  not  be  delivered 
at  convenient  terminals;  public  bridges  may  not  be  utilized;  the  cost  of 
the  road  on  the  private  right-of-way  may  be  higher;  and  transfers  to 
other  lines  or  roads  may  not  be  practicable. 

The  importance  of  the  matter  is  shown  by  the  U.  S.  Census  reports  on 
electric  railways.  In  1902  there  were  3802  miles  on  a  private  right-of- 
way,  or  16.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  electric  mileage,  while  in  1907  this  had 
increased  to  10,972  miles,  or  to  31.9  per  cent,  of  the  total  electric  mileage. 
The  importance  of  the  train  service  determines  the  percentage  of  the 
mileage  on  a  private  right-of-way. 

Many  steam  railroads  have  now  been  changed  to  electric,  and  their 


HI-STORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  25 

track  is  on  a  private  right-of-way,  including  good  private  terminals  in 
the  heart  of  the  cities. 


ELEVATED  RAILWAYS. 

Elevated  railways  have  adopted  electric  motive  power  for  their  train 
service,  to  utilize  the  physical  advantages  of  electric  traction.  The 
capacity  of  the  elevated  roads  was  thereby  increased,  because  longer 
electric-car  trains  could  be  operated,  and  at  higher  speeds.  The  shearing 
and  deflecting  strains  on  the  structure  and  the  vibration  due  to  reciprocal 
strokes  of  the  engine  were  lessened.  The  dirt,  ashes,  and  gas,  and  the 
noise  from  the  exhaust  steam  of  a  locomotive,  were  eliminated. 

Many  elevated  railroads  experimented  with  electricity  prior  to  1890, 
but  most  of  these  tried  electric  locomotives.  Rapid  progress  was  made 
after  the  multiple-unit  car  control  system  was  developed  in  1898.  Third- 
rail  conductors,  motor-car  trains,  and  the  600-volt,  direct-current  system, 
are  now  used  by  all  elevated  railways. 

At  the  Columbian  Exposition,  Intramural  R.  R.,  at  Chicago,  in  1893, 
fifteen  4-car  trains  were  successfully  operated,  on  a  6-mile  elevated  road, 
using  the  electric  locomotive-car  scheme. 

Liverpool  Overhead  Railway  was  the  first  elevated  railway  in  Eng- 
land to  use  electric  power.  This  was  in  1893. 

Metropolitan  West  Side  Elevated  R.  R.,  Chicago,  equipped  its  road  in 
1895,  using  the  electric  locomotive-car  plan  and,  later,  the  motor-car  plan. 

The  Brooklyn  Bridge  and  its  terminals  followed  in  1896. 

Chicago  and  Oak  Park  Elevated  R.  R.,  formerly  the  Lake  Street 
Elevated  R.  R.,  began  operation  on  the  electric-locomotive  plan  in  1896, 
but  soon  changed  to  the  motor-car  plan. 

South  Side  Elevated  R.  R.,  Chicago,  was  originally  equipped  with 
steam  locomotives.  It  was  one  of  the  first  railroads  operating  trains  of 
cars  to  adopt  electric  propulsion.  About  150  tons  of  anthracite  coal, 
costing  about  $4.50  per  ton,  wTere  burned  daily  by  the  steam  locomo- 
tives. When  electricity  was  adopted,  in  1898,  the  amount  of  coal  burned 
in  the  power  house  was  less  in  tonnage  than  the  coal  burned  in  the  loco- 
motives, and  cost  less  than  $1.50  per  ton.  This  one  saving  helped  to  get 
the  railroad  out  of  the  hands  of  a  receiver. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,  New  York  City,  a  large  steam  railroad, 
did  not  adopt  electric  traction  until  1902. 

Data  on  length  and  equipment  of  elevated  roads  follow. 


26  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

TRAIN  SERVICE  ON  ELEVATED  AND  UNDERGROUND  ROADS. 


Name  of  electric  railroad. 

Cars  per 
train. 

Trains  per 
hour. 

Boston  Elevated                                                  

6  to    8 

35 

Manhattan.  Elevated 

5  to    8 

60 

New  York  Subway                  

8  to  10 

32 

Hudson  and  Manhattan                      .        

5  to    6 

40 

Brooklyn  Union  Elevated                                            .  . 

6  to    7 

60 

Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit 

2  to    5 

20 

Chicago  Union  Elevated  loop  
Metropolitan  District  London       

5  to    6 
8  to    9 

150 

68 

Baker  Street  and  Waterloo   London             .    . 

4  to    6 

72 

Charing  Cross   Euston  &  Hempstead 

4  to    5 

80 

Great  Northern,  Piccadilly  &  Brompton  

5  to    6 

60 

THIRD-RAIL  LINES. 

Third-rail  lines  represent  an  interesting  development.  Overhead 
trolley  wires  at  first  were  often  too  frail  or  too  expensive  for  direct- 
current,  600-volt,  railway  train  service,  and  this  led  to  the  adoption  of  a 
rugged  third-rail  conductor  of  steel  with  large  capacity  and  ample  con- 
tact area.  The  chronology  is  briefly  outlined. 

In  1879,  Siemens  and  Halske  operated  a  short  180-volt,  third-rail 
line  at  the  Berlin  Exposition;  in  1883,  a  6-mile,  250-volt,  third-rail  line 
for  the  Port  rush  Railway  in  Ireland. 

In  1880,  Edison  used  a  third  rail  for  his  Menlo  Park  locomotives. 
Elec.  World,  June  10,  1899;  Sprague,  A.I.E.E.,  May,  1899,  p.  245. 

In  1883,  Daft  built  the  12-mile  Saratoga  &  Mount  McGregor,  and, 
in  1885,  a  2-mile,  130-volt  road  at  Baltimore. 

In  1893,  Intramural  Railway,  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition, 
at  Chicago,  developed  by  H.  M.  Brinckerhoff,  was  the  first  commercial 
third-rail  road  of  the  present  type.  This  6-mile  elevated  road  used 
direct  current  at  500  volts. 

In  1895,  Metropolitan  West  Side  Elevated  Railway,  of  Chicago,  was 
the  first  permanent  electric  third-rail  line.  The  insulation  first  used  was 
paraffined  wood.  Other  elevated  roads  followed. 

In  1895,  Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.  R.  adopted  a  trough-shaped  overhead 
contact  line,  flexibly  suspended  from  the  roof  of  the  Baltimore  tunnel. 
The  contact  shoe  pressed  downward  on  flanges  of  Z-bars.  Mechanical 
troubles  at  curves,  bad  alignment,  rigidity,  and  arcing,  due  to  rapid  cor- 
rosion from  coal  gas  and  steam  from  locomotives,  caused  the  company  to 
abandon  the  plan.  It  then  placed  an  expensive  sectionalized  third  rail 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  27 

near  the  track,  which  in  turn  was  abandoned  for  a  simplified  type  of  third 
rail  on  reconstructed  granite  blocks.  Later  the  clamps  for  the  rails 
were  corroded.  At  present  the  rail  rests  on  porcelain  without  clamp 
fastenings. 

In  1896,  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.  R,  applied  the 
third  rail  on  its  Nantasket  Beach  line,  near  Boston.  The  insulated 
third  rail  was  placed  near  the  center  of  the  track.  This  was  followed  by 
40  miles  of  road  in  Connecticut,  equipped  with  the  third  rail  at  the  side 
of  the  track.  (St.  Ry.  Journ.,  June,  1897;  Sept.,  1898;  Aug.  25  and  Sept. 
8,  1900.)  The  third  rail  was  badly  placed  and  unprotected.  Some 
fatalities  and  injuries  followed  and,  by  a  decree  of  the  Superior  Court, 
June  13,  1906,  the  Company  was  compelled  to  abandon  all  third  rail 
operation  in  Connecticut,  and  revert  to  steam  locomotives. 

In  1901,  Albany  &  Hudson  R.  R.  installed  the  finest  third-rail  road 
in  the  country,  on  a  private  right-of-way  between  Albany  and  Hudson. 

In  1903,  Wilkes-Barre  and  Hazelton  R.  R.  installed  a  third-rail  line 
for  heavy  traction.  The  line  is  26  miles  long,  on  a  private  right-of-way. 
The  rail  was  protected  by  pine  guards.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  March  7,  1903. 

In  1907,  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  R.  R.  built  an  extensive  protected 
third-rail  contact  line,  65  miles  long,  on  its  double  track  road  between 
Camden  and  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.  The  application  was  of  a  substantial 
character,  for  passenger  train  service  comparable  with  ordinary  steam 
railroad  traffic. 

In  1907,  New  York  Central  R.  R.  began  the  use,  at  New  York,  of  an 
under-running  third-rail  contact.  Heretofore  all  large  installations  had 
used  the  over-running  contact.  The  scheme  was  patented  by  Sprague 
and  Wilgus,  under  whose  direction  the  installation  was  made.  St.  Ry. 
Journ.,  Nov.  9,  1907,  p.  954. 

In  1908,  Hudson  &  Manhattan  R.  R.,  and  Interboro  Rapid  Transit, 
adopted  for  a  third  rail  an  inverted  channel  in  60-foot  lengths,  weighing 
75  pounds  per  yard. 

In  1909,  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  for  its  six  tunnels  and  thirty-six 
parallel  tracks  at  its  New  York  terminal,  and  for  part  of  the  Long  Island 
Railroad,  used  a  150-pound  Tee-rail. 

See  third  rail,  under  "  Transmission  and  Contact  Lines." 

Statistical  tables  which  follow  show  the  extent,  present  status,  and 
importance  of  railways  using  the  third-rail  conductor. 


28  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

THIRD-RAIL  LINES  IN  AMERICA. 


Year 

No.  of 

Present 

Location 

Gage 

Name  of  railway. 

service 
started. 

motor 
cars. 

third-rail 
mileage. 

above 
track-rail. 

line  to 
third-rail 
center. 

Boston  Elevated  .  .  . 

1901 

225 

26 

6  .  00" 

20.375" 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart.: 

Nantasket  Beach  Division  

1896 

0 

0 

1.50 

Center 

New  Berlin,  Connecticut  

1897 

0 

0 

1.50 

Center 

New  York  Division,  leased.  .  .  . 

1908 

/      4     1 
1  43  L/ 

50 

2.75 

28.25 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit,  Elev.  .  . 

1895 

659 

107 

[6.75 
16.00 

20.50 
22.25 

Manhattan  Elevated  R.  R  

1902 

895 

119 

/7.50 

20.75 

\4.50 

22.00 

Interborough  Rapid  T.,  Subway. 

1904 

910 

85 

4.00 

26.00 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  R    R 

1908 

200 

18 

-L  »-* 

4.00 

26.00 

New  York  Central: 

Hudson  and  Harlem  Divisions. 

West  Shore  R.  R.: 
Utica-Syracuse  Division 

1906 
1906 

f!37     r 

1  47L/ 

21 

50 
114 

J2.75 
\3.50 

2  75 

28.25 
27.50 

32  00 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  : 
Long  Island  R.  R 

1903 

322 

150 

3  50 

27  50 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  
New  York  Terminal  Division.  . 
Albany  Southern  R.  R  

1907 
1910 
1900 

80 
33  L 

45 

144 
95 

58 

3.50 
3.50 
6.00 

27.50 
27.50 
27.00 

New  York,  Auburn  &  Lansing 

1911 

40 

Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit 

1904 

150 

18 

6  00 

23  00 

Philadelphia  &  Western  
Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton 

1907 
1903 

28 
6 

40 
32 

6.00 
5.00 

26.625 

28  00 

Lacka  wanna  &  Wyoming  Valley. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R  
Michigan  Central  R.  R.,  Detroit. 
Scioto  Valley  Traction  

1903 
1895 
1910 
1904 

30 
12  L 
6L 
17 

50 
9 
19 
79 

3.00 
3.30 
2.75 
6.00 

20.375 
.30.35 

28.25 
28.00 

Michigan  United  Railway 

1904 

40 

100 

6.00 

21.205 

Grand  Rapids,  Grand  Haven  &  M. 
Intramural  R.  R.,  Chicago  

1902 
1893 

30 
15 

49 
0 

5.75 
13.00 

20.375 
30.000 

Chicago  &  Oak  Park  Elevated  .... 
Metropolitan  West  Side  Elevated. 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  R.  R.  .  . 
Northwestern  Elevated  R.  R.  .  .  . 
South  Side  Elevated  R.  R.,  Chi.  .  . 
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  

1896 
1895 
1902 
1900 
1898 
1907 

45 
225 
115 
288 
200 
2  L 

20 
57 
126 
60 
47 
1 

6.50 
6.25 
6.31 
6.50 
6.75 
6.00 

20.125 
20.125 
20.125 
20.125 
20.125 
30.00 

Puget  Sound  Electric  

1902 

100 

60 

7.50 

20.00 

HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 
THIRD-RAIL  LINES  IN  AMERICA— Continued. 


29 


Name  of  railway. 

Year 
service 
started. 

No.  of 
motor 
cars. 

Third- 
rail 
mileage. 

Location 
above 
track-rail. 

Gage 
line  to 
third-rail 
center. 

Northwestern  Pacific  R.  R.,  Cal. 
Central  California  Traction; 
uses  1200  volts,  on  third  rail. 
Northern  Electric  Ry.,  California. 
M.  C.  B.  recommendation. 

1908 

1909 
1906 
1904 

37 

10 
42 
Over 
Under 

23 

50 
130 
contact 
contact 

6.00 

3.00 
5.56 
3.50 
2.75 

27.00 

29.50 
25.50 

27.00 
27.00 

The  last  line  is  the  longest.     It  handles  heavy  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 
THIRD-RAIL  LINES  IN  EUROPE. 

Year         No.  of       Third- 
Name  of  railway.                   service       motor          rail 
started.        cars.       mileage. 

Location 
,                line  to 
above       ,.  .    ,      .. 
,        .,     third-rail 
track-rail, 
center. 

Central  London 

1900 

68 

13 

168 

1.50 
3.00 

Center 
16.00" 

London  Electric  Ry-  '  

Metropolitan  District  
Baker  Street  &  Waterloo  

1904 
1906 
1907 
1906 
1904 
1906 
1905 
1890 
1898 
1903 

1904 
1893 
1904 
1897  1 
1907  J 
1903 
.1902 
1900 
1900 

1900 

1901 
1910 
1902 

1901 

197 
36 
60 
72 
35 
40 
130 
52  L 
20 
24 

80 
44 
62 

139 
24 

548 

/  100 
\    11  L 
10  L 

80 
20 

Charing  Cross,  E.  &  H.           .    . 

Great  Northern,  P.  &  B  
Great  Northern  &  City  

7 
11 
60 
15 
3 
10 

82 
13 

82 

rie 

110 
15 
18 
63 
40 

46 

16 
4 
34 

81 

3.00 
3.00 
1.25 
level 
6.00 

3.00 
1.50 
3.25 
7.10 
19.05 
12.625 
5.375 
5.75 
9.00 
J7.875 
\6.00 
7.875 

11.25 
16.00 
16.00 
14.50 
Center 
22.25 

19.25 
Center 
19.25 
13.25 
16.00 
33.50 
26.00 
12.75 
23.00 
23.625 
22.00 
25.625 

Great  Western,  M.  &  W.  L 

Metropolitan  Ry.,  London  

Waterloo  &  City    

Mersey  Railway 

Lancashire   &  Yorkshire 
Liverpool-Southport  

Liverpool  Overhead 

North-Eastern  Railway  

Berlin     Overhead     and 
Underground. 
Berlin-Gross  Lichterfelde  .  .  .'  
Fribourg-Morat,  Switzerland  
Paris-Metropolitan 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean 

Paris-Orleans 

Paris-  Versailles  (Western) 

Paris  North-South  Electric  
Fayet-Chamonix-Martigny  
Mediterranean  Ry. 
Milan-  Varese-Porto  Ceresio.  .  .  . 

9.055 
7.60 

23.00 
26.50 

30  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


SUBWAYS  AND  TUNNELS. 

Subways  and  underground  roads  have  also  found  electricity  advan- 
tageous, primarily  because  of  the  absence  of  smoke,  gas,  and  condensed 
steam.  In  underground  roads  and  subways,  motor-car  trains  are  used  for 
passenger  service;  while  in  tunnels  locomotives  are  generally  employed  for 
freight  and  passenger  train  haulage. 

Underground  railways  in  England,  called  tube  railways,  have  a  total 
length  of  100  miles,  all  double  track.  The  tubes  are  deep,  and  require 
150  passenger  elevators  at  fifty  stations. 

Paris  subways  are  important,  and  they  have  a  greater  traffic  than  the 
New  York  Interborough  Subway.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  11,  1909. 

New  York  Central  R.  R.  terminal  at  New  York,  and  the  Boston 
terminal  stations,  have  been  arranged  for  the  operation  of  motor-car 
trains  in  sub-tracks  below  the  elevation  of  the  main-line  tracks. 

Subways  and  tunnels  under  city  buildings  and  streets,  to  reach  a 
convenient  city  terminal,  for  the  purpose  of  delivering  freight  and 
passengers,  are  a  recent  development.  (Hudson  &  Manhattan  R.  R.) 

Subways  have  been  considered  for  freight  service  at  New  York  City; 
also  for  local  passenger  service  at  Montreal,  Toronto,  Pittsburg,  Cleveland, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Minneapolis,  St.  Louis,  and  Los  Angeles. 

Cost  of  subways  at  New  York  with  equipment  is  $1,100,000  per  mile 
of  single  track.  Subways  without  motive  power  equipment  cost  from 
$600,000  to  $900,000  per  mile.  Cost  of  tunnels  under  rivers  without 
equipment  varies  from  $1,200,000  to  $1,800,000  per  mile.  Elevated 
structures,  without  equipment,  cost  $200,000  to  $300,000  per  single- 
track  mile;  conduit  railway  lines  without  equipment,  from  $80,000  to 
$120,000  per  single-track  mile.  New  York  Rapid  Transit  Commission 
Report  of  1908. 

Tunnel  roads  now  use  electric  traction.  Steam  locomotive  drivers 
slipped  on  the  greasy  rails  in  tunnels.  Condensed  steam  and  soot  deposits 
were  a  nuisance.  Gas  and  steam-laden  atmosphere  required  long  blocks, 
and  was  a  menace  to  safe  operation.  Exhaust  fans  seldom  successfully 
cleared  the  tunnel  of  gas  and  smoke.  Oil  firing  was  a  poor  expedient,  and 
coke  formed  a  suffocating  gas.  Formerly  trains  waited  for  hours  until 
the  tunnel  was  cleared  of  gas  pockets,  formed  by  variable  winds;  and  if 
traffic  was  dense,  congestion  followed.  The  capacity  of  tunnels,  in  cars 
per  day,  was  generally  doubled  by  the  introduction  of  electric  hauling  of 
the  freight  and  passenger  trains. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


UNDERGROUND  ROADS  USING  ELECTRIC  POWER. 


31 


Name  of  railroad. 

Route 
miles. 

Double 
track. 

!  Grade 

;  p.c. 

Inside  section. 

Elec. 
power. 

Height. 

Width. 

Boston  Subway 

4.4 
25.0 
1.4 
62.0 
6.5 
100.0 
3.4 
2.4 
31.0 
2.3 
12.0 
4.0 
4.75 

1.00 

2.50 
15.0 

1.2 
1.2 

1.5 
2.6 

0.8 

4.3 
4.0 

8.5 

12.3 

9.3 
7.9 
6.5 
2.5 

Yes 
2  and  4 
Yes 
2  and  4 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

No 
Yes 

Yes 
4 
Yes 
Yes 

Yes 
No 
Yes 
No 
Yes 

No 
Yes 
Yes 

No 

Yes 
Yes 
Yes 
Yes 

1 

20.5 
11.5 
14.5 
7.5 
11.7 
11.7 
10.5 

23.3 

12.4 
13.3 
6.0 
diam. 
diam. 
diam. 

1895 
1904 
1905 
1900 
1895 
1905 
1890 
1900 
1900 
1896 
1902 
1910 
1911 

1905 

1908 
1910 

1911 

1908 

1895 
1908 
1910 
1909 
1910 

No 
1903 
1911 

1908 

No 
1910 
No 
1909 

New  York  Interboro  Subway  .  . 
Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  
Illinois  Tunnel,  Chicago  

'  

) 

Central  London  
London  Electric                .    . 

City  &  South  London 

.1.1 

Paris  —  Orleans  

Paris  —  Metropolitan  .        ... 

15.0          23.4 
9.0          20.0 

Budapest  Hungary 

Berlin,  City  of  

Hamburg,  City  of  

Boston  &  Maine  R.  R. 
Hoosac  Tunnel,  Mass. 
Lackawanna  and  Wyoming  Val- 
ley, Scranton  Tunnel 
Hudson  &  Manhattan  R.  R.  .  .  . 
Pennsylvania  R.  R.  :  
New  York  to  Hoboken,  N.  J  .  . 
New  York  to  Long  Island  .... 
Belmont    Tunnel,    East    River 
Interborough     Rapid     Transit 
New  York  to  Brooklyn. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R. 
Baltimore  Belt  Line. 
Grand    Trunk    Railway 
Port  Huron-Sarnia  Tunnel. 
Michigan  Central  R.  R. 
Detroit  River  Tunnel. 
Great  Northern   Railway 
Cascade  Tunnel,  Wash. 
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire 
Local  tunnel  at  Spokane. 
Severn,  England  .  . 

0.3 
1.0 

1.30 
1.92 

22.7 
22.0 

15.25 
19.00 

24.0 
17.0 

diam. 
diam. 

15.0          12.5 

1.5 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 

19.80       diam. 
20.0         diam. 
22.0          16.0 

2.0 

2.7 

0.7 

0.5 
3.0 
1.5 
2.9 

19.0 
19.0 
19.8 

19.0 

20.5 
20.5 

28.0 
26.0 
26.4 

16.5 

26.0 
26.0 

Mersey,  England 

Bernese  Alps  Ry. 
Loetschberg  Tunnel. 
Swiss    Federal     Ry. 
Simplon  Tunnel. 
St.  Gothard,  Switzerland 

Mont  Cenis,  Switzerland  

Arlberg,  Austria  

Italian  State  Ry. 
Giovi    near  Genoa. 

! 

Height  noted  is  from  the  top  of  track  tie  to  crown  of  arch. 


32  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

• 

The  handling  of  freight  trains  thru  tunnels  was  accompanied  by 
great  danger.  In  the  event  of  a  train  breaking  in  two,  on  the  level  or  a 
grade  in  the  tunnel,  the  time  necessary  to  re-couple  and  release  the  auto- 
matically applied  brakes,  or  to  repair  a  defect,  exceeded  the  time  interval 
within  which  the  steam  locomotive  could  safely  stay  in  the  tunnel  with- 
out suffocating  the  train  crew.  Electric  trains  can  remain  in  the  tunnel  as 
long  as  required,  and  trainmen  have  such  confidence  in  electrical  opera- 
tion that  the  long  tunnel  has  ceased  to  be  a  terror  to  them. 

Carrying  capacity  of  tunnels  was  often  doubled  by  electrification, 
because  of  the  shorter  blocks,  absence  of  gases,  and  much  greater  loads  on 
the  grades.  Time  was  saved  and  delays  were  avoided. 

All  long  tunnels  with  heavy  traffic  now  use  electric  traction. 

References  on  Subways  and  Tunnels. 

HOLDEN:  "Setting  of  Tube  Railways,"  London,  1907. 

PRELIN:  "Tunnelling,"  third  edition,  New  York,  1909. 

Boston,  History  of  Tunnel  Development:  S.  R.  J,  Feb.,  1903,  p.  332. 

Hoosac  Tunnel  of  Boston  &  Maine,  Electrification:  Shaad,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1908. 

Rapid  Transit  Subways  in  Metropolitan  Cities:  Maltbie,  Smithsonian  Report  No. 
1647  for  1904. 

New  York  Subway  compared  with  Paris  Subway:  Whitten,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  11,  1909. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  Railroad,  S.  R.  J.,    March,  1903,  p.  495,  1004;  Jan.  11,  1908; 

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal  Railway,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Alfred  Noble,  Sept.,  1909. 
Clarke,  Parker,  Green,  Aug.,  1910;  Brace  &  Mason,  Dec.,  1909. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R.,  S.  R.  J.,  1892,  p.  416,  459. 

Philadelphia  Subway,  St.  Ry.  Review,  July,  1905. 

Scranton,  Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley  R.  R.,  Dennis,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March,  1906. 

Davies:  Railroad  Tunnels,  New  York  R.R.  Club,  Dec.  20,  1900. 

Chicago  Freight  Tunnels,  E.  W.,  Dec.  23,  1909. 

Woodworth:  Subaqueous  Tunnel  Construction,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  1909;  Pittsburg 
Railway  Club,  Dec.,  1909. 

Great  Northern  Railway  (Cascade),  Hutchinson,  A.  I.  E  .  E.,  Nov.,  1909;  S.  R.  J.,  Nov. 
20,  1909,  p.  1052,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Nov.,  1909. 

London  Electric  Railways,  Fortenbaugh:  S.  R.  J.,  March  4,  1905,  Dec.  4,  1909. 

Fox:  Tunnel  Construction,  International  Railway  Congress,  June,  1900. 

Alpine  Tunnels,  Simplon,  St.  Gothard,  Mont  Cenis,  Arlberg:  Francis  Fox,  in  Smith- 
sonian Report  No.  1355  for  1901;  Henning,  to  International  Railway  Congress, 
June,  1910;  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Aug.  5,  1910. 

MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

Steam  railroads  in  passenger  and  freight  service  use  multi-car  trains 
with  a  locomotive  at  the  head  of  the  train.  Electric  railways  in  heavy 
passenger  service  use  motor-car  trains  with  motors  under  each  car,  or 
under  some  of  the  cars  of  the  train.  There  had  been  a  rapid  develop- 
ment in  motor-car  train  service,  caused  in  part  by  the  competition  be- 
tween electric  roads.  A  passenger  at  once  notices  the  great  difference  be- 
tween the  good  riding  qualities,  equipment,  comfort,  and  service  furnished 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  33 

in  a  2-  or  3-car  electric  train,  and  the  riding  qualities  and  service  of  an 
ordinary  interurban  car. 

Motor-car  passenger  trains  are  seldom  allowed  on  the  city  streets. 
Exceptions  are  to  be  noted  on  some  lines  of  the  Connecticut  Company, 
the  Rhode  Island  Company,  and  at  Hudson,  Buffalo,  Louisville,  Mil- 
waukee, Des  Moines,  Seattle,  and  Tacoma. 

Motor-car  trains  are  now  used  by  all  elevated  and  underground  roads, 
and  in  important  suburban  and  interurban  passenger  service;  and  also  for 
important  freight  service  in  trains  on  North-Eastern  Railway  of  England, 
Long  Island  R.  R.,  West  Jersey  &  Seashore,  and  some  interurban  roads. 

Control  of  the  many  motors  used  on  a  motor-car  train  was  difficult. 
At  first  one  controller  was  placed  at  each  end  of  the  train,  and  the  main 
current  was  carried  by  heavy  electric  cables  from  motor  car  to  motor  car. 
Then  control  systems  called  " master  controller"  and  " double  header" 
were  developed  by  Parshall,  Darley,  and  others  for  motor-car  trains; 
but  the  Sprague  multiple-unit  control  scheme  placed  the  development  on 
an  economical  and  on  an  operative  basis.  The  scheme  embraces  second- 
ary control,  and  main  currents  do  not  enter  the  motorman's  controller. 
It  was  first  used  in  1898,  by  South  Side  Elevated  R.  R.,  of  Chicago,  for 
120  cars.  Westinghouse  and  General  Electric  Companies  followed  with 
multiple-unit  control  equipments  on  the  Brooklyn  Elevated  Railway, 
in  1898  and  1900.  The  first  British  railway  to  use  the  multiple-unit 
control  was  the  City  and  South  London,  in  1904. 

Car  equipment  and  multiple-unit  control  systems  are  detailed  in  the 
Chapter  on  "Motor-Car  Trains." 

MOUNTAIN-GRADE  LINES. 

Mountain-grade  lines  have  now  been  radically  improved  by  the  use  of 
electric  power  on  about  200  miles  of  road  in  Europe,  particularly  in  and 
near  Switzerland.  In  America,  however,  not  a  single  trunk-line  rail- 
road has  equipped  its  mountain  grades  with  electric  power,  altho  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  R.  R.  has  so  equipped  a  branch  between 
Leads  and  Deadwood,  S.  D.,  4  miles  long  on  a  heavy  grade,  and  the 
Colorado  Springs  &  Cripple  Creek  District  Ry.  of  the  Colorado  &  South- 
ern R.  R.,  has  installed  electricity  on  an  interurban  line  18  miles  long 
which  has  an  average  grade  of  3  per  cent.  Great  Northern  Railway 
installation  was  for  a  tunnel  and  yards. 

In  mountain-grade  service,  steam  locomotives  show  low  economy. 
The  speed  is  but  from  6  to  10  miles  per  hour;  and  on  single  track,  conges- 
tion of  traffic  frequently  cannot  be  avoided.  The  remedy  for  much  of  the 
trouble  was  found  in  the  use  of  electric  power,  which  greatly  increased 
the  train  hauling  and  track  capacity,  and  improved  the  economy  of 
operation.  Long  tunnels  and  snow  sheds  are  common  in  the  mountains. 
3 


34  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Water  power  is  frequently  abundant.  The  regeneration  of  electrical 
energy  has  been  worked  out,  and  is  used  in  America  and  in  Europe  to 
promote  safety  on  down-grade  lines  by  preventing  the  heating  of  brakes- 
shoes  and  the  straining  of  the  brake  rigging,  and  the  use  of  air  is  restricted 
to  cases  of  emergency. 

A  list  of  heavy  mountain  grades,  where  water  power  and  electric 
locomotives  could  be  used  advantageously,  is  given  under  Chapter  XIV, 
in  which  there  is  a  complete  discussion  of  the  subject. 

RAILROAD  TERMINALS. 

Railroad  terminals  of  some  of  the  important  railroads  and  scores  of 
steam  terminal  railways  within  large  cities  have  now  been  electrified. 
See  lists  of  electric  locomotives.  Primarily  this  was  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  better  freight  terminal  facilities,  better  motive  power,  and 
economy  in  operation.  Incidentally  with  electric  power  the  smoke 
nuisance,  the  fire  risk,  the  noise  from  exhaust  steam,  and  the  fogging  of 
signals  by  steam  are  absent.  The  use  of  motor-car  trains,  for  suburban 
passenger  service  from  these  terminals,  is  now  an  approved  practice. 

RAILROADS  USING  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  AT  TERMINALS. 

Paris-Orleans,  at  Paris,  1900. 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway,  England,  1904. 

New  South  Wales  Railway,  Australia,  1906. 

Havana  Central  Railroad,  Cuba,  1906. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  Baltimore  tunnel  yards,  1895. 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad,  New  York,  1906. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad,  New  York,  1908. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Long  Island,  1910. 

Michigan  Central  Railroad,  Detroit  and  Windsor,  1910. 

Congestion  of  traffic  at  terminals,  where  freight  is  transferred  from 
one  line  to  another,  always  presents  a  serious  situation.  Delays  are 
caused  by  " protection"  inspection  at  the  point  of  interchange,  and  also 
by  steam  motive  power  which  is  unwieldy.  The  cost  of  the  motive 
power  at  terminals  is  also  high  due  to  the  nature  of  the  operation  of  the 
boiler  and  engine  in  common  switching  locomotives. 

New  York  Dock  Commission  completed  plans  in  1910  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  $100,000,000  electric  railway  freight  terminal  near  the 
North  River  in  Manhattan;  the  New  York  Central  in  1911  announced 
its  determination  to  use  electric  traction  for  its  freight  terminals. 

Massachusetts  Railroad  Commission  has  recommended  the  electrifi- 
cation of  all  the  railroads  at  the  Boston  terminal,  stating: 

"  The  number  of  tracks  in  stations  is  limited.  The  cutting  of  the  3-minute  head- 
way between  steam  trains  to  2-minute,  with  electric  service,  would  increase  the  termi- 
nal capacity  of  the  Boston  Station  50  per  cent,  by  decreasing  switching,  increasing 
acceleration,  and  more  rapid  movements." 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


35 


Buffalo  terminals  should  be  electrified  by  the  several  railroads, 
according  to  a  comprehensive  report  made  in  1908  by  the  Buffalo  Com- 
mercial Club.  The  city  council  by  ordinance  has  required  all  the  rail- 
roads within  the  city  to  electrify  their  lines  prior  to  1913. 

Montreal,  Toronto,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis 
are  now  considering  electric  power  for  railroad  terminals. 

Terminal  electrification  is  always  carried  out  with  improvements  in 
track  elevation  or  depression,  added  terminal  sidings,  rearrangement  and 
reconstruction,  block  signaling,  etc.,  which  items  frequently  represent  a 
greater  expenditure  than  the  electrification  of  the  terminal. 

Railroads  have  found  that  electricity  can  meet  all  physical  and 
mechanical  demands  for  terminals.  Transportation  problems,  however, 
are  far  reaching,  the  amount  of  money  involved  is  large  and  often  hard 
to  get,  and  established  conceptions  are  persistently  adhered  to.  Argu- 
ment for  electric  traction  are  now  based  on  economic  considerations  to 
win  adequate  recognition. 

SWITCHING  YARDS. 

Many  steam  railroads  in  freight  districts  of  our  cities  have  now 
been  equipped  with  electric  locomotives.  However,  many  of  the  installa- 
tions noted  in  the  last  table,  "  Railroads  using  Electric  Traction  at  Ter- 
minals," were  in  the  vicinity  of  good  resident  districts.  Further,  good 
resident  districts  grew  up  around  these  railroad  yards  after  electric 
traction  abolished  the  exhaust  steam  noise  and  the  smoke  nuisance. 
Hundreds  of  such  cases  might  be  cited,  and  the  agitation  for  more  of  this 
work  is  evident  in  every  large  city.  Switching  of  short  and  long  freight 
trains  is  now  performed  economically  and  effectively  with  electric  loco- 
motives. Some  of  the  American  railways  using  electric  switching 
locomotives  for  common  switching  yards  are  listed: 


Havana  Central  Railway,  1906. 
Shawinigan  Falls  Terminal  Ry.,  1908. 
Montreal  Terminal  Railway,  1908. 
Claremont  (N.  H.)  Railway,  1908. 
Bush  Terminal  Ry.,  Brooklyn,  1904. 
Hoboken  Shore  Railway,  N.  J.,  1898. 
Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit,  1907. 
Nashville  Interurban  Railway,  1909. 


Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric  Ry.,  1898. 
Illinois  Traction  Company,  1900. 
Kansas  City  &  Westport,  1902. 
Portland  (Ore.)  Railway,  1904. 
Gallatin  Valley  Ry.,  Montana,  1910. 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  1911, 
Harlem  River  and  New  Rochelle  Yards. 
Pennsylvania,  Sunnyside  Yards,  1910. 


FREIGHT  SERVICE. 


Freight  service  on  electric  railways  is  a  very  recent  development. 
Street  railways,  from  the  first,  hauled  small  packages,  and  often  larger 
commodities,  in  the  vestibule,  as  an  accommodiation,  not  for  profit. 
Interurban  railways  carried  mail  and  ordinary  express  almost  from  the 
beginning.  The  service  was  appreciated,  and  the  traffic  grew.  Motor 


36  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

cars  were  then  given  over  exclusively  to  the  handling  of  perishable  fruit 
and  meats.  Flat  cars  were  often  run  as  trailers,  to  carry  lumber,  stone, 
sand,  and  construction  materials.  Motor  cars  were  soon  used  to  carry 
coal,  building,  and  track  material.  As  the  interurban  roads  grew  in 
length,  it  was  found  convenient  to  use  the  forward  quarter  of  each  passen- 
ger car  for  an  express  compartment  to  carry  merchandise,  trunks,  and 
baggage.  In  addition  to  this  service,  thousands  of  electric  motor  cars 
are  now  operated  exclusively  for  handling  express,  freight,  and  farm 
commodities.  Milk  cars  are  used  on  the  morning  and  evening  runs. 
Steel  baggage  cars  are  now  used  at  the  head  of  many  motor-car  trains. 

Freight  haulage  on  city  streets  has  been  objected  to,  but  its  conve- 
nience was  also  recognized,  and,  in  some  places,  the  merchants  have  in- 
duced city  councils  to  allow  freight  traffic  at  night.  Ore  from  the  mines 
has  thus  been  hauled  by  electric  motors  thru  the  streets  of  Butte,  Mon- 
tana. Freight  haulage  became  so  important  after  1900  that  electric  rail- 
ways secured  a  private  right-of-way  around  cities,  so  that  long  freight 
trains  could  be  hauled  by  electric  or  steam  locomotives.  Extensive 
yards  have  been  built  at  the  outskirts  of  some  cities. 

Interurban  roads  are  well  adapted  and  organized  for  the  haulage  of 
coal,  building,  material,  grain,  and  live  stock,  in  car  loads,  at  regular 
steam-road  rates.  The  investment  has  already  been  made  in  the  power 
house  and  tracks;  and  freight  equipment  may  be  used,  particularly  at 
night,  with  a  very  small  additional  expenditure  for  organization  and 
power.  The  freight  load,  when  handled  in  many  trains  at  night,  equalizes 
the  work  and  increases  the  economy  of  the  power  plant. 

Net  earnings  of  many  well  established  interurban  lines  can  neither 
be  increased  by  a  larger  passenger  business  nor  by  future  economies  in 
operation;  but  the  net  earnings  are  now  being,  increased  by  developing 
-the  freight  traffic,  and  the  passenger  business  is  being  made  an  advertise- 
ment for  the  freight  traffic  department. 

The  volume  of  electric  interurban  freight  business  is  noted. 

Toledo  &  Western  Railroad,  with  84  miles  of  track,  hauled  6759  carloads  of 
freight  in  1908.  The  freight  rates  are  the  same  as  for  steam  roads.  The  thru  freight 
trains  are  operated  daily  in  each  direction  between  Toledo  and  Pioneer,  Ohio,  and 
Adrian,  Michigan.  The  company  has  22  station  agents,  operates  in  18  towns,  and 
has  adopted  steam-road,  rather  than  interurban-railway  methods  in  acquiring  and 
conducting  its  business.  Its  equipment  consists  of  five  30-  to  50-ton  electric  loco- 
motives, 4  electric  express  cars,  and  93  box,  flat,  stock,  and  gondola  cars.  Operation 
would  be  improved  if  the  western  terminals  were  larger.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Sept.  2, 
1905,  p.  328;  Sept.  18,  1909,  p.  424;  E.  T.  W.,  June  18,  1910. 

Western  Ohio  Railway  has  developed  an  important  fast  freight  service,  and 
particularly  a  double  daily  thru  service  between  Toledo  and  Dayton,  162  miles. 

Ohio  Electric  Railway  has  210  cars  in  freight  service;  Indiana  Union  Traction 
has  129;  and  Terre  Haute,  Indianapolis  &  Eastern  has  134  cars  equipped  with  train 
brakes  and  automatic  couplers;  and  has  built  freight  loops  around  the  larger  cities. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


37 


Illinois  Traction  Company,  on  its  600  miles  of  interurban  road,  operates  18 
express  motor  cars,  40  express  trailers,  30  electric  locomotives,  25  grain  cars,  and  500 
coal  gondolas  of  80,000  pounds  capacity.  Freight  trains  carrying  high-class  freight 
run  in  four- to  eight-car  trains.  Coal  aggregating  1500  tons  is  hauled  daily.  Low- 
grade  commodities  are  hauled  in  carload  lots.  The  traffic  is  largely  between  St. 
Louis,  Springfield,  Peoria,  Champaign,  and  Danville.  Thirty  cars  of  package  freight 
are  taken  in  and  out  of  St.  Louis  daily.  The  service  between  these  points  is  so  much 
quicker  than  that  given  by  steam  roads  that  it  competes  successfully  even  when  the 
steam  roads  have  the  short-line  mileage.  The  freight  traffic  is,  for  the  most  part, 
confined  to  localized  business,  centering  around  the  larger  cities,  for  which  it  receives 
a  higher  rate  (1.2  cents)  per  ton-mile  or  double  that  for  thru  shipments. 


FIG.  8. — ROCK  ISLAND  SOUTHERN  RAILWAY  EXPRESS  CAR. 

Freight  loops  have  been  built  around  Decatur,  Springfield,  and  Edwardsville,  111. 
The  freight  terminal  at  St.  Louis  covers  24  acres  of  land. 

Joint  traffic  agreements  exist  between  this  company  and  the  Chicago  &  Eastern 
Illinois,  and  other  intersecting  steam  roads.  Foreign  cars  are  handled  on  the  usual 
per  diem  basis,  under  M.  C.  B.  rules,  and  the  company  is  allowed  the  same  division  of 
the  rates  as  a  steam  road  similarly  situated,  the  originating  or  delivering  road  receiv- 
ing at  least  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  freight  charges. 

This  road  now  handles  3,000,000  tons  of  freight,  and  the  revenues  therefrom  are 
$500,000  per  annum,  or  20  per  cent,  of  its  gross  earnings.  This  represents  new 
business.  The  road  is  an  important  feeder  and  distributor  for  the  steam  roads. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.  R.,  with  500  freight  cars,  and  242  miles  of  road, 
uses  six  52-ton  and  eight  72-ton  locomotives  to  haul  300-ton  freight  trains  over 
heavy  grades. 

Puget  Sound  Electric  Railway  handles  20  cars  of  coal  per  day  on  a  12-mile  haul 
from  Renton.  Its  freight  earnings  are  about  $175,000  per  year.  Its  freight  equip- 
ment consists  of  12  express  motor  cars,  286  hopper,  flat,  and  gondola  cars. 


38  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Portland  Railway  L.  &  P.  Co.  has  8  electric  locomotives  and  353  freight  cars. 

Oregon  Electric  Railway  has  100  freight  cars  and  two  50-ton  electric  locomotives 
for  general  freight  haulage.  It  has  established,  from  any  point  on  its  70  miles  of  line, 
eastbound  transcontinental  freight  rates  to  all  eastern  common  points  in  connection 
with  the  Spokane,  Portland  &  Seattle  Railroad  and  the  Southern  Pacific.  The 
basis  is  10  cents  per  100  pounds  arbitrary  over  Portland.  E.  T.  W.,  May  14,  1910. 

Northern  Electric  Railway  of  California  has  6  electric  locomotives  and  600 
freight  cars.  Its  1910  freight  revenue  was  $139,860  or  27  per  cent,  of  its  total. 

Pacific  Electric  Railway,  of  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  with  600  miles  of  track,  has  freight 
agencies  in  32  cities  and  towns.  The  bulk  of  the  business  is  local  freight  for  points 
within  40  miles  of  Los  Angeles,  and  averages  250  car  loads  each  way  per  day.  The 
rates  average  8/10  cents  per  ton-mile  for  less  than  car  loads,  and  5/10  cents  per  ton- 
mile  for  car  loads.  The  company  has  a  double-track,  private  right-of-way  into  the 
city.  Trains  are  composed  of  from  4  to  25  cars.  Express  motor-cars  are  used  for 
the  bulk  of  the  work,  and  some  of  these  motor-cars  are  equipped  to  handle  10  trailing 
cars;  but  heavier  trains  are  hauled  by  electric  locomotives.  Car-load  business  is 
transferred  from  private  sidings  and  shipping  houses  and  other  points,  on  the  city 
streets,  at  night.  The  freight  equipment  includes  18  electric  locomotives,  each  of 
350  h.  p.;  20  freight  motor  cars  rated  300  h.p.,  each  hauling  10  loaded  cars;  600  box 
and  other  freight  cars,  and  300  steel  freight  cars  of  100,000-pound  capacity.  Its 
freight  revenue  in  1910  was  $444,564  or  9  per  cent  of  its  total  revenue. 

Express  business  is  usually  conducted  by  national  express  companies. 
U.  S.  Express  Company  and  Southern  Ohio  Express  Company  handle  the 
express  business  for  the  principal  electric  railways  of  Ohio  and  Indiana, 
their  contracts  covering  2600  miles.  In  all,  they  now  operate  on  6000 
miles  of  electric  railway  route  in  the  United  States.  Basis  of  agreement 
is  usually  50  per  cent,  of  the  gross  earnings,  or  25  cents  per  cwt.  for  local 
hauls,  and  a  definite  guarantee  per  mile  per  year,  to  the  electric  railway. 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  in  1908,  considered  the  needs  of 
shippers  on  different  electric  lines,  and  concluded  that  where  there  was 
sufficient  traffic  the  Commission  was  justified  in  establishing  thru  routes 
and  joint  thru  rates.  It  therefore  required  the  establishment  of  such 
rates.  The  basis,  in  general  cases,  is  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  the 
class  and  commodity  rate  of  the  steam  railroads  between  distant  points 
and  common  points  on  the  electric  line,  for  the  transportation  of  inter- 
state traffic.  Prior  to  this  time,  the  steam  railroads  contended  that  the 
electric  railway  companies  legally  were  not  railroads,  and,  because  they 
could  not  reciprocate  with  exchange  equipment,  the  steam  railroads  were 
not  benefited  by  such  interchange  of  traffic  and  joint  rates.  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  decided  that  the  needs  of  the  shipper  could  not 
thus  be  set  aside.  In  March,  1911,  the  Commission  ordered  the  steam 
roads  to  supply  electric  roads  with  switching  connections  and  thru  rates. 
E.  R.  J.,  Aprils,  1911,  p.  637. 

Financial  .advantages  of  electric  haulage  of  freight  are  argued  in 
Chapter  III.  The  present  status  is  indicated  by  the  present  gross  revenue. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 
ANNUAL  FREIGHT  REVENUE  OF  ELECTRIC  ROADS. 


39 


Name  of  railway. 

Mile- 
age. 

Year 
noted. 

Freight 
revenue. 

P.  C.  of 
;    total. 

Per 

track 
mile. 

Massachusetts  Electric 

932 

1907 

49,400 

0.7 

$  53. 

Old  Colony  

381 

1910 

$63,980 

3.0 

168. 

Rhode  Island  Company  

319 

1909 

169,580 

4.0 

531. 

Connecticut  Company 

755 

1908 

224,292 

3.0 

290. 

Fonda,  Johnstown  &  G.ville.  .  .  . 

85 

1909 

223,752 

28.9 

2632. 

Schenectady  Railway  

133 

1907 

46,000 

4.0 

347. 

Hudson  Valley  Railway  

149 

1908 

127,000 

19.0 

852. 

Toronto  &  York  Radial  

81 

1909 

47,316 

13.4 

584. 

Buffalo  &  Lockport  Ry  

25 

1908 

98,251 

3930. 

Utica  &  Mohawk  Valley  Ry.  .  .  . 

114 

1908 

115,638 

10.0 

1014. 

Albany  Southern  R.  R  

58 

1907 

57,948 

21.0 

1000. 

Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley 

50 

1909 

52,164 

9.4 

1043. 

Grand  Rapids,   Holland  &  Chi.  . 

81 

1909 

56,000 

20.9 

691. 

Grand  Rapids,  Grand  Haven  &  M 

|           49 

1909 

56,000 

20.6 

1143. 

Lake  Shore  Electric  

215 

1909 

58,596 

6.3 

272. 

Cleveland,  Southwest  &  Colum  .  . 

213 

1908 

62,000 

8.0 

291. 

Eastern  Ohio  Traction 

95 

1909 

73,621 

28.8 

775. 

Ohio  Electric  Ry  

850 

1909 

207,553 

8.6 

244. 

Toledo  Urban  &  Interurban.  .  .  . 

71 

1908 

28,000 

8.0 

400. 

Western  Ohio  Ry 

112 

1909 

54,823 

13.8 

489. 

Toledo,  Port  Clinton  &  Lakes.  .  . 

55 

1909 

23,281 

13.1 

423. 

Cincinnati  Interurban  Ry.  &  T.  . 

116 

1909 

52,378 

23.3 

451. 

Scioto  Valley  Traction 

78 

1910 

50,934 

13.6 

653. 

Toledo  &  Western  

80 

1909 

81,000 

31.2 

1012. 

Dayton  &  Troy  Electric  

49 

1909 

26,777 

10.3 

546. 

Indiana  Union  Traction 

365 

1909 

181,168 

496. 

Indiana,  Columbus  &  Southern  .  . 

65 

1908 

20,000 

7.0 

309. 

Cincinnati,  Georgetown  &  P  .  .  . 

57 

1909 

56,365 

28.0 

989. 

Toledo  &  Indiana 

56 

1909 

34,651 

18.2 

619. 

Fort  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley.  . 

212 

1909 

56,706 

3.1 

267. 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  

116 

1909 

44,213 

23.0 

381. 

Terre  Haute,  Indiana  &  Eastern  . 

400 

1909 

180,662 

7.8 

451. 

Illinois  Traction  

530 

1909 

400,000 

20.6 

755. 

East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban  

181 

1908 

63,619 

7.0 

351. 

Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric.  . 

186 

1909 

58,855 

8.0 

300. 

Milwaukee  Northern  Ry  

64 

1909 

16,772 

7.0 

262. 

Waterloo,  C.  F.  &  Northern  

100 

1909 

90,226 

35.9 

902. 

Portland  Ry.  Light  and  Power.  . 

472 

1909 

153,631 

22.3 

325. 

Puget  Sound  Electric  

200 

1909 

143,686 

7.7 

718. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  

201 

1910 

472,918 

27.7 

2362. 

Los  Angeles  —  Pacific  

260 

1910 

207,778 

12.2 

799. 

Electric  Ry.,  Canada 

988 

1909 

575,000 

3.1 

572. 

Electric  Ry.,  United  States  

34,405 

1907 

7,438,582 

2.0 

216. 

Steam  R.  R.,  United  States  

327,975 

1907 

1,936,000,000 

74.5 

5903. 

40 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  freight  revenues  of  electric  roads  doubled  between  1902  and  1907,  and  are 
now  increasing  at  a  rapid  rate. 

References  on  Interurban  Freight  Traffic:  U.  S.  Census  Report,  1907,  pp.  92  and 
138;  annual  reports  of  railway  companies;  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  July  11,  1908,  Oct., 
10,  1908;  pp.  824  and  1069;  Oct.  8,  1910,  p.  610. 

FREIGHT  REVENUE  OF  ELECTRIC  ROADS. 

Last  Report  of  State  Railroad  Commission. 


State. 

Miles  of 
road. 

Passenger 
earnings. 

Freight 
earnings. 

Freight 
per  cent. 

Rhode  Island           

393 

$5,284,716 

$157  351 

3  0 

Massachusetts   .  ;    .  .  . 

175  000 

Indiana  

9,538,776 

700,000 

7  6 

Ohio       

2794 

11,000,000 

910  000 

8  3 

Michigan 

10  458  000 

533  329 

5  3 

Illinois  

1303 

13,350,000 

426,000 

3.2 

Railroads  use  electric  locomotives  for  freight  haulage  in  regular  service 
notably  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  since  1895;  Hoboken  Shore  Line,  1898; 
Buffalo  &  Lockport,  1898;  Paris-Orleans,  1900;  St.  Louis  &  Belleville, 
1901;  Cincinnati,  Georgetown  &  Portsmouth,  1903;  Grand  Trunk,  1908; 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  1910;  Michigan  Central,  1910. 

In  America,  about  310  electric  locomotives  are  now  used  for  freight  haulage. 

In  England,  North-Eastern  Railway,  has  used  six  55-ton  electric  locomotives 
and  also  multiple-unit  cars  for  freight  and  express  service  since  1904.  The  cars  are 
55  feet  long,  have  four  125-h.p.  motors,  and  handle  luggage,  parcels,  and  fish;  and 
they  are  coupled  to  either  an  electric  or  a  steam-driven  train. 

ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 

A  brief  history  of  electric  locomotives  is  presented: 
In  1880,  Edison  ran  a  number  of  experimental  locomotives  at  Menlo 
Park  with  power  from  a  dynamo.  The  1880  locomotive  is  now  at  Brook- 
lyn Polytechnic  Institute.  In  1882,  Henry  Villard,  President  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  contracted  for  an  electric  locomotive  for  freight 
service  in  the  Dakotas.  It  was  equipped  by  Edison  with  a  series  belted 
220-volt,  10-h.  p.  motor  and  hauled  three-car  trains,  power  being  supplied 
thru  the  two  track  rails.  Hammer,  in  Elec.  World,  June  10,  1899,  and 
Elec.  Review,  July  23,  1910,  gives  photos,  drawings,  and  maps. 

In  1883,  Edison,  Field,  Mailloux,  and  Rea  operated  a  geared  and 
belted  3-ton  electric  locomotive,  "The  Judge/7  using  a  third-rail  con- 
tact line,  over  1550  feet  of  track  at  the  Chicago  Railway  Exposition  and 
at  the  Louisville  Exposition.  A  Weston  dynamo  and  motor  were  used. 
St.  Ry.  Journ.,  March  5,  1904,  p.  451;  December  10,  1904,  p.  1035. 

In    1883,   Daft    ran   a    successful    small    standard-gage    locomotive 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


41 


FIG.  9. — EDISON  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE,  1880. 
Positive  and  negative  rails:  armature  belted  to  axle. 


FIG.  10. — IMPROVED  EDISON  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE,  1882. 
A  steam  locomotive  designer  had  been  employed. 


42  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

between  Mt.  McGregor  and  Saratoga,  N.  Y.,  12  miles,  and  hauled  a 
regular  10-ton  steam  passenger  car.  A  double-belted,  130-volt,  15- 
h.p.  motor  with  countershafts  was  used,  and  a  third  rail. 

In  1884.  Daft  operated  locomotives  and  coaches,  in  experimental  work, 
on  a  2-mile  road  between  Baltimore  and  Hampden.  The  motors  on  two 
electric  locomotives  were  a  130-volt,  direct-current  type.  The  gearing- 
used  was  single-reduction,  with  cut  steel  pinions  and  cut  cast-iron  gears. 
The  third  rail  was  used,  also  an  underground  trolley.  Horatio  A.  Foster 
installed  the  equipment.  Elec.  World,  March  5,  1904.  See  Fig.  2. 


FIG.  11. — DAFT  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  "AMPERE". 
Saratoga,  Mt.  McGregor  and  Lake  George  Railroad,  1883. 

In  1885,  Daft  developed  a  2-mile,  third-rail  line  for  the  Ninth  Avenue  Elevated, 
New  York,  from  Fourteenth  to  Fiftieth  Streets.  A  10-ton,  4-wheel  locomotive  was 
equipped  with  a  75-h.  p.,  single-reduction,  450- volt  motor.  The  truck  had  two  48-inch 
drivers  and  two  33-inch  trailer  wheels.  Four-car  trains  were  hauled  at  night  experi- 
mentally, for  a  long  period.  The  locomotive  called  the  " Franklin"  was  re-equipped 
in  1888  with  4-coupJed  drivers  and  a  125-h.  p.  motor  and  hauled  an  8-car  train  at 
10  miles  per  hour.  The  "Franklin"  avoided  the  use  of  belts,  gears,  and  cranks, 
power  being  transmitted  by  friction  from  wheels  on  the  armature  to  wheels  on  the 
axle.  The  armature  shaft  carried  a  9-inch  diameter  friction  wheel,  with  a  4-inch 
ground  face,  which  bore  down  upon  a  36-inch  friction  wheel,  keyed  to  the  axle  of  the 
drivers.  The  friction  was  varied  by  means  of  screw  pressure.  See  Martin  and 
Wetzler,  "The  Electric  Motor,"  second  edition,  p.  79,  for  drawings;  St.  Ry.  Journ., 
Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  529;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1899. 

In  1888,  Johnston,  Sprague,  Hutchinson,  and  Field  designed  and 
operated  a  heavy  experimental  side-rod  locomotive  on  the  Second  Avenue 
line  and  Thirty-fourth  Street  branch  line  of  the  New  York  Elevated  Road. 
Martin  and  Wetzler,  "The  Electric  Motor/'  2d  Edition,  1888,  p.  204. 

In  1890,  City  and  South  London  began  the  use  of  Mather  and  Platt, 
single-truck,  15-ton  gearless  locomotives  in  its  11-foot  diameter  tube 
railways,  each  locomotive  hauling  three  8-ton  coaches.  There  are  now 
58  locomotives,  and  they  are  in  heavier  service. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION 


43 


In  1893,  Chicago  Columbian  Exposition  exhibited  a  General  Electric 
30-ton,  4-wheel  freight  locomotive. 

Length  was  16  feet,  wheel  base  66  inches,  drivers  44  inches.  Motors  were  240-h.  p. 
500-volt  units,  supported  on  spiral  springs  resting  on  the  locomotive  truck  frames. 
Armatures  were  iron- clad,  gearless,  quill-mounted,  and  connected  to  axles  by  flexible 
couplings.  Series-parallel  controllers  were  used.  At  30  m.  p.  h.,  the  rated  drawbar 
pull  was  6000  Ibs.  Maximum  drawbar  pull  was  13,000  Ibs.  In  tug  with  a  steam 
locomotive  having  a  greater  weight  on  drivers,  the  electric  locomotive  showed  the 
greater  tractive  effort.  Description  and  photo  in  Electrical  Engineer,  July  12,  1893 


FIG.  12. — ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.     S.  D.  FIELD,  1888. 

The  armature  was  crank-connected  to  the  side  rod.     Motor  was  spring  mounted  on  the  truck. 
Weight  13  tons;  drivers  42-inch.     Direct  current  at  800  volts.     Third  rail. 

In  1893,  the  North  American  Co.,  Henry  Villard,  president,  had  a  loco- 
motive built  by  the  Baldwin  and  the  Westinghouse  companies,  under  the 
supervision  of  Messrs.  Sprague,  Duncan,  and  Hutchinson,  for  experi- 
mental work  in  freight  hauling  and  switching  at  Chicago. 

The  locomotive  weighed  60  tons.  There  were  four  sets  of  56-inch  coupled 
drivers.  The  rigid  wheel  base  was  15  feet.  The  connection  between  the  armature 
shaft  and  the  drivers  was  by  means  of  gearing.  Motors  used  were  four  200-h.  p. 
Westinghouse,  iron-clad  type,  225  r.  p.  m.,  direct-current,  800-volt,  250-ampere  units. 
Series-parallel  control  was  used.  Magnets  were  compound  wound,  but  the  shunt 
field  had  only  sufficient  turns  to  keep  the  speed  within  reasonable  limits  at  light  loads. 
The  motors  were  designed  to  return  current  to  the  line  when  running  down  grades. 
See  drawings  and  descriptions  in  Electrical  Engineer,  July  12,  1893;  Oct.  8.,  1893, 
p.  339;  Baldwin- Westinghouse  publication,  "Electric  Locomotives/'  1896;  Elec. 
World,  March  5,  1904 


44  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

In  1895,  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  began  the  use  of  five  96-ton. 
1040-h.p.  electric  locomotives  for  hauling  all  ordinary  passenger  and 
freight  trains  thru  its  Baltimore  Belt  Line  tunnel  and  terminal.  These 
are  still  in  active  service  and  seven  freight  locomotives  have  been  added. 
The  steam  railroad  field  was  practically  uninvaded  until  this  date. 

In  1898,  Buffalo  &  Lockport  Railway  began  the  use  of  two  640-h.  p. 
locomotives  for  the  haulage  of  ordinary  freight,  in  8-  to  12-car  trains, 
between  Tonawanda  and  Lockport,  N.  Y.  They  are  still  in  active  service. 

In  1900,  St.  Louis  &  Belleville  Electric  Railway,  a  pioneer  electric 
freight  road,  began  the  use  of  two  50-ton  locomotives.  For  ten  years, 
720-ton,  16-car  coal  trains  have  been  hauled  in  regular  service. 


FIG.  13. — ST.  Louis  AND  BELLEVILLE  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY. 
Fifty-ton  locomotive  and  ordinary  720-ton  coal  train. 

In  1900,  Central  London  Railway,  an  underground  tube  road,  in- 
stalled 40  locomotives  each  equipped  with  4  GE-56,  gearless,  direct- 
current,  170-h.p.  motors.  The  armature  core  was  built  directly  on  the 
axle.  The  locomotive  weighed  48  tons,  about  13  tons  spring-bourne  and 
35  tons  not  spring-bourne.  The  rigid  construction  of  these  locomotives 
shook  and  damaged  the  buildings  above.  They  were  superseded  by 
locomotives  equipped  with  4  GE-55,  geared,  150-h.p.,  motors.  The 
gear  ratio  was  3.3  and  the  weight  was  34  tons.  There  was  still  some 
vibration,  and  the  locomotives  were  abandoned  for  7-car  motor-car 
trains  with  500  h.  p.  per  train.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  11,  1902;  Nov.  7,1903. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Clark,  in  the  U.  S.  Census  Report  on  Street  and  Electric 
Railways  of  1907,  has  listed  558  steam  locomotives  on  126  roads  which 
were  replaced  by  electric  units  on  electric  railways;  also  863  additional 
steam  locomotives  which  were  replaced  by  electrical  equipment  on  24 
steam  railroads.  Many  steam  locomotives  have  since  been  discarded. 

" Electric  Locomotives"  form  the  subject  of  succeeding  chapters. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  45 

ELECTRIC  TRACTION  BY  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Electric  traction  by  electric  railways  for  ordinary  service  forms  one 
step  in  the  advance  in  the  art  of  transportation.  Electric  power  was 
first  used  for  freight  and  passenger  service  by  roads  which  were  not 
formerly  steam  railroads,  but  which  were  organized  to  build  and  operate 
new  railways  with  electric  motive  power.  The  best  first  examples  of 
the  American  roads  are  listed. 

Albany  &  Hudson  R.  R.  Buffalo  &  Lockport  Railway. 

Lake  Shore  Electric  Railway.          Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley  R.  R. 
Scioto  Valley  Traction  Co.  Indiana  Union  Traction  Co. 

Terre  Haute,  Indianapolis  &  East.  Ohio  Electric  Railway. 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  R.  R.       Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric  R.  R. 
East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban  Ry.      Illinois  Traction  Co. 
Puget  Sound  Electric  Railway.       Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.  R. 

ELECTRIC  TRACTION  BY  STEAM  RAILROADS. 

f 

Electric  traction  was  first  used  by  steam  railroads  for  special  situa- 
tions. Physical  and  financial  advantages  were  gained.  Many  of  the 
special  situations  have  been  listed,  viz: 

Prevention  of  competition. 

Elevated  lines,  subways,  and  tunnels. 

Mountain  grade  lines  for  heaviest  service. 

Terminal  railways,  with  congested  traffic. 

Freight  service  for  local  railways. 

Utilization  of  water  power.     See  "  Power  Plants. " 

Electric  locomotives  for  terminals,  switching  yards,  factory  service. 

Motor-car  trains  in  place  of  steam  locomotive-hauled  trains,  for 
heaviest  rapid  transit  and  suburban  railway  passenger  service. 

Change  in  motive  power  to  improve  a  bad  financial  situation,  to 
regain  traffic  and  to  reduce  expenses.  This  is  considered  in  "  Advantages 
of  Electric  Traction,"  and  in  " Procedure  in  Railroad  Electrification." 

ELECTRIC  TRACTION  IN  GENERAL  USE  FOR  TRAINS. 

Electric  traction  now  receives  consideration  for  economic  reasons,  and 
for  passenger  and  freight  train  service,  by  electric  railway  corporations 
and  by  steam  railroad  corporations. 

This  is  the  work  of  the  present  and  future.  The  tendency  at  present 
is  to  systematically  consolidate  the  electric  railways,  to  increase  the  long 
runs,  to  run  two-car  trains  in  place  of  long  single  cars,  to  obtain  better 
management,  to  effect  economies,  and  to  standardize.  Great  savings  are 
being  effected  as  railways  are  brought  under  one  financial  and  engineering 
management,  Thru  electric-train  service  between  the  leading  cities, 


46  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

St.  Louis,  Springfield,  Terre  Haute,  Indianapolis,  Chicago,  Cincinnati, 
Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Albany,  Boston,  New  York,  and  Washington,  is  being- 
developed  by  interurban  railways;  and  this  will  be  followed  by  the 
electrification  of  trunk  lines. 

Steam  railroads  electrify  their  lines  for  economy  of  operation  and  to 
regain  lost  traffic.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact,  frequently  impressed,  that  as 
the  steam  railroads  electrify,  the  work  is  of  a  most  substantial  character. 

Electric  power  will  first  be  adopted,  to  the  financial  advantage  of  the 
public  and  of  the  steam  railroad,  in  zones  around  our  great  cities:  Boston, 
New  Haven,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Washington,  Baltimore,  Pitts- 
burg,  Albany,  Buffalo,  Montreal,  Toronto,  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  Minneap- 
olis and  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco,  and  Los  Angeles.  Co-opera- 
tive plans  for  the  generation  of  electricity  will  effect  large  savings  in 
capital.  Water  powers  of  the  Cascade,  Rocky,  and  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains will  be  used  by  railroad  corporations  to  haul  their  electric  trains, 
at  first  near  Denver,  Salt  Lake,  Spokane,  Seattle,  and  in  the  Columbia 
and  Sacramento  River  Valleys.  Passenger  trains  will  use  electric 
traction  first,  but  for  economy  freight  haulage  must  be  added. 

In  the  early  days,  I860,  passenger  traffic  produced  the  larger  part  of 
the  earnings  of  steam  railroads,  but  the  freight  earnings  soon  exceed  the 
passenger  earnings.  The  freight  earnings  of  electric  railroads  will,  like- 
wise, soon  exceed  the  passenger  earnings,  both  in  amount  and  in  profit. 

The  history  of  steam  railroads  shows  that  there  was  at  first  no  idea 
of  interchange  of  traffic,  involving  the  use  of  cars  and  locomotives;  but 
that  in  1878  a  standard  gage  for  track,  interchangeable  (M.  C.  B.) 
couplers,  brakes,  heating  pipes,  and  signals,  were  adopted.  Likewise, 
electric  railroads  are  now  being  systematized  so  that  coaches,  coupled  as 
in  ordinary  railroad  trains,  will  have  automatic  brakes,  standard  heating- 
apparatus,  etc.  Electric  trunk-line  roads  must  standardize,  and  use 
interchangeable  electric  systems,  voltage,  cycles,  and  phase,  so  that 
direct-current  and  alternating-current  service  may  be  used  for  any  train. 

Regarding  the  work  done,  an  index,  in  the  first  part  of  Chapter  XV, 
of  all  steam  railroads  using  electric  traction  for  trains,  shows  that 
not  one  per  cent,  of  the  total  mileage  has  yet  been  electrified. 

Electric  power  has  economic  advantages  which  are  being  utilized  to 
improve  transportation  methods.  The  idea  is  not  merely  to  supersede 
steam-locomotive  traction,  but  rather  it  is  to  assist  in  producing  efficient 
transportation  by  new  methods. 

The  importance  of  electric  railway  transportation  in  the  United 
States  may  be  shown  by  statistics;  and  when  these  are  compared  with 
other  statistics  they  show  that  the  capital  invested  and  the  gross  earn- 
ings of  electric  railways  are  more  than  twice  as  large  as  those  for  all 
other  public  electric  utilities  combined. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  47 

EARNINGS  AND  MILEAGE  OF  RAILWAYS  OPERATING  ELECTRIC  TRAINS. 


Name  of  electric  railway. 

Gross 
earnings 

1908.  • 

| 

Gross 
earnings 
1909. 

Gross 
earnings 
1910. 

1 

Elec. 
mileage 
1911. 

Boston  Elevated  
Massachusetts  Electric 

$14,074,696 
7,809  010 

$14,993,853 
8  052,355 

8  560  949 

485 
934 

The  Rhode  Island  Company.  . 

4,217,022 

4,192,958 

4,502,922 

319 

The  Connecticut  Company  
Interboro  Rapid  Transit  
Long  Island  R.  R. 

6,961,436 
25,279,470 
9  818  544 

6,841,425 
27,160,036 
10  898  371 

7,235,729 
28,987,648 
9  779  116 

780 
85 
263 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  R.  R  
Albany  Southern  R.  R  
Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  .  . 
Utica  &  Mohawk  Valley  
Rochester,  Syracuse  &  Eastern  .... 
Windsor,  Essex  &  Lake  Shore  
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley  .  .  . 
Michigan  United  Rys  

267,777 
809,925 
1,151,031 
310,958 
35,585 
524,509 
573,439 

743,701 

773,849 
1,193,806 
382,037 
85,273 
555,402 
1,026,796 

2,237,459 
480,062 
904,751 
1,257,621 
503,218 
106,225 
576,029 
1  248  889 

18 
62 
85 
127 
168 
40 
50 
254 

Cleveland,  Southwestern  &  Colum. 
Northern  Ohio  Traction  
Mahoning  &  Shenango  .... 

775,737 
1,890,473 
1,747,927 

827,898 
2,177,642 
1,966,066 

955,591 
2,437,426 
2  251  482 

243 
214 
149 

Eastern  Ohio  Traction 

259  172 

270  759 

94 

Toledo  &  Western  
Western  Ohio 

236,538 
441  791 

490  328 

301,618 
558  374 

84 
112 

Scioto  Valley  Traction  
Fort  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley  
Indiana  Union  Traction  
Indianapolis,  Columbus  &  Southern 
Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  Traction  . 
Cincinnati,  Georgie.  &  Portsmouth  . 
South  Side  Elevated  R.  R 

355,000 
1,322,720 
1,902,330 
344,694 
200,355 
164,493 
2  214  690 

383,053 
1,414,526 
2,103,018 
385,424 
214,990 
167,514 
2  234  973 

422,914 
1,526,587 
2,364,628 
418,287 
448,099 
174,530 
2  457  489 

79 
212 
373 
59 
112 
57 
46 

Metropolitan  West  Side  Elevated  .  . 
Chicago  &  Oak  Park  Elevated  
Northwestern  Elevated  R.  R  
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  
Illinois  Traction  Co  
East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban  
Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric  
Milwaukee  Northern  
Rock  Island  Southern  
Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  Southern. 
Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls  &  Northern  . 
Northern  Texas  Traction 

2,746,840 
869,892 
2,463,188 
1,408,892 
4,089,621 
2,009,514 
597,977 

76,191 

217,103 
1,080,577 

2,818,430 
825,453 
2,540,883 
1,467,215 
4,752,082 
2,035,790 
921,019 
85,444 
91,438 
432,540 
251,834 
1,259,551 

3,069,945 
840,378 
2,632,039 
1,608,438 
6,106,250 
2.364,142  , 
945,152 
287,848 

450,747 
234,072 
1  442  807 

57 
20 
51 
160 
550 
181 
166 
64 
82 
140 
90 
82 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  

1,146,177  i 

1,269,100 

1,763,614 

287 

Puget  Sound  Electric  

1,694,973 

1,869,096 

1,915,289 

200 

Oregon  Electric  

554,819 

80 

Northern  Electric.  .  .  . 

422,901 

512  992 

138 

i 

i 

48  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  STATISTICS  SUMMARIZED. 


Statistics  from  government 
reports 

Steam  railroads 
1907. 

Electric  railways 
1907. 

Ratio 
electric 
to  steam. 

Passengers  carried  
Rides  per  inhabitant  per  year 

873,905,133 
9 

9,533,080,766 
90 

10.900 
10  000 

Total  car  mileage  

29,652,000,000 

1,618,343,584 

054 

Receipts  from  passengers  

$564,606,342 

$382  132  494 

677 

Income  from  freight 

1,936  000  000 

7  438  582 

004 

Income  from  operation  

2,649,731,911 

429,744,254 

162 

Operating  expenses     

1,749,164,649 

251  309  252 

143 

Net  earnings 

900  567  262 

178  435  00^ 

200 

Taxes  and  fixed  charges  
Net  income 

420,717,658 
479,849,604 

138,094,716 
40  343  286 

.325 

084 

Dividends  

227,394,962 

25,558,857 

.113 

Surplus                    

252,454,642 

14,781  429 

059 

Capitalization   at  par 

18  885  000  000 

3  774  000  000 

200 

Total  mileage  

327,975 

34,4041 

.105 

Passenger  cars 

43  973 

70016 

1   600 

Freight  cars,  etc  

1,991,557 

13,625 

.007 

Total  cars         .    .        ....        .    . 

2,126,594 

84,000 

040 

Locomotives 

51  891 

1172 

007 

Motor  cars            

68,874 

Horse-power  capacity 

5,000,000 

2  475  000 

490 

1  The  mileage  of  electric  railways  in  1911  is  about  36,000  miles. 

2  The  number  of  electric  locomotives  in  1911  is  about  430. 


LITERATURE. 
References  on  Historical  Development  of  Electric  Railways. 

KRAMER:  "Elektrische  Eisenbahn,"  Vienna  and  Leipzig,  1883. 

RECKENZAUM:  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways  and  Tramways,"  Biggs  &  Co., 
London,  1892. 

MARTIN  &  WETZLER:  "The  Electric  Motor,"  Johnston,  N.  Y.,  1887-8. 

CROSBY  &  BELL:  "The  Electric  Railway,"  Johnston,  N.  Y.,  1892. 

HOUSTON  &  KENNELLY:  "Electric  Street  Railways,"  McGraw,  N.  Y.,  1906. 

Bentley:  The  First  Electric  Car,  E.  W.,  March  5,  1904.      . 

Pope,  F.  L.:  Early  Electric  Railways,  E.  W.,  Jan.  31,  1891. 

Griffin:  Development  of  Electric  Railways,  Electrical  Engineer,  Sept.  16,  1891. 

Daft,  Sprague,  Lamme,  Griffin,  Dodd,  Bentley,  and  others,  in  S.  R..  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904; 
S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  26,  1903. 

Reid:  Electric  Traction  History,  Cassiers,  August,  1899. 

Sprague:  Historical  Notes,  Electrical  Review,  N.  Y.,  Jan.,  1901;  Electrical  Engineer, 
N.  Y.,  March,  1890;  April,  1891;  E.  W.,  March  5,  1904;  History  and  Develop- 
ment of  Electric  Railways,  International  Electrical  Congress,  Section  F.,  St. 


HISTORY  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  49 

Louis,  1904;  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  581;  The  Electric  Railway,  A  Resume 

of  Early  Experiments,  Century,  N.  Y.,  July,  1905. 

Parshall:  Sprague  Electric  Motor',  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.,  1899;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1890. 
Shepardson:  Electric  Railway  Motor  Tests,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1892. 
Martin:  U.  S.  Census  Report  on  Street  and  Interurban  Railways,  1902,  p.  161. 
Historical  Interurban  Railways,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909,  p.  571. 
Review  on  Heavy  Electric  Traction,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909,  p.  583. 
Kelt:  First  Electrified  Steam  Roads,  S.  R.  J.,  June,  1897;  Sept.  1898,   Aug.  25  and 

Sept.  8,  1900. 


CHAPTER  II. 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 

Introduction  on  Railway  Practice. 
Locomotive  Classification. 
Data  Sheets  on  Proportions. 
Physical  Characteristics : 

Self-contained  power  units,  water  supply,  coal,  boilers,  center  of  gravity, 
wheel  base,  simple  engines,  design  for  service  conditions,  weight,  capacity, 
heating  surface,  tractive  effort,  piston  speed,  horse  power. 

Operating  Characteristics : 

Furnace  conditions,  high  rates  of  evaporation,  heat  radiation,  stand-by  losses, 
weather  ratings,  operation  by  enginemen,  unbalanced  forces,  track  destruction, 
friction  losses,  speed  of  trains,  mechanical  strains,  locomotive  repairs,  con- 
densation, superheat,  steam  consumption,  economy  of  coal. 

Speed-Torque  Characteristics : 

Indicator  diagrams,  short  strokes,  piston  speed,  initial  steam  pressure,  losses 
in  pressure,  indefinite  point  of  cut-off,  clearance,  back  pressure,  expansion  of 
steam,  mean-effective  steam  pressure,  relation  between  speed  and  torque, 
work  done  in  cylinders. 

Compound  Locomotives. 

Mallet  Locomotives. 

Turbine  Locomotives. 

Cost  of  Operation,  fuel,  repairs,  total. 

Literature. 


50 


CHAPTER  II. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Modern  steam  locomotives  in  railroad  practice  to-day  are  accepted 
as  the  approved  motive  power  for  the  transportation  of  ordinary  trains, 
because  steam  traction  has  certain  physical  and  economic  advantages. 
Where  coal  is  cheap  and  service  is  infrequent,  the  steam  locomotives 
will  continue  to  hold  the  advantage. 

Steam  locomotives  represent  the  result  of  seventy  years  of  crystallized 
experience,  in  which  much  has  been  learned  about  design  and  perform- 
ance, and  this  may  be  used  as  a  foundation  for  still  further  advance. 

Improvements  or  changes  in  the  motive  power  used  for  railroad 
trains  cannot  be  entertained  until  after  there  is  a  complete  understanding 
of  the  physical  characteristics  and  the  economic  performance  of  the 
modern  steam  locomotive.  An  intimate  knowledge  of  the  good  and  bad 
physical  features,  and  of  the  operating  results,  is  needed.  Practical 
experience  in  round  houses,  in  service  tests,  and  on  dynamometer  cars 
is  the  most  profitable  means  of  collecting  the  information. 

A  study  will  now  be  made  of  the  furnace  and  boiler,  the  limitations 
in  design,  the  indicator  cards,  the  relation  of  speed  to  drawbar  pull,  the 
dynamometer  records,  the  result  of  weather  conditions,  the  effect  of 
railway  grades,  the  effect  of  underload  and  overload,  and  the  economic 
results  from  ordinary  and  special  locomotives.  The  nature  of  the  facts 
is  of  greatest  importance.  The  data  contained  in  the  following  pages 
summarize,  for  general  use  and  for  comparative  purposes,  some  of  the 
essential  facts  and  conditions  concerning  present-day  steam  locomotives. 

LOCOMOTIVE  CLASSIFICATION. 

Locomotive  classification  is  made  with  reference  to  the  number  and 
arrangement  of  the  wheels.  The  number  of  driving  wheels  of  steam 
locomotives  is  generally  limited  to  two  or  three  pairs  in  passenger  service 
and  to  four  pairs  in  freight  service.  The  number  and  diameter  of  side- 
connected  drivers  establish  the  length  of  the  rigid  driving-wheel  base. 
Leading  wheels  are  required  to  ease  the  shock,  to  guide  the  locomotive 
in  the  curves,  and  over  variations  in  track  alignment — a  two-wheeled  lead- 
ing truck  for  freight  engines,  and  a  four-wheeled  leading  truck  for  high- 
speed passenger  engines.  A  pair  of  trailing  wheels  often  supports  the 
heavy  fire-box. 

Switchers  have  4;  6,  8,  or  10  small  driving  wheels,  a  rigid  truck  frame, 
and  are  usually  without  leading  or  trailing  wheels. 

Prairies  have  2  leading  truck  wheels,  6  large  driving  wheels,  and  2 
trailing  truck  wheels,  over  which  there  is  a  deep  and  wide  fire-box. 

51 


52 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


This  type  is  common  for  heavy  passenger  or  fast  freight  service  on 
prairie  divisions. 

Moguls  have  2  leading  truck  wheels  and  6  driving  wheels,  and  they 
are  used  for  heavy  freight  service. 

Consolidations  have  2  leading  truck  wheels  and  8  driving  wheels,  and 


FIG.  14. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  MOGUL  TYPE. 

are  a  standard  for  heavy  freight  service.  This  type  is  frequently  a  2- 
or  4-cylinder  compound.  The  wheel  base  is  long.  Speeds  are  not  high. 

Decapods  have  2  leading  truck  wheels  and  10  driving  wheels  giving 
the  maximum  wheel  base.  Few  are  used. 

Eight -wheeled,  or  Americans,  have  4  leading  truck  wheels  and  4 


FIG.  15. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  EIGHT-WHEEL  OR  AMERICAN  TYPE. 

large  driving  wheels.      This  is  a  light-weight,  simple  locomotive,  for 
ordinary  passenger  service. 

Ten -wheelers  have  4  leading  truck  wheels  and  6  driving  'wheels,  and 
are  used  for  both  passenger  and  fast  freight  service.  Twelve-wheelers 
or  mastadons  are  seldom  used. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     53 


Atlantics  have  4  leading  truck  wheels,  4  driving  wheels,  and  2  wheels 
at  the  grates  to  carry  a  large  fire-box.  This  type  is  used  for  medium- 
sized  passenger  trains,  maintaining  high  speed  with  few  stops. 

Pacifies  have  4  leading  wheels,  6  driving  wheels,  and  2  at  the  grates, 
for  the  heaviest  passenger  trains. 


Fia.  16. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  PACIFIC  TYPE. 

Balanced  have  Atlantic  or  Pacific  wheel  arrangement.  The  front 
driver  axle  is  generally  a  crank  axle.  A  good  balance  of  the  reciprocating 
efforts  of  the  three  or  four  pistons  is  obtained,  and  this  eliminates  most 
of  the  hammer  blow  and  allows  a  greater  dead  weight  per  driver  axle, 


FIG.  17. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  TEN-WHEEL  TYPE. 

making  it  a  desirable  high-speed  passenger  locomotive.  See  page  64. 
Mallet  articulated  have  2  sets  of  cylinders  on  each  side  of  the  loco- 
motive working  in  compound,  articulated  or  hinged  trucks,  each  with  3 
or  4  pairs  of  driving  wheels,  generally  with  leading  and  sometimes  with 
trailing  truck  wheels.  There  is  one  boiler,  rightly  attached  to  the  rear 
truck  and  supported  on  the  front  truck  by  means  of  sliding  bearings. 


54  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  18. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  ATLANTIC  TYPE. 


FIG.  19. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  PRAIRIE  TYPE. 


FIG.  20. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  CONSOLIDATION  TYPE. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     55 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Classification  of  steam  locomotives  is  represented  in  numerals  by  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  the  pairs  of  wheels,  commencing  at  the  front. 


FIG.  21. — TYPICAL  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE,  MALLET  OR  ARTICULATED  TYPE. 
The  Delaware  &  Hudson  Company. — Freight  service. 


STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE  CLASSIFICATION. 


Type  of 
Locomotive. 

Order  of                  No.  of 
wheels.                   wheels. 

Wt.  on         Heating 
drivers.         surface. 

Ordinary  service. 

Switcher  

^000                      0-6-0 

100%         1200-3000 

Local  and  helper. 

Prairie  

/_oOOOo                 2-6-2 

75%         2000-3800 

Heavy  passenger. 

Mogul  

^oOOO               '     2-6-0 

86%         2000-2400 

Heavy  freight. 

Consolidation.  .  .  . 

Z^oOOOO           I     2-8-0 

88%         2200-3600 

Heavy  freight. 

Decapod  

^oOOOOO             2-10-0 

90%         2300-4200 

Heavy  freight. 

American  

zLooOO                    4-4-0 

65%         1600-2400 

Light  passenger. 

10-wheel  

/L.ooOOO                 4-6-0 

75%      ;   2000-2600 

Passenger  and  freight. 

Atlantic  

ZLooOOo                  4-4-2 

55%      1   2600-3300 

High-speed  passenger. 

Pacific  

Z_ooOOOo               4-6-2 

60%         3000-3800 

Heaviest  passenger. 

Balanced  

/LooOOo                  4-4-2 

57%         2700-3400 

High-speed  passenger. 

Mallet  

Z-oOOO-OOO         2-6-6-0 

90%      |  3300-7800 

Mountain  freight. 

The  data  are  from  various  sources.  Some  from  a  paper  by  L.  H.  Fry,  before  the  New  York  Rail- 
road Club,  with  which  the  data  on  more  recent  installations  have  been  averaged,  and  some  from  the 
American  and  Baldwin  locomotive  catalogues. 

STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  USED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Reports  of  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  June  30,  1907,  1908,  1909. 


Service. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


Cylinder. 


1907. 


1908.     i    1909. 


Passenger  

1 
12,814 

13,205 

13,317       Single-expansion  

51,891 

54,230      54,835 

Freight  

32,079 

33,840 

33,935       Four-cylinder  compound.  .  . 

1,727 

1,714 

1,603 

Switching.  .  .  . 

9,258 

9,529 

9,695 

Two-cylinder  compound  .  .  . 

945 

923 

888 

Unclassified.  . 

1,237 

1,124 

1,123       Unclassified  

825 

831 

744 

Total  

55,388 

57,698 

58,070 

55,388 

57,698 

58,070 

56 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Locomotive 
type. 

Single  expansion. 

Four-cylinder  compound. 

Two-cylinder  compound. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

1907. 

1908. 

1909. 

Switcher  
Prairie  
Mogul 

7,703 
990 
5,333 
15,025 
17 
10,041 
9,666 
613 
1,401 
640 
53 
409 

8,108 
1,152 
5,510 
15,987 
17 
9,718 
10,202 
708 
1,490 
789 
57 
492 

8,335 
1,082 
5,502 
16,311 
36 
9,401 
10,067 
1,003 
1,530 
1,069 
52 
447 

3 

222 
142 
422 

6 
254 
130 
352 
4 
10 
348 
2 
262 
47 

9 
255 
99 
301 
4 
5 
336 
1 
272 
47 

22 
36 
181 
394 

22 
36 

178 
387 

22 
36 
157 
379 

Consolidation. 
Decapod  
8-wheel  
10-wheel  
12-wheel  
Atlantic  
Pacific  
Balanced  .... 
Other  types  .  . 

Total  

8 
374 
6 
262 

47 

4 

256 
51 

251 
49 

249 
43 

241 

299 

274 

1 

0 

2 

51,891 

54,230 

54,835 

1,727 

1,714 

1,603 

945 

923 

888 

On  an  average,  about  3000  locomotives  or  5  per  cent.,  are  added  per  year. 
Changes  from  one  type  to  another  show  the  appreciation  of  certain  types. 


DATA  SHEETS   ON  PROPORTIONS. 


PROPORTIONS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Weights,  Lengths,  Heating  Surface. 


Weight  in  tons. 

Wheel  base  in  feet. 

Tons  per  foot. 

T 

Tons 

Heat. 

H.P. 

per 

surf. 

per 

Driv. 

Eng. 

Total. 

Driv. 

Eng. 

Total. 

axle. 

Driv. 
base. 

Eng. 
base. 

Loco, 
base. 

sq.  ft. 

ton. 

Switch 

77 

77 

120 

11-3 

11-3 

40-0 

25.7 

6.2 

6.2 

3.0 

2000 

7.2 

Prairie  

75 

100 

160 

11-4 

29-0 

55-0 

25.0 

6.6 

3.4 

2.9 

3000 

8.0 

Mogul  

66 

75 

130 

15-0 

23-3 

53-0 

22.0 

4.3 

3.2 

2.4 

2200 

7.3 

Consolidated. 

84 

95 

160 

16-3 

24-6 

55-0 

21.0 

5.2 

3.9 

2.9 

3000 

8.0 

American.  .  .  . 

40 

65 

115 

8-6 

24-0 

50-0 

20.0 

4.7 

2.7 

2.3 

2000 

7.5 

10-wheel  

65 

87 

140 

14-6 

26-0 

54-0 

21.5 

4.5 

2.7 

2.6 

2300 

7.1 

Atlantic  

52 

90 

155 

7-0 

27-0 

58-0 

26.0 

7.4 

3.3 

2.7 

3000 

8.3 

Pacific  

60 

100 

175 

12-4 

32-0 

60-0 

20.0 

4.9 

3.1 

2.9 

3300 

8.1 

Balanced  .... 

50 

100 

170 

7-0 

30-0 

60-0 

28.0 

7.1 

3.3 

2.8 

2600 

7.0 

Articulated  .  . 

150 

175 

250 

10-0 

45-0 

83-0 

25.0 

7.5 

3.9 

3.0 

5585 

9.6 

200 

230 

350 

16-6 

52-0 

100-0 

25.0 

6.1 

4.4 

3.5 

7000 

8.6 

Data  are  from  Sinclair's  "Twentieth  Century  Locomotive";  McClellan's  article  to  A.  I.  E.  E., 
June,  1905,  p.  565;  L.  H.  Fry's  New  York  R.  R.  Club  paper  of  Sept.,  1903;  catalogues  of  American 
and  Baldwin  locomotives. 

Average  and  ordinary  units  are  considered.  Maximum  tons  per  driver  axle  frequently  exceed 
32,  in  large  locomotives;  average  tons  per  driver  axle  are  30  per  cent,  greater  than  European  practice. 

See  comparable  table  under  Electric  Locomotive  Design. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     57 
GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE  DATA. 


Locomo- 
tive type. 

Let- 
ter. 

Wheel 
arrange. 

Heating 
surface. 

Diam. 
driv. 

Cylinders, 
dimensions 

Wt. 
per 
axle. 

Locomotive  Wt. 

Engine. 

Total. 

Mallet  .... 

L2 

2-6-6-2 

3914 

55 

20&31x30 

41,667 

288,000 

451,000 

Mallet  LI        2-6-6-2 

5700 

55 

21i&33x32 

52,667 

355,000 

503,000 

Atlantic  .  .  . 

Kl 

4-4-2 

3488 

73 

15&25x26 

50,000 

208,000 

356,000 

Prairie  .... 

Jl 

2-6-2 

3488 

69 

22x30 

53,000 

209,000 

357,000 

Pacific  

H3 

4-6-2 

3058 

69 

25x30 

53,000 

227,000 

375,000 

Pacific  .... 

H2 

4-6-2 

3931 

69 

22x30 

53,000 

227,000 

375,000 

Pacific  .... 

HI 

4-6-2 

3466 

73 

21x28 

54,000 

207,000 

346,000 

Mastodon  .  . 

G5 

4-8-0 

3332 

55 

21x34 

43,000 

212,000 

308,000 

Mastodon.  . 

Gl           4-8-0        2307 

55 

20x26  33,000 

156,000 

242,000 

Consolidat      F10          2-8-0 

3340 

55 

21x34   49,000 

216,000 

312,000 

Consolidat  .    F8 

2-8-0 

2767 

55 

20x32  45,000 

195,000 

318,000 

Consolidat  .    Fl 

2-8-0 

1596 

55 

19x26  30,000 

136,000 

222,000 

10-Wheel  .  .    E13 

4-6-0 

1713 

55 

19x24    110,000 

192,000 

10-  Wheel  .  .    E6 

4-6-0 

2113 

63 

19x26  40,000    152,000 

272,000 

Mogul              D5 

2-6-0 

1600 

55 

19x26  3*  (wn 

130,000  !  91  fi  ono 

8-  Wheel..       B23 

4-4-0 

1600 

63 

18x24 



94,000 

168,000 

Switcher  .  .  j  A10 

0-6-0 

1846 

49 

19x28 

45,600 

137,000 

212,000 

Switcher  .  .     Al 

0-6-0 

785 

49 

16x20 

23,300      70,000 

112,000 

This  is  merely  a  good  representative  list  of  locomotives,  for  reference. 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Modern  steam  locomotives  in  common  railroad  service  have  the  follow- 
ing physical  characteristics: 

A  self-contained  power  unit  with  water  supply,  coal  supply,  boiler, 
and  two  complete  engines,  is  embodied.  It  is  a  power  house  on  wheels, 
mounted  on  trucks  and  moving  over  track  at  speeds  up  to  60  m.  p.  h. 

The  water  supply  comes  from  many  lakes,  streams,  and  wells,  and 
pumping  stations  are  located  10  to  20  miles  apart.  Since  alkali  and 
mineralized  waters  must  be  used  in  many  cases,  they  must  be  treated 
to  prevent  bad  scaling,  blistering  of  plates,  foaming,  and  water  in  cylinder. 

The  best  coal,  bituminous  screened  lump,  is  used.  Coal  substations 
with  handling  machinery  are  located  20  to  50  miles  apart.  Energy  is 
required  to  haul  about  60  tons  of  water  and  coal  supply  with  the  train. 

Coal  for  northern  roads,  those  near  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Michigan,  is  pur- 
chased each  year  about  April  first.  Youghiogheny  run-of-pile  is  used,  which  has 
run  over  a  3/4  inch  screen  at  the  mine.  The  run-of-pile  contains  about  25  per  cent, 
of  good  screenings,  formed  by  the  handling  at  the  lake  docks.  The  price  paid  by 
the  railroads  has  increased  from  $2.30  to  $3.00  per  ton,  or  30  per  cent.,  within  the 


58  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

last  seven  years.  The  coal  used  by  these  northern  railroads  costs  about  $4.20  per 
ton  delivered  on  the  locomotive  tender.  (Youghiogheny  screened  lump  costing,  $3.50 
at  the  dock,  is  sold  by  the  coal  companies  to  those  manufacturing  companies  which 
are  located  at  some  distance  from  the  railroad  or  which  have  poor  facilities  for  burning 
coal.  The  screenings  are  burned  by  power  plants  which  have  stokers.) 

Coal  for  railroads  near  and  just  west  of  Chicago  is  generally  the  best  Illinois 
screened  lump.  The  screenings  and  duff  are  burned  on  stokers  in  railway  and 
manufacturing  plants  in  the  larger  cities  within  500  miles  of  the  Illinois  mines.  Coal 
for  eastern  roads  comes  from  Pennsylvania  and  Indiana.  Fuel  oil  is  commonly  used 
on  locomotives  in  the  Southwest  and  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Anthracite  coal  is  used 
by  some  roads  with  economy. 

Statutes  of  states  and  municipal  restrictions  frequently  compel  the 
use  by  locomotives  of  an  anthracite  coal,  coke,  or  fuel  oil  for  switching 
and  city  service,  and  near  flour  mills,  factories,  forests,  etc. 

The  cost  of  hauling  an  ordinary  60-ton  coal  and  water  tender  as  dead 
weight,  in  a  freight  train,  at  $0.005  per  ton-mile,  for  an  ordinary  133-mile 
trip  is  $4:  and  in  a  passenger  train  varies  from  $8  to  $11  per  trip. 

The  cost  of  locomotive  fuel  depends,  therefore,  upon  the  price,  heat 
units,  location  of  the  road,  cost  of  handling,  etc.,  and  on  furnace  economy. 

Compact  boilers  of  the  fire-tube  type,  with  fire-box  furnaces  for  hand 
firing,  have  been  universally  adopted.  A  steam  pressure  of  200  pounds 
is  used,  not  so  much  for  economy  as  for  capacity.  Steam  pressures  of 
150  pounds  with  superheat  are  now  used  to  increase  the  economy,  by 
reducing  the  radiation  and  condensation.  The  ratio  of  heating  to  grate 
surface  depends  on  the  grade  of  coal,  and  approximates  65  for  ordinary 
bituminous  coal.  On  a  long  run,  the  grates  often  burn  several  different 
kinds  of  coal,  while  the  size  of  the  grate,  and  the  exhaust  nozzle,  are 
suited  to  but  one  grade  of  coal;  and  this  is  the  cause  of  some  complaints 
of  firemen  regarding  poor  steaming.  The  draft  and  the  rate  of  combus- 
tion are  proportional  to  the  quantity  and  the  pressure  of  the  exhaust 
steam  discharged  thru  the  smoke  stack.  A  draft  at  the  smoke-box  of 
about  3.7  inches  by  water  gage  is  required  to  burn  100  pounds  of  bitu- 
minous coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour. 

Center  of  gravity  is  high,  for  the  track  gage.  The  center  of  gravity 
is  in  the  boiler,  which  is  above  the  top  of  the  drivers.  The  diameter  of 
the  driving  wheels  of  ordinary  passenger  locomotives  is  60  to  84  inches; 
of  freight  locomotives  is  51  to  63  inches;  of  switch  locomotives  is  48  to 
51  inches,  or  less  than  one  inch  per  mile  per  hour  of  maximum  speed. 
The  bearings  on  each  axle  of  steam  locomotives  are  between  the  wheels. 
The  bearing  spring  centers  are  only  42  inches  apart. 

Rigid  driving-wheel  bases  of  passenger  engines  are  from  10  to  13  feet 
long;  of  common  freight  engines,  10  to  17  feet.  Longer  rigid  wheel 
bases  for  4  and  5  sets  of  drivers  are  most  destructive  to  curved  track. 

Simple  engines  and  two  cylinders  are  in  general  use.     Only  5  per 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     59 

cent,  of  all  locomotives  are  compound,  and  these  are  used  for  special 
conditions.  Two-cylinder  compounds  have  increased  the  economy  of 
fuel;  but  this  type  has  its  limitations  in  speed  and  power.  In  high- 
speed service,  compounds  are  not  economical,  and  are  seldom  used. 

Cylinder  diameters  are  so  proportioned  that,  at  80  per  cent,  cut-off 
and  with  a  25  per  cent,  coefficient  of  adhesion  between  the  rails  and  the 
weight  on  the  drivers,  the  steam  pressure  will  slip  the  drivers.  The 
length  of  the  stroke  is  26  to  34  inches,  the  longer  stroke  for  heavy  freight 
service,  the  26-inch  for  passenger  service. 

Cylinder  diameters  are  designed  for  sufficient  tractive  power.  Large 
cylinders,  often  compounded,  are  well  separated,  and  there  is  a  constant 
disturbance  of  the  locomotive  in  a  horizontal  plane  called  "  nosing " 
which  is  due  to  the  alternate  pressures  and  their  lever  arms. 

Designs  of  the  steam  locomotive  require  that  the  materials  and  the 
power  production  be  worked  to  the  highest  safe  limits.  The  character 
of  the  labor  must  be  considered.  Complication  is  not  tolerated.  Mechan- 
ical stokers,  coal  crushers,  feed-water  heaters,  superheaters,  fire-brick 
arches,  water-tube  boilers,  and  economizers,  which  are  desirable,  are  not 
used  on  ordinary  locomotives,  because  economy  of  space  and  simplicity 
are  essential.  Quickness  of  repairs  on  the  road  is  important.  Expenses 
of  maintenance  and  repairs  at  shop  must  be  a  minimum. 

Steam  locomotive  service  cannot  be  continuous.  Its  design  requires 
time  for  blowing  down,  cooling  off,  and  washing  out  the  boilers,  cleaning 
of  tubes,  adjusting  gear  of  machinery,  filling  the  boilers  and  the  coal 
and  water  tender,  and  waiting  for  fresh  fires. 

Stationary  engine  practice  cannot  be  used,  as  conditions  of  operation 
are  essentially  different.  In  the  locomotive  engine,  steam  passages 
cannot  be  short;  piston  and  port  clearance  volumes  cannot  be  small,  and 
compression  cannot  be  used  to  best  advantage  because,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  exhaust  nozzle  and  the  draft  required  govern  the  back  pressure. 

Steam  turbines,  which  are  now  the  motive  power  used  for  electric 
railroads,  have  characteristics  which  are  widely  different  from  engines. 
The  use  of  poppet  valves  avoids  loss  of  pressure,  superheat  prevents  con- 
densation on  the  cylindrical  walls,  and  a  high  vacuum  is  utilized  to  con- 
vert the  maximum  number  of  heat  units  into  work. 

Weight  is  prescribed,  in  the  design,  by  the  length  of  the  connected 
wheel  base  allowed  on  curves;  by  a  weight  of  20  to  28  tons  per  axle  to  be 
borne  by  the  rails;  and  by  a  weight  of  3  tons  per  linear  foot  of  track. 

Weight  efficiency,  as  shown  by  the  table  on  "Proportions  of  Modern 
Steam  Locomotives,"  is  from  7  to  10  h.  p.  per  ton.  Weight  efficiency  is 
particularly  low  on  large  steam  locomotives,  because  high  speeds  are  not 
possible  with  complicated  heavy  reciprocating  parts.  Mallet  designs 
with  four  cylinders  and  separated  trucks  distribute  the  weight. 


60  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Capacity  is  limited  by  design,  as  is  outlined  below : 

Driving  wheels  are  first  loaded  to  the  greatest  allowable  or  safe  weight 
the  rails  will  bear — about  90  tons  for  30-foot,  90-pound  rails,  or  about 
50,000  pounds  per  axle,  when  the  track  is  reinforced.  The  number  of 
drivers  is  generally  limited  to  4  pairs  in  freight  and  3  pairs  in  passenger 
engines.  Rigid  driving-wheel  bases  must  be  limited  to  13  feet  in  pas- 
senger engines,  and  17  feet  in  freight  engines  to  avoid  destructive  thrusts 
and  mounting  of  curves.  Driving  wheel  diameter  is  such  that  the 
reciprocating  machinery  will  not  work  at  a  higher  speed  than  600  to 
1300  feet  per  minute,  depending  upon  the  piston  weight  and  diameter. 

The  boiler  is  placed  above  and  clear  of  the  drivers;  yet  it  is  dangerous 
to  let  the  center  of  gravity  exceed  a  height  of  8.0  feet,  for  the  4.71-foot 
wheel  gage.  The  boiler  is  provided  with  enough  heating  surface,  in  its 
diameter  and  length,  to  supply  the  steam.  The  boiler  must  be  planned 
without  lengthening  the  wheel  base  beyond  the  permissible  limits  noted. 
About  150  Santa  Fe  special  freight  locomotives  use  19.5-foot  rigid  wheel 
bases,  with  close-coupled  drivers,  but  that  limit  exceeds  good  practice. 
Mallets  are  more  flexible,  and  use  10-  to  16-foot  rigid  wheel  bases. 

Grates  must  have  ample  size  to  burn  the  coal.  Fire-boxes  must  have 
ample  length  and  depth,  so  that  the  flames  will  be  kept  from  contact 
with  the  plates  until  some  part  of  the  combustion  is  completed.  Good 
design  of  fire-boxes  is  exceedingly  difficult  on  account  of  the  required 
support  and  shape,  and  the  expansion  and  warping.  The  track  gage 
is  not  wide  enough  for  good  proportions,  especially  where  large  boiler 
capacity  is  needed. 

Large  steam  locomotives  are  thus  hard  to  design,  and  are  often 
unsatisfactory.  The  failures  in  such  locomotives  multiply  as  the 
size  increases.  The  men  operating  the  complicated  moving  boiler  and 
engine  plant  are  not  sufficiently  skilled,  nor  can  they  give  the  machinery 
sufficient  attention.  Repairs  and  renewals  cannot  be  made  in  the  usual 
way,  with  jacks,  wedges,  and  chain  blocks. 

"The  time  out  of  service  and  the  repairs  per  1000  ton-miles  hauled  are  out  of 
direct  proportion  to  increased  weight.  Large  broken  castings  become  common. 
Leaky  flues  are  troublesome.  Its  own  extra  dead  weight,  with  coal  and  water  tender, 
must  be  propelled.  Two  firemen  become  necessary.  Condensed  steam  in  the  large 
cylinders  of  compounds  decreases  the  efficiency.  Compression  troubles  and  conden- 
sation demand  numerous  relief  valves.  Leaks  surround  the  engine  with  clouds, 
which  are  annoying  and  dangerous.  The  large  locomotive  boiler  is  wrong  in  principle." 
Railway  Age,  April  3,  1903. 

"The  men  in  charge  of  the  railways  in  this  country  have  struggled  for  nearly 
15  years  with  the  greatest  problem  of  our  times,  how  to  move  a  load  whose  weight 
increases  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  a  year  with  a  locomotive  whose  power  increases  at 
about  21/2  per  cent,  a  year.  The  limit  of  safe,  speedy,  and  reasonable  service  with 
existing  facilities  has  been  reached."  J.  J.  Hill  to  Kansas  City  Commercial  Club, 
Nov.,  1907. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES     61 

Heating  surface  of  locomotives  for  switching  and  local  passenger 
service  ordinarily  varies  from  1200  to  1500  square  feet;  for  ordinary 
passenger  and  express  service  from  1500  to  2500;  for  heavy  passenger 
and  way-freight,  from  2200  to  2500;  for  heaviest  passenger  and  heavy 
freight,  from  2500  to  3200;  for  steep  grades,  from  3200  to  3500;  for 
mountain  grade  service,  and  as  pushers,  from  3500  to  8000  square  feet. 

Total  equivalent  heating  surface  is  based  on  the  tube  and  plate  heating  surface, 
plus  11/2  times  the  superheating  surface. 

The  horse  power  of  a  steam  locomotive,  the  grade  of  coal  and  the 
design  being  fixed,  depends  upon  the  boiler  heating  surface. 

The  torque,  or  the  tractive  force  at  the  rim  of  the  drivers,  or  the 
drawbar  pull  plus  the  pull  for  the  engine  friction,  expressed  in  pounds, 
is  proportional  to  the  product  of  the  steam  pressure  of  the  boiler,  in 
pounds  per  square  inch,  P;  the  ratio  of  mean-effective  pressure  to  boiler 
pressure,  Y;  the  cross-sectional  area  of  one  cylinder,  in  square  inches, 
0.7854  X  D2;  and  the  length  of  piston  stroke,  in  inches,  L;  divided  by  the 
diameter  of  the  drivers,  in  inches,  W. 

The  running  drawbar  pull,  or  torque,  for  the  locomotive  and  train  is 

FXPX£>2X.7854X£X4      Y 
3.14XW 

The  maximum  drawbar   pull,   or  tractive   force,   or   torque,   is 
Y  XPXD2XL/W,  in  pounds.     The  variable  Y,  at  slowest  speeds,  is 
about  .80  of  the  boiler  pressure,  and  at  highest  speeds,  is  from  .30  to 
.20  of  the  boiler  pressure.     The  reciprocating  pressure  from  the  several 
pistons  furnishes  a  variable  tractive  effort. 

Reference:  Carpenter:     Railway  Age  Gazette,  Jan.  28,  1910. 

The  maximum  drawbar  pull,  by  design,  is  made  equal  to  about  25 
per  cent,  of  the  weight  on  drivers,  assuming  good  conditions,  and  sand. 
The  draft  gear  of  the  cars  in  a  train,  in  common  practice,  is  limited  in 
strength  to  about  45,000  pounds.  Articulated  Mallet  compounds,  which 
may  exert  70,000  pounds  drawbar  pull  as  a  maximum  and  50,000  pounds 
at  very  slow  speed,  are  generally  used  as  pushers. 

The  piston  speed,  in  feet  per  minute,  is  simply 


Horse  power,  or  rate  of  work,  of  steam  locomotives  is  generally  com- 
puted on  the  basis  of  12  pounds  of  steam  per  hour  per  square  foot  of 
boiler  heating  surface,  and  28  pounds  of  steam  per  indicated  h.  p.  hr. 
Horse  power  =  0.43  X  square  feet  of  heating  surface.  Goss. 


62  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Horse  power  is  always  the  product  of  the  pull  or  push,  in  pounds, 
times  the  speed,  in  feet  per  minute,  divided  by  33,000. 

_Pull  X  F.P.M._Pu\l  X  5280_Pull  X  M.P.H. 

~33,000         ~  33,000X60  '          375 

Indicated  horse  power  of  two  simple  cylinders  is  the  product  of  the 
mean  effective  steam  pressure,  Y  times  P,  in  pounds;  area  of  one  piston 
face,  in  square  inches,  D2X0.785;  length  of  the  stroke,  in  inches,  L; 
strokes  per  revolution,  4;  number  of  revolutions  of  the  drivers  per  minute, 
divided  by  33,000. 

H.P.  =  F  XP  X£>2  XO .  785  X -^  X  4  X  R'P'M'   (Do  not  reduce.) 

\2i  33,000 

OPERATING  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Furnace  conditions  in  locomotive  boilers  are  such  that  combustion  is 
not  perfect.  Hydrocarbons  which  are  distilled  from  the  coal  by  the 
furnace  heat  ignite,  and  the  carbon  in  the  flame  combines  with  the  oxygen 
and  becomes  an  invisible  gas,  provided  there  is  a  fraction  of  a  second  in 
which  combustion  may  be  completed;  but  in  a  locomotive  furnace  the 
time  is  short,  and  the  distance  from  the  coal  to  the  steel  is  short,  and  these 
carbon  particles  in  the  flame,  with  a  temperature  of  about  2000°  F., 
come  in  contact  with  the  relatively  cold  fire-box  plates  and  the  tubes; 
and  cooled  carbon  cannot  unite  with  oxygen,  but  passes  out  of  the 
stack  as  black  smoke. 

Fire-brick  arches  over  the  furnace  steady  the  furnace  temperature, 
prevent  flame  contact  with  the  steel,  and  improve  the  combustion  of  the 
gases;  but  they  are  seldom  used,  because  they  require  water  tubes  which 
fill  with  mud,  burst,  and  kill  firemen;  and  the  arches  are  in  the  way, 
interfering  with  flue  repairs.  Fire-brick  arches  are  smoke  preventers; 
they  decrease  the  warping  in  the  furnace,  and  reduce  the  tube  failures. 

Lake  Shore  Railroad  is  almost  alone  among  the  railroads  in  having  nearly  all  of 
its  locomotives,  including  switch  engines,  fitted  with  fire-brick  arches.  Its  success 
is  largely  due  to  the  use  of  brick  in  small  units,  supported  on  arch  tubes,  these  tubes 
being  kept  clean  by  a  hydraulic  tube  cleaner.  The  Lake  Shore  Railroad  has  demon- 
strated beyond  a  doubt  the  advantages  of  these  arches.  The  estimated  saving  in 
fuel  per  annum  amounts  to  a  half-million  dollars,  in  addition  to  a  large  saving  which 
is  due  to  reduction  in  tube  repairs.  The  life  of  the  arch,  in  passenger  engines,  averages 
one  month,  in  freight  engines  11/2  months,  and  in  switching  engines  4  to  5  months. 
Consult :  Ry.  Age,  March  4, 1910,  p.  504 ;  June  2, 1911,  p.  1264 ;  Sci.  Ame.,  April  24, 1909. 

Smokeless  operation  of  furnaces,  by  stokers  or  by  hand  firing,  requires  a  some- 
what uniform  load;  yet  on  a  locomotive  the  load  is  most  variable.  Mechanical 
stokers  feed  coal  with  regularity,  but  require  much  space  and  for  ordinary  locomotives 
are  complicated.  With  hand  firing,  the  coal  is  carried  and  is  thrown  too  far  for 
efficient  distribution;  and  air  holes  and  chilled  furnace  gases  are  common.  The 
smoke  nuisance,  caused  by  these  furnace  conditions  in  modern  heavy  service,  is  an 
uneconomical  feature. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  63 

High  rates  of  evaporation  are  required.  The  coal  consumption  with 
the  maximum  continued  rate  of  serving  runs  up  to  200  pounds  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  per  square  foot  of  grate  per  hour;  and  the  actual  water  then 
evaporated  is  about  4.5  pounds  per  pound  of  coal,  while  with  economical 
rates  of  firing,  the  ratio  is  increased  to  6.4  pounds,  or  42  per  cent.  The 
economy  decreases  as  the  rate  of  work  increases. 

The  water  evaporated  per  pound  of  best  Illinois  coal,  with  12,000 
B.  t.  u.,  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour  in  modern  steam  loco- 
motives, is  given  below,  in  a  table  based  on  average  results  with  feed 
water  at  about  60°  F.,  evaporated  into  steam  at  200  pounds  pressure. 

COAL  CONSUMPTION  AND  EVAPORATION  RATIO. 


Rate  of  consumption. 

Coal  per 
square  ft.  of 
grate  per  hour. 

Ratio  of 

evaporation. 

Actual. 

From  and  at. 

Maximum  rate 

200  Ibs 

4.50 

4.85 
5.33 
6.00 
6.40 
7.00 
to  8.00 

5 
5 
6 

7 
7 
8 
to  10 

46 
90 
47 

28 
77 
50 
00 

High  rate  

160 

Ordinary  rate  
Average  rate 

100 

80 
65 
60 

Economical  rate  

Central  power-plants  rate  .... 

With  high  rates  of  evaporation,  particularly  with  foaming  waters,  low 
water  is  carried  in  the  boiler  to  prevent  an  excess  of  water  and  spray 
from  reaching  the  cylinders. 

Heat  radiation  from  about  500  square  feet  of  the  external  boiler  sur- 
face of  a  moving  boiler,  about  one-third  of  which  can  be  lagged  with 
mineral  wool,  requires  60  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  in  the  mildest  weather. 
Much  fuel  is  consumed  while  coasting  and  stopping,  but  particularly 
while  waiting.  Freight  locomotive  records,  which  have  been  averaged 
for  several  divisions,  show  that  30  per  cent,  of  the  time  is  spent  in  waiting. 
Cold  weather  increases  the  pounds  of  coal  used  per  ton-mile,  a  large  part 
of  which  may  be  accounted  for  by  radiation.  Condensation  on  the 
cylinder  walls  and  piston  rods  also  increases  rapidly  in  winter. 

Stand-by  losses  require  that  each  boiler,  nearly  full  of  hot  water,  be 
blown  off  daily,  and  heat  is  wasted.  The  tubes  are  then  washed  out  and 
cleaned.  Firing-up  requires  500  pounds  of  coal  in  small  locomotives, 
800  in  medium,  and  from  1,200  to  1,600  in  the  largest  locomotives.  An 
engine  does  not  go  into  service  when  the  boiler  is  up  to  full  pressure,  for 
the  train  dispatcher  prefers  to  have  many  locomotives  ready  for  service. 
While  waiting,  the  coal  burned  may  equal  the  coal  utilized  for  the  run. 


64  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Weather  ratings,  or  relative  tonnage  hauled  by  locomotives,  vary. 
The  table  used  by  the  Great  Northern  Railway  follows: 

Temperature  between  25°  and  0° 100  per  cent. 

Very  frosty  or  wet;  25°  to  5°  above  zero 90  per  cent. 

5°  above  to   10°  below  zero 80  per  cent. 

10°  below  and   colder,  and  not  windy 75  per  cent. 

Capacity  is  decreased  by  the  chilled  furnace,  radiation  of  heat,  con- 
densation of  steam,  increased  friction,  etc.  See  data  by  Henderson, 
page  82,  on  "Pounds  of  Coal  per  1000  Ton-miles." 

Operation  of  locomotive  boilers  and  engines  depends  primarily  upon 
the  attendants.  The  complicated  machinery  may  not  get  proper  atten- 
tion from  the  engineman  and  fireman.  They  are  occupied  with  the 
combustion  of  fuel,  the  production  of  mechanical  power,  the  care  of  the 
reciprocating  mechanism,  and  the  heed  which  must,  as  a  matter  of  safety, 
be  given  to  the  track  and  signals.  Reliability  of  service  takes  precedence 
over  both  economy  of  operation  and  careful  attention  to  machinery.  A 
locomotive  that  cannot  be  operated  successfully  by  an  ordinary  engine- 
man,  is  not  adapted  to  common  train  service. 

Unbalanced  forces  from  common  drivers  are  large.  The  horizontal 
reciprocating  forces,  which  vary  from  6  to  10  tons  per  piston,  and  the 
weight  of  the  rods,  cross  head,  and  wrist  pin  may  be  neutralized  by  a 
counterbalance.  The  centrifugal  force,  however,  acting  on  the  counter- 
weight, varies  as  the  square  of  the  speed,  and  produces  a  violent  unbal- 
anced vertical  force,  which,  when  the  speed  is  high,  may  cause  the  wheels 
to  first  deliver  a  terrific  blow  on  the  rails,  followed  by  a  tendency  to  lift 
from  the  rails  at  every  revolution.  The  centrifugal  forces  at  maximum 
speed  must  not  exceed  80  per  cent,  of  the  weight  on  the  rail,  or  the  wheels 
will  not  be  maintained  solidly  on  the  rail.  The  counter-balance  in  the 
drivers  can  be  suited  to  but  one  speed.  Track  pounding  necessarily 
results. 

Balanced  locomotives  are  worthy  of  much  consideration  because  of 
the  decreased  track  maintenance,  increased  safety,  and  greater  allowable 
rail  pressure  per  wheel.  Cranks  in  the  middle  of  the  driving  axle  are 
objectionable.  Few  balanced  locomotives  are  used,  because,  with  the 
limited  space  for  the  crank  axle  the  design  is  difficult.  See  Walker,  on 
Compensated  Locomotives,  Ry.  Age,  Aug.  14,  1908. 

American  Locomotive  Company  has  recently  built  many  100-ton  Atlantic 
engines  with  four  simple,  or  four  compound  cylinders,  arranged  on  the  balanced 
principle.  The  crank  axle  is  the  front  driver  axle.  This  type  of  engine  has  been 
selected  by  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Railroad  for  high-speed  passenger 
work,  because  it  is  easier  on  track  and  bridges..  Atkinson,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  uses 
171  balanced  4-cylinder  compounds.  See  Ry.  Age,  Dec.  23,  1910;  Jan.  7,  1911. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  65 

Track  destruction  of  roadbed  and  bridges  is  not  caused  by  the  loads 
from  the  many  heavy  steel  cars.  It  is  caused  largely  by  unbalanced 
forces  of  locomotives,  combined  with  excessive  weight,  concentration  of 
weight,  rigid  wheel  bases,  and  nosing.  Track  pounding  wastes  power; 
it  destroys  special  work;  it  produces  broken  rails.  The  terrific  reaction 
and  the  vibration  rack  the  engine  frame  as  well  as  the  roadbed.  Broken 
driver  axles  and  crank  shafts  frequently  cause  wrecks.  Locomotive 
weight  per  horse  power  is  excessive,  and  it  is  generally  concentrated. 
Engines  with  a  long,  rigid  wheel  base  are  hardest  on  curves;  the  oiled 
flanges  of  drivers  wear  rapidly,  while  flanges  of  car  wheels  wear  slowly. 
Nosing  of  engines,  caused  by  an  alternating  force  of  many  tons  from 
Steam  pressure  on  the  piston,  and  the  leverage  from  the  widely  spread 
cylinders,  on  each  side  of  the  locomotive,  is  also  destructive,  for  it  loosens 
the  spikes,  spreads  the  rails,  and  is  a  source  of  danger  in  transportation. 

Friction  losses  of  steam  locomotives  are  caused  by  the  wear  of  heavy 
reciprocating  pistons,  rings,  rods,  cross  heads,  valve  gear,  and  connecting 
links.  The  wear  of  valves  and  cylinders  is  excessive,  both  because  of 
lack  of  lubrication  and  because -of  scaly  and  foaming  water. 

"Even  with  a  good  means  of  supplying  lubricant,  there  appears  to  be 
a  high  percentage  of  the  power  of  a  locomotive  engine  using  high- 
pressure  steam  absorbed  in  overcoming  internal  resistance."  Sinclair. 

"  The  internal  friction  of  the  simple  locomotive  cylinders  is  equivalent 
to  3.8  pounds  mean-effective  pressure."  Goss.  This  is  a  large  part  of 
the  total  mean-effective  steam  pressure.  Seven  per  cent,  is  allowed  for 
the  internal  friction  of  compound  locomotives, -and  more,  when  superheat 
is  attempted.  Friction  in  Mallet  compounds,  in  practice,  is  such  that  a 
Mallet  without  steam  will  not  drift  in  going  down  a  1.2  per  cent,  grade,  or 
the  friction  exceeds  24  pounds  per  ton.  Great  Northern  Railway  252-ton 
Mallets,  used  in  pushing  service  on  the  Cascade  Division,  will  not  drift 
down  a  steeper  grade. 

The  power  required  to  propel  the  simple  steam  locomotive  is  large, 
because  the  weight,  internal  friction,  and  head-end  resistance  are 
excessive.  Note  the  following: 

"  Aspinwall  found  that  the  10-wheeled  locomotive  with  tender  absorbed 
32  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  of  the  train.  Mr.  W.  M.  Smith  has  given  the 
result  of  his  experiments  as  about  36  per  cent,  of  the  total  power;  and 
Mr.  Druit  Halpin  has  found  that  the  engine  and  tender  on  the  Eastern 
Railway  of  France  absorbed  57  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  developed; 
Dr.  P.  H.  Dudley  gave  it  as  55  per  cent.;  Mr.  Barbier  as  48  per  cent. 
These  figures  appear  much  too  high.  Probably  35  per  cent,  is  a  proper 
allowance  for  ordinary  trains,  the  actual  figures  depending  upon  the  speed, 
the  wheel  base,  the  unbalanced  effort,  the  service,  and  the  load  behind 
the  engine  and  its  coal  and  water  tender."  Inst.  of  C.  E.,  1901,  p.  197. 
5 


66 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


LABORATORY  TEST  ON  FRICTION  OF  ATLANTIC  TYPE  LOCOMOTIVE 

Cylinders,  20^x26;  drivers  80-inch;  weight  on  drivers  55  tons ;  heating  surf  ace 
2320  sq.  ft.     Test  by  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  1910. 


Rev. 

Piston 

Miles 

Drawbar 

Cyl- 

Draw- 

Loss   in 

Steam 

per 

speed 

per 

pull 

inder 

bar 

friction 

per 

rnin. 

f.p.m. 

hour. 

pounds. 

h.p. 

h.p. 

h.p. 

i.h.p.h. 

0 

0                0 

22,000 

0 

0 

0 

80 

346 

19.0 

16,768 

940 

850 

90 

32.3 

120 

520 

28.5 

12,384 

1075 

940 

135 

28.0 

1GO 

694 

38.0 

9,602 

1150 

975 

175 

26.3 

200 

866 

47.6 

7,894 

1220 

1000 

220 

24.9 

240 

1040 

57.0 

6,428 

1240 

975 

265 

24.4 

280 

1213 

66.5 

5,325           1250 

945 

305 

24.0 

Machine  friction,  with  oil  lubrication  of  driver  axle  bearings,  was  fairly  uniform, 
and  was  equal  to  about  1687  pounds  drawbar  pull. 

ROAD  TEST  ON  FRICTION  OF  PACIFIC  TYPE  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Cylinders,  22x28;  drivers,  79-inch;  weight  on  drivers,  80  tons;  rigid  driver- 
wheel  base,  17  feet.  Test  by  New  York  Central  Railroad,  1909. 

Friction  of  mechanism  and  head  air  resistance  of  a  Pacific  type  locomotive  on 
the  "Twentieth  Century  Limited"  was  tested  with  the  following  results: 

A  5-car,  315-ton  train,  at  70  m.  p.  h.  required  3617  pounds  tractive  effort  or 
11.5  pounds  per  ton  for  the  cars,  and  4551  pounds  or  22.7  pounds  per  ton  for  the 
200-ton,  22x28  locomotive. 

An  8-car,  505-ton  train  at  62  m.  p.  h.  required  4950  pounds  or  9 . 8  pounds  per  ton 
for  the  cars,  and  4055  pounds  or  20.3  pounds  per  ton  for  the  locomotive. 

A  9-car,  564-ton  train  at  60  m.  p.  h.  required  5335  pounds  or  9.5  pounds  per  ton 
for  the  cars  and  3959  pounds  or  19.8  pounds  per  ton  for  the  locomotive;  in  other 
words,  about  twice  as  much  per  ton  for  the  locomotive  as  for  the  cars. 

Pacific  type  locomotives  on  New  York  Central  "Twentieth  Century  Limited" 
trains  in  1911  show  the  following: 

Boiler  combustion  chamber  4  feet  long;  heating  surface,  tubes  and  fire-box,  2915 
square  feet,  superheating  tubes  493  square  feet,  total  equivalent  heating  surface 
3655  square  feet.  Center  of  boiler  above  the  rails,  9  feet,  9  inches.  Driving-wheel 
base,  14  feet.  Cylinders,  simple,  22x28.  Drivers,  79  inches. 

Boiler  pressure  205  pounds,  dry  pipe  pressure  185  pounds,  steam  chest  pressure 
170  pounds,  drop  in  pressure  thru  superheater  15  pounds,  superheat  185°  F. 

Weight  of  locomotive  212  tons,  of  engine  131  tons,  on  drivers  85  tons.  Trailing 
load  7  steel  Pullman  cars,  443  tons;  weight  of  locomotive,  32  per  cent,  of  total 
weight;  speed  on  level,  60  miles  per  hour.  Ry.  Age,  March  31>  1911,  pp.  785  to  795. 

Speed  of  trains  is  limited  by  the  heating  surface  of  the  boiler.  The 
power  developed  by  the  cylinders  is  restricted,  because  the  rate  of  steam 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  67 

generation  is  fixed.  The  tractive  effort  cannot  be  maintained  as  the 
speed  increases.  The  mechanical  power  developed  is  a  minimum  on 
the  heavy  grades,  because  of  the  low  cylinder  efficiency  with  half  cut- 
offs; while  it  is  at  a  maximum  on  the  level,  or  for  light  loads,  and  at  high 
speed,  as  is  explained  later.  A  constant  rate  of  steam  being  available, 
speed  is  to  be  increased  only  when  the  drawbar  pull  is  decreased. 

About  60  m.  p.  h.  is  the  limit  with  a  Pacific  type  locomotive,  with 
tender,  weighing  200  tons,  and  a  train  of  6  modern  55-ton  steel  coaches. 

American  Railway  Engineering  Association  constants  for  resistance  of  a  steam 
locomotive  with  125  square  feet  of  cross- section,  at  60  m.  p.  h.,  show: 

Head  end  or  air  resistance  R  =  .002V2A,  or  900  pounds. 

Internal  friction  between  cylinder  and  drivers,  R  =  18.7  T  +  SOX  or  1830 
pounds. 

Engine  and  tender  truck  resistance  is  R  =  2.6  TT  +  20  XX,  or  720  pounds. 

Total  resistance  of  locomotive  at  60  m.  p.  h.  is  3450  pounds;  or  550  h.  p.  is  re- 
quired for  the  minimum  friction  of  the  locomotive.  It  increases  greatly  in  winter. 

The  tractive  resistance  of  six  55-ton  coaches  at  10  pounds  per  ton  is  3300  pounds; 
and  the  total  resistance  of  the  train  is  6750  pounds.  At  60  miles  per  hour,  the  train 
then  requires  1080  h.  p.  On  a  very  light  gradient,  10.5  feet  per  mile,  or  0.2  per  cent., 
the  resistance  due  to  the  grade  is  2120  pounds.  The  total  h.  p.  is  then  1420. 
This  requires  at  least  1420/0.43  or  3300  square  feet  of  heating  surface. 

A  locomotive  with  greater  heating  surface  increases  rapidly  in  weight  of  engine 
and  of  coal  and  water  tender,  and  cannot  propel  a  train  at  a  higher  speed. 

Limitations  are  also  imposed  at  high  speed  by  the  valve  and  the  valve  gear  which 
allow  only  a  small  volume  of  steam  to  get  into  the  cylinder  and  cause  a  high  back 
pressure  in  getting  the  steam  out  thru  the  exhaust  nozzle. 

Reference:   Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Editorial  and  data,  Dec.  24,  1909;   Nov.  11,  1910. 

Mechanical  strains  in  the  boilers  are  interesting.  Frames  can  hardly 
be  made  strong  enough.  The  boiler,  with  all  its  bracing  and  binding, 
is  not  self-sustaining.  With  varying  track  alignment,  it  yields  from  its 
own  weight  and  from  the  cylinder  strains.  Where  the  belly  braces  are 
riveted  to  the  barrel  of  the  boiler,  the  sheets  around  the  edge  of  the 
rivets  become  grooved,  because  of  continual  motion.  This  chafing  at 
the  braces  of  boilers  indicates  the  resistance  offered  to  mechanical  strains. 
Braces  must  be  more  or  less  yielding.  Shocks,  collisions,  and  ordinary 
bumps  are  harder  on  the  boiler  than  on  the  engine  and  frames. 

Temperature  strains  in  the  furnace  and  boiler  cause  unequal  expan- 
sion and  contraction,  which  are  of  a  serious  nature.  The  steam  pressure 
in  the  boiler  varies  daily  from  zero  to  a  maximum. 

Locomotive  repairs  are  of  a  particular  nature.  Mechanical  vibration 
at  high  speeds  destroys  the  metal  by  fatigue  and  crystallization.  Temper- 
ature strains  are  destructive.  Fire-box  repairs,  caused  by  excessive 
temperature  strains,  always  increase  radically  in  winter.  Stay  bolts  are 
broken  by  the  constant  bending  backward  and  forward,  from  the  differ- 


68  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

ence  in  expansion  between  the  shell  sheets  and  the  fire-box.  They  are 
the  most  expensive  and  troublesome  things  about  the  boiler.  Broken 
stay  bolts,  combined  with  low  water  and  hot  crowns,  are  the  most  pro- 
lific cause  of  explosions. 

Tube  troubles  are  caused  by  temperature  strains  and  by  incrustation 
and  corrosion  from  bad  and  varying  waters.  The  scale  formed  is  fre- 
quently of  a  hard,  strong,  porcelain  nature,  and  lowers  the  boiler  efficiency 
and  capacity.  The  scale  must  be  washed  out  after  each  500-mile  run. 
The  use  of  soft  water,  during  rainy  seasons,  or  at  other  times,  and  the 
use  of  compounds  loosen  the  scale,  which  may  lodge  and  fill  the  space 
between  the  tubes,  or  on  the  lower  tubes,  to  their  disadvantage.  Corro- 
sion from  compounds  and  acidulated  water  reduce  the  strength  of  mate- 
rials and  cause  leaky  tubes.  Bad  water  west  of  the  Mississippi  River 
appreciably  increases  the  cost  of  maintenance. 

General  overhauling  in  the  back  shop  is  required  of  modern  freight 
locomotives  about  every  60,000  miles,  and  of  passenger  locomotives 
about  every  80,000  miles,  during  which  200  to  300  flues,  about  0.12  inch 
thick,  are  removed,  cleaned,  and  renewed,  and  the  stay  bolts  renewed. 

The  nature  of  these  operating  facts  is  of  importance. 

"Repairs  of  large  engines  are  usually  very  expensive.  Their  fire-box  plates  are 
so  severely  tried  by  the  fierce  combustion,  and  by  expansion  and  contraction,  as  to 
require  frequent  renewal.  Strenuous  endeavors  are  made  to  secure  the  best  material 
for  this  purpose,  yet  a  sheet  has  been  known  to  show  more  than  150  cracks  after  a 
short  service.  Also,  the  great  weight  of  the  reciprocating  parts  aggravates  the 
destructive  effect  of  a  lack  of  balance  in  those  parts,  and  consequently  these  monsters 
soon  pound  flat  places  in  the  tires  of  drivers,  and  must  be  sent  to  the  shop  to  have 
those  defects  turned  off."  E.  E.  Woodman. 

"  Running  repairs  of  compound  locomotives  have  cost  nearly  double  as  much  as 
the  simple  engines  per  mile;  also  by  spending  so  much  time  in  the  shop  their  annual 
mileage  is  very  much  less.  This  must  not  be  thought  to  apply  to  all  compounds, 
but  as  a  general  proposition  it  indicates  the  value  of  simplicity  in  minimizing  the 
cost  of  repairs."  Henderson. 

"Few  master  mechanics  are  satisfied  with  the  performance  of  large  cylinder 
locomotives,  the  complaint  being  heard  on  all  sides  that  they  are  not  nearly  so  good 
for  their  inches  as  smaller  engines."  "The  steam  ports  are  seldom  proportionately 
as  large.  A  serious  proportion  of  the  added  power  is  lost  by  friction.  A  great  por- 
tion of  the  steam  is  condensed  by  the  increase  of  cylinder  area.  Rubbing  surface 
in  a  cylinder  induces  a  greater  friction  and  causes  much  greater  internal  resistance 
than  any  other  part  of  the  engine,  except  the  slide  valve,  consequently  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  reduce  this  surface."  Sinclair. 

Opinions  of  many  operators  affirm  these  facts. 

The  writer  advocates  large  locomotives  with  compounding  and  super- 
heat. It  is  true  that  the  large  locomotives  are  unsatisfactory,  that 
the  large  compounds,  of  some  types,  are  hard  to  keep  out  of  the  shop, 
that  superheat  increases  the  valve  and  engine  friction,  and  that  the  main- 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  69 

tenance  expense  per  mile  is  greater  in  proportion  to  the  weight  and 
hauling  capacity  than  with  smaller  locomotives;  but  the  transportation 
department  is  getting  the  freight  hauled  at  a  lower  cost  per  ton-mile. 

Condensation  in  the  cylinders  is  evident  because  the  hyperbolic  curve 
of  expansion  is  not  followed.  The  refrigerating  influence  of  the  cylinder 
walls  and  of  the  exposed  piston  rod  is  large.  Steam  jacketing  is  imprac- 
ticable, and  good  lagging  is  only  a  partial  preventive.  The  cylinder  acts 
first  as  a  condenser  and  then  as  a  re-vaporizer  of  steam. 

The  discovery  that  the  great  difference  between  the  weight  of  water 
fed  into  the  boiler  and  the  weight  of  the  steam  accounted  for  by  the  indi- 
cator card,  a  difference  which  is  due  to  the  weight  of  the  steam  condensed, 
is  accredited  to  Isherwood. 

"  Leading  engineers,  who  have  devoted  much  attention  to  investi- 
gating the  extent  of  cylinder  condensation,  have  shown  that,  in  engines 
cutting  off  steam  earlier  than  half-stroke,  the  loss  from  cylinder  conden- 
sation is  seldom  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  all  the  steam  entering  the  cylinders, 
and  that  it  often  rises  to  50  per  cent,  and  upward."  Sinclair. 

Superheat  reduces  the  cylinder  condensation,  and,  while  it  requires 
additional  coal,  ultimately  increases  the  economy  of  fuel.  Superheat  is 
advantageous  on  long,  steady  runs  and  on  long,  steep  up-grades.  The 
advantage  is  small  for  runs  composed  of  up-  and  down-gradients,  or  on 
runs  with  frequent  stops.  Capacity  may  be  gained  to  haul  heavier  loads 
on  mountain  grades. 

Superheat  requires  piston  valves,  to  prevent  excessive  warping,  fric- 
tion, and  cutting,  which,  in  simple  engines,  rapidly  increase  the  leakage 
thru  the  valves  and  past  the  main  pistons,  and  therefore  increases  the 
coal  consumption. 

Reference:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Jan.  20,  1911,  p.  110. 

Superheat  on  compound  locomotives  is  advantageous;  but  it  causes 
greater  friction  in  the  larger  cylinders,  and,  in  common  operation,  radically 
increases  delays  and  maintenance  expense.  A  gain  is  made  with  super- 
heat by  lowering  the  steam  pressure  to  decrease  the  radiation,  but  the 
weight  and  friction  of  heavy  reciprocating  pistons  are  thereby  increased. 
Superheating  is  desirable,  and  with  temperatures  of  560  to  660°  F., 
gains  are  being  made  in  economy. 

Steam  consumption  per  indicated  h.p.  hour  for  simple  engines 
which  are  new  or  in  good  condition  averages  about  30  pounds;  for  simple 
engines  in  ordinary  conditions  it  is  about  36  pounds.  When  the  locomo- 
tive furnace,  boiler,  and  cylinder  are  chilled  in  cold  weather  and  on  over- 
loads or  underloads,  the  steam  consumption  increases  rapidly.  In  a 
pamphlet  recently  issued  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  Mr.  W.  P. 
Evans  gives  some  figures  relating  to  actual  efficiency  of  modern  locomo- 


70  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

tives,  and  calls  attention  to  the  improved  economy  of  4-cylinder  com- 
pound locomotives. 

"The  weight  of  steam  per  h.p.  hour,  for  the  single-expansion  engine, 
is  34.12  pounds,  and  for  the  balanced  compound,  29.2  pounds,  represent- 
ing a  saving  of  17  per  cent.  The  other  important  improvement  in  loco- 
motives is  superheating,  which  is  claimed  to  have  saved,  in  freight 
service,  26.7  per  cent.,  and  in  passenger  service,  22.8  per  cent.,  according 
to  a  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  test." 

St.  Louis  Exposition  tests  of  1906,  in  a  building,  showed  better 
results;  and,  for  slow-speed  service,  a  gain  was  shown  by  compounding. 

An  average  consumption  of  about  10  pounds  of  steam  per  h.p.  hour  is 
obtained  with  steam  turbines. 

Economy  of  coal  cannot  be  attained  in  locomotive  practice.  The 
ordinary  use  of  coal  shows  an  enormous  waste.  The  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  thru  its  technologic  branch,  has  conducted  many  tests  on  loco- 
motives to  determine  how  the  waste  in  operation  could  be  avoided. 
Prof.  W.  F.  M.  Goss  reported,  November,  1909,  in  Bulletin  402,  that  20 
per  cent,  of  the  total  coal  production  of  the  country,  costing  the  railroads 
$170,500,000  per  year,  was  used  by  51,000  steam  locomotives.  The 
following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  government  report : 

COAL  WASTE  BY  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Coal.  Tons.  P.C. 


The  locomotive  coal  used  in  1906  was  
Lost  through  heat  in  gases  from  the  stacks  . 

90,000,000 
10  080  000 

100.0 
11  2 

Lost  through  cinders  and  sparks. 

8  640  000 

9  6 

Lost  through  radiation  and  leakage  

5,040,000 

5.6 

Lost  through  unconsumed  coal  in  ashes  . 

2  880  000 

3  2 

Lost  through  incomplete  combustion  of  gases  
Used  in  starting  fires,  keeping  hot,  standing  at  sidings  

720,000 
18,000,000 

.8 
20.0 

Total  losses  and  waste 

45  360  000 

50  4 

Used  for  hauling  trains  

44,640,000 

49  6 

Professor  Goss  thus  shows  that  one-half  of  the  coal  is  wasted.  He 
suggests  small  improvements,  such  as  increased  grate  area,  brick  arches, 
greater  care  in  selecting  fuel,  less  loss  of  fuel  by  dropping  thru  grates,  and 
more  skilled  firing. 

11  Locomotive  boilers  are  handicapped  by  the  requirements  that  the 
boiler  and  all  its  appurtenances  must  come  within  rigidly  defined  limits 
of  space,  and  by  the  fact  that  they  are  forced  to  work  at  very  high  rates 
of  power." 

11  Future  progress  cannot  be  rapid  or  easy,  and  must  be  from  a  series 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  71 

of  relatively  small  savings,  which,  if  made  by  a  large  proportion  of  the 
locomotives  of  the  country,  would  constitute  an  important  factor  in  the 
conservatism  of  the  nation's  fuel  supply." 

Load  factor  of  steam  locomotives  is  low,  and  as  a  direct  result  econ- 
omy of  coal  is  low.  Boilers  have  fairly  good  efficiency;  but  the  engines  have 
that  economy  which  is  usual  with  prime  movers  having  small  limits  of 
expansion,  large  clearance  and  condensation,  and  an  efficient  load  for 
25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  hours  in  service. 


SPEED-TORQUE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  speed-torque  characteristics  of  steam  locomotives  are  seldom 
referred  to  in  text-books  on  steam  locomotives.  The  information  herein 
presented  was  obtained  at  first  hand  from  indicator  diagrams,  operating 
data,  dynamometer  records,  reports  on  locomotive  tests,  and  from  master 
mechanics  and  superintendents  of  motive  power  of  steam  roads.  The 
data  represent  averages,  yet  may  be  readily  modified  for  local  conditions. 


FIG.  22. — STUDY  OF  INDICATOR  CARDS  OF  SIMPLE  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Cards  1-8  were  taken  during  the  passenger  locomotive  test,  noted  below.  The  lower  card,  116,  is 
from  an  indicator  card  taken  at  one  end  of  the  cylinder  during  the  first  three  revolutions  while  a 
20x32  freight  locomotive  was  starting. 


72 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Characteristics  are  studied  and  compared  by  means  of  curves  which 
show  how  speed,  torque,  and  power  vary  with  respect  to  each  other. 
(The  relation  of  time  to  speed,  known  as  acceleration  curves,  are 
important  in  a  study  of  suburban  service,  but  relatively  unimportant 
in  main-line  railroad  work.) 

Speed-torque  curves  show  the  results  obtained  from  the  steam  after 
it  leaves  the  boiler,  and  they  are  of  fundamental  importance. 

Indicator  diagrams  furnish  a  record  of  the  action  of  steam  in  the 
locomotive  cylinder.  Many  of  the  features  of  the  indicator  diagram  of 
the  steam  locomotive  are  due  to  the  variable  speed  requirements,  and 
the  limitations  of  space  between  the  rail  gage  lines  and  within  the  rigid 
wheel  base.  Economy  of  material,  and  maximum  capacity  within  a 
given  space,  are  essential.  A  complete  and  simple  power  equipment, 
suitable  for  hard  and  reliable  service,  is  the  first  necessity. 

TEST  OF  A  SIMPLE  ENGINE. 

Locomotive  weight,  including  a  50-ton  tender,  130  tons.  Cylinders,  20x26 
inches.  Drivers,  80  inches.  Heating  surface,  3016  square  feet.  Load,  a  450-ton 
all-coach  passenger  train. 


Cvlinder  pressure. 

Card 

Boiler 

Cut-off 

Train 

Piston 

Horse 

No. 

press. 

mean. 

per  cent. 

inches. 

speed. 

speed. 

power. 

1 

195 

182  3 

93  5 

21  00 

2 

190 

120.0 

63.1 

10.75 

30 

546 

1256 

3 

195 

99.1 

50.8 

12.00 

40 

728 

1383 

4 

185 

76.3 

41.2 

11.25 

50 

910            1331 

5 

185 

63.3 

34.3 

10.75 

60 

1092            1325 

6 

170 

52.7 

31.0 

10.75 

65 

1183            1195 

7 

180 

47.7 

26.5 

8.50 

70 

1274            1165 

8 

175 

55.2 

31.2 

10.75 

70 

1274            1338 

Ordinary  indicator  cards,  as  in  the  accompanying  figures,  show: 

Strokes  are  short,  24  to  32  inches,  commonly  26  or  30. 

Piston  speeds  are  high,  1000  to  1400  feet  per  minute.  Large  com- 
pounds do  not  exceed  600,  because  the  friction  of  heavy  pistons  at 
higher  piston  speed  is  excessive.  The  revolutions  per  minute  depend 
upon  the  diameter  of  the  drivers. 

Initial  steam  pressure  is  200  pounds  per  square  inch,  to  obtain  capacity. 
With  superheat,  a  lower  pressure  is  used. 

Loss  of  pressure  occurs  between  the  boiler  and  the  steam  chest,  vary- 
ing from  1  per  cent,  in  starting  to  7  per  cent,  at  a  piston  speed  of  700 
feet,  and  to  13  per  cent,  at  1400  feet  per  minute.  The  abnormal  loss  in 
pressure  is  caused  by  wire-drawing,  thru  the  ports  and  passages. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  73 

Indefinite  points  of  cut-off,  of  release,  and  of  compression  are  noted. 
These  are  due  to  inertia  of  the  steam,  loss  of  pressure  between  the  steam 
chest  and  the  cylinder,  and  friction  thru  the  valves. 

Clearance  between  the  piston  and  the  valve  seat  is  from  8  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  volume  of  the  stroke.  Large  clearance  is  necessary  in  design 
to  prevent  damage  by  water;  but  is  accompanied  by  a  material  reduction 
in  efficiency. 

Back  pressure  is  high,  because  of  the  restricted  exhaust  and  the 
necessity  of  producing  a  draft  for  the  fire;  and  it  requires  10  to  15  per 
cent,  of  the  initial  pressure.  Back  pressure  limits  the  mean  effective 
steam  pressure  and  the  speed  of  the  locomotive. 

Expansion  of  steam  indicates  an  uneconomical  utilization  of  steam 
by  the  engines.  The  number  of  expansions  is  seldom  over  four. 

Walschaert,  Allen,  Wilson,  and  other  valves  and  gearing  show  that 
designers  recognize  the  importance  of  giving  the  steam  ample  opportunity 
for  rapidly  entering  and  leaving  the  cylinders,  the  object  in  view  being 
to  raise  the  steam  line  and  lower  the  exhaust  or  back  pressure  line.  The 
valve  openings  produced  by  the  best  mechanism  are  unsatisfactory. 
The  small  port  openings  limit  the  steam  at  high  speed  and  early  cut-offs. 
Compression  begins  near  the  middle  of  the  return  stroke,  not  as  in  Corliss 
engines. 

"Some  good,  practical  valve  motions  have  been  produced  embodying 
the  idea  of  giving  a  prompt  opening  and  closure  of  the  steam  ports,  and 
permitting  steam  to  be  put  in  the  cylinders  of  locomotives  more  quickly; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  that  they  effect  any  economy  in  the  use  of  steam/' 
Sinclair. 

References :  Report  of  American  Railway  Master  Mechanics'  Association,  June, 
1907;  Walschaert  Valve  Gear,  Railway  Age  Gazette,  Sept.  2,  1910. 

Mean  effective  pressure  decreases  as  the  speed  increases. — Note  that: 

At  low  speed  there  is  the  largest  card,  the  greatest  mean-effective 
pressure,  and  a  high  back  pressure. 

Increased  speed,  with  3/4  to  1/2  cut-off,  is  accompanied  by  a  decrease 
in  the  initial  pressure  received  at  the  cylinder,  an  increase  in  back  pressure, 
and  a  reduction  in  the  mean  effective  pressure  as  the  steam  expands. 
The  reduced  mean  effective  pressure  limits  the  capacity  of  the  locomotive 
for  high-speed  passenger  service. 

High-speed  cards  show  a  comparatively  small  area,  and  a  further- 
reduction  in  mean  effective  pressure. 

When  the  piston  speed  exceeds  1000  feet  per  minute,  the  valve  gear 
will  not  admit  steam  fast  enough.  The  loss  in  pressure  because  of  wire- 
drawing and  condensation  decreases  the  mean  effective  pressure  faster 
than  the  mechanical  gain  due  to  the  increase  in  piston  speed. 


74 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


A  definite  relation  exists  between  the  mean  effective  steam  pressure 
and  the  piston  speed,  as  a  collection  and  tabulation  of  results  from  a  great 
number  of  indicator  cards  show.  The  general  relation  is  exhibited  in  the 
accompanying  curve.  The  data  for  the  curve  were  first  obtained  from 
F.  J.  Cole,  Mechanical  Engineer  of  the  American  Locomotive  Company's 
Engineering  Dept.,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.  Mr.  Cole  states:  "This  curve, 
showing  the  relation  between  the  mean  effective  pressure  and  the  piston 
speed,  was  plotted  on  a  large  scale,  from  many  hundred  indicator  diagrams, 
and  represents  an  average  result,  taken  from  different  types  of  locomotives 
under  various  conditions  of  service.  The  data  are  for  a  wide-open 
throttle,  when  presumably  the  cut-off  was  adjusted  so  that  the  locomotive 


100  200  300  400  500  600  700  800  900  1000  1100  1300  1300  1400  1500 
Piston  Speed  Feet  per  Minute,  M 

FIG.  23. — CHARACTERISTIC  CURVES  OF  A  SIMPLE  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVE. 

was  doing  the  best  work  at  that  speed.  The  curve  represents  the  average 
best  maximum  mean  effective  pressure  for  different  piston  speeds  under 
ordinary  conditions,  with  simple  locomotives.  There  are,  of  course, 
limitations  due  to  the  capacity  of  the  boiler,  size  of  pipes,  kind  of  valve 
gear,  and  the  builds  of  different  locomotive  companies.7' 

The  curve  has  been  carefully  checked  by  data  from  indicator  cards 
taken  from  Baldwin  and  Schenectady  locomotives  with  26-inch  strokes 
for  passenger,  and  28-,  30-,  and  32-inch  strokes,  for  freight  locomotives. 

The  relation  exists  between  the  mean  effective  pressure  and  the 
piston  speed,  and  there  is  no  general  relation  between  mean  effective 
steam  pressure  and  revolutions  per  minute,  independent  of  the  piston 
stroke,  as  some  early  writers  have  thought. 

The  locomotive  has  one  point  of  cut-off  for  a  given  speed,  at  which  point  the 
engine  will  develop  its  greatest  power.  As  the  piston  speed  increases,  the  length  of 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  75 

the  cut-off  is  decreased,  and  the  expansion  curve  prolonged,  so  that,  at  the  time  of 
release,  the  pressure  will  be  sufficiently  reduced  to  allow  the  exhaust  to  take  place 
without  undue  back  pressure.  If  the  cut-off  is  too  great  for  the  piston  speed,  the 
mean  effective  pressure  will  be  decreased  by  port  friction  and  back  pressure. 

Work  done  in  the  cylinders,  expressed  IR  h.  p.,  is  the  product  of  the 
mean  effective  pressure,  times  the  area  of  one  cylinder,  times  the 
length  of  the  stroke  in  feet,  times  the  number  of  strokes  of  both  cylin- 
ders per  minute,  divided  by  33,000  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

The  product  of  the  ordinates  of  the  mean  effective  steam  pressure 
curve,  times  those  of  the  train  speed  curve,  gives  the  power  curve, 
shown  in  the  accompanying  curve.  All  data  are  in  per  cent.,  at  the 
varying  piston  speeds.  Only  a  small  increase  in  power  is  obtainable 
after  the  piston  speed  exceeds  600  feet  per  minute. 

The  work  done,  or  the  h.  p.,  is  quite  constant  for  all  normal  running 
speeds.  The  load  diagram  of  steam  locomotives,  when  plotted  on  a 
time  base,  is  therefore  nearly  a  horizontal  line. 

COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Compound  locomotives  must  be  noted  briefly.  Only  5  per  cent,  of 
all  locomotives  are  compounds,  and  these  are  generally  used  on  heavy 
grades.  Four-cylinder  Baldwin  compounds,  and  two-cylinder  American 
cross-compounds  are  in  use.  They  are  started  as  simple  engines. 

The  general  relation  of  mean  effective  pressure  to  piston  speed,  which 
was  explained,  holds  also  for  compounds. 

The  compound  engine  results  from  a  desire  to  economize  in  fuel,  by 
reducing  the  condensation  and  by  decreasing  the  extremes  of  temperature 
in  each  of  the  two  cylinders  used  in  a  combination. 

D.  K.  Clark,  the  eminent  engineer,  showed  60  years  ago,  regarding 
operation  of  simple  engines,  that  "  expansive  working  was  expensive 
working/'  because  the  cylinder  acted  alternately  as  a  condenser  and 
a  revaporizer.  It  is  also  evident  that,  when  live  steam  is  condensed 
into  spray  by  the  refrigerating  influence  of  relatively  cold  cylinders 
and  rods,  the  steam  loses  its  power  to  do  mechanical  work. 

Compound  locomotives  ought  to  be  in  general  use  in  freight  service, 
to  reduce  the  cost  per  ton-mile  hauled.  Economy  of  steam  and  saving 
in  fuel  are  fundamentally  necessary  in  transportation. 

The  real  objections  to  compounds  are  the  added  weight,  the  compli- 
cated machinery,  the  expensive  maintenance;  and  the  delays,  when 
repairs  must  be  made  on  the  road,  subject  the  improved  equipment  to 
criticism  by  the  operating  department.  Another  point  is  that  the  engine- 
man  and  fireman  are  already  loaded  with  work,  forcing  the  furnace,  pro- 
ducing steam,  and  watching  the  track  or  signals  in  order  to  move  the 
train  with  safety.  Furthermore,  most  of  them  are  not  sufficiently  good 


76  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

mechanics  to  operate  the  improved  machinery,  and  they  are  unfriendly 
to  a  type  of  locomotive  which  increases  their  burdens. 

Economy  of  compounds,  when  new,  is  about  15  per  cent,  better  than 
that  of  simple  engines  of  the  same  weight,  age,  and  service.  In  time 
the  blows  and  the  leaking  of  steam  past  the  various  packing  rings  of  the 
valves  and  pistons,  which  are  difficult  to  repair,  reduce  the  economy  of 
compounds.  In  all  cases,  the  exhaust  pressure  of  about  5  pounds  must 
be  maintained  to  cause  a  draft  thru  the  fire. 

Lack  of  economy  on  the  down-hill  trip  offsets  the  better  economy  on 
the  up-grade;  and  a  uniform  stretch  has  been  found  most  advantageous. 

Compound  locomotives,  with  two  cylinders,  on  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton &  Quincy  Railroad,  when  tested  and  compared  with  simple  engines, 
were  found  to  be  15  per  cent,  more  economical  in  heavy  freight  service, 
and  about  30  per  cent,  less  economical  in  passenger  service. 

MALLET  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Mallet,  a  French  engineer,  in  1876,  furnished  a  practical  design  for  a 
compound  articulated  locomotive  with  two  sets  of  engines  under  one 
boiler.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  imported  one,  in  1889,  built  from 
designs  of  F.  W.  Webb,  of  the  London  and  Northwestern  Railway. 

American  Locomotive  Company,  in  1904,  built  for  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  Railroad  the  first  one  constructed  in  America. 

About  100  Mallets  were  built  prior  to  1909,  162  in  1909,  and  249  in 
1910,  or  5  per  cent,  of  all  locomotives  built  in  these  years. 

Mallet  compounds  are  now  the  largest  steam  locomotives.  The 
articulated  plan  reduces  the  rigid  wheel  base  and  the  individual  weights 
of  the  moving  and  wearing  parts,  and  distributes  the  weight  on  the 
roadbed.  Mallet  locomotives  are  frequently  used  in  pushing  service  for 
freight  on  mountain  grades.  Lighter  Mallets  are  used  for  road  service  on 
1  per  cent,  grades. 

The  high-pressure  cylinder  on  each  side  is  located  near  the  middle, 
and  the  low-pressure  cylinder  at  the  front  end,  of  the  locomotive.  A 
cylinder  ratio  of  about  2 . 4  is  used.  The  speed  of  the  heavy  piston  must 
be  kept  very  low.  The  two  trucks  which  support  the  boiler  and  cylinders 
are  independent.  Their  drivers  are  independent;  yet  uniformity  of 
tractive  effort  is  obtained  by  the  compensation  of  the  steam  pressures  in 
the  compound  cylinders;  if  slipping  occurs,  even  while  operating  simple, 
in  starting,  the  low-pressure  cylinder  at  once  receives  less  mean  effective 
steam  pressure,  and  further  slipping  is  prevented.  The  maximum  tons 
per  axle  are  24  to  28.  Enormous  tractive  efforts  result  from  the  com- 
bination of  two  sets  of  engines.  Great  heating  surface  is  obtained  in 
the  long  boiler. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  77 

High  speed  is  not  practical  with  Mallet  compound  locomotives  as 
now  designed,  because  there  is  a  heavy  leading  truck  swiveled  on  a  pin 
behind  its  rear  axle  and  carrying  its  load  on  a  transverse  shoe  along  which 
the  load  must  be  shifted  for  considerable  distance  to  permit  the  radial 
movement  of  the  truck;  and  this  cannot  be  accomplished  with  safety  at 
high  speed  or  on  rough  or  crooked  track  at  medium  speeds.  Mainte- 
nance of  the  steam  piping,  heavy  pistons,  and  of  the  mechanism  in- 
creases most  rapidly  as  the  speed  increases. 

MALLET  ARTICULATED  COMPOUND  LOCOMOTIVE  DATA. 


Name  of 
railroad. 

Wheels. 

No. 

Cylinders, 

Dri- 
vers. 

Wt.  on 

drivers. 

Wt.  of 
engine. 

Total 
weight. 

Heating 
surface. 

Rigid 
base. 

Baltimore&O. 

0-6-6-0 

1 

20     &32x32 

57" 

334,000 

334,000 

480,000 

5585 

lO'-O" 

n_s-s-n      i  n 

26      &41x32 

56 

454.000 

454,000 

Santa  Fe  2-8-8-2         4 

26     &38x32 

57        412,350 

462,500 

660,000 

7839 

15-0 

4-4-6-2         4 

24     &38x28 

73       268,000   1376,500     610,000        4756 

12-8 

2-8-8-2 

30 

26     &38x34 

63       412,500   !  462,500     700,000   i     6621 

16-6 

Southern 

2-8-8-2 

18 

26     &40x30 

57       394,000     426,500     610,000        6393        j    15-0 

Pacific 

2-6-6-2 

12 

21.5&33x30 

57       297,500     339,000     510,000 

3906           10-0 

2-6-6-2 

25 

23     &35x32 

55       350,000 

518,000        5651 

Great  North- 

2-6-6-2 

25 

21.5&33x32 

55 

316,000 

355,000 

504,000 

5658 

10-0 

ern. 

2-6-6-2 

45 

20     &31x30 

55       263,350 

302,650 

460,000 

3906 

9-10 

2-6-8-0 

10 

23     &35x32 

55       360,000 

378,000 

526,000 

5040 

15-0 

2-6-6-2 

16 

21.5&33x32 

55. 

313,500 

350,000 

500,000 

5608 

10-0 

Northern 

2-6-6-2 

6 

20     &31x30 

55 

256,000 

302,000 



5586, 

Pacific. 

2-8-8-2 

5 

26     &40x30 

57 

404,000 

438,000 

6393 

0-8-8-0 

3 

25     &39x28 

51       409,000     409,000     |     3433 

14-3 

Erie  R.  R  

0-8-8-0 

5 

24  .  5&39x30 

56       360,000     360,000     520,000   >     4905 

Norfolk  &           2-8-8-2        5 

24.5&39x30 

56       360,000     390,000   j  540,000 

5894           15-6 

Western. 

C.  B.  &   Q.        2-6-6-2 

10 

23     &35x32 

64 

304,500 

361,600 

515.000 

5094 

11-6 

Reference:  Railway  Age  Gazette,  April  21,  1911,  p.  954. 


Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  used  the  first  Mallet  articulated  locomotive 
built  in  America  for  pushing  and  hauling  freight  trains  on  the  Connells- 
ville  Division. 

Engine  weight,  167  tons,  is  distributed  over  twelve  57-inch  drivers,  a  30-foot  6-inch 
wheel  base,  and  a  10-foot  rigid  wheel  base,  resulting  in  minimum  wear  and  tear  on 
the  roadway.  Excessive  weights  are  not  concentrated  on  the  wheel  base.  Center 
of  gravity  is  high,  so  that  the  vibration  of  the  locomotive,  due  to  variations  in  surface 
alignment  elevation,  and  curvature  of  track  can  be  absorbed  by  the  weight  suspended 
over  the  driver  springs.  Sets  of  drivers  do  not  slip  at  the  same  time.  Operating 
and  maintenance  expense  is  24  cents  per  mile.  Muhlfeld,  to  New  York  R.  R.  Club, 
Feb.,  1906;  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906. 

Great  Northern  Railway  Mallet  compound  locomotives  have  a  heating  surface 
of  5658  square  feet  and  a  grate  surface  of  78  square  feet.  The  weight,  on  12  drivers, 
is  316,000  pounds;  weight  of  engine,  355,000  pounds;  weight  of  loaded  tender,  149,000 
pounds;  total  weight,  504,000  pounds.  Length  is  73  feet.  Boiler  tubes  are  2.25 
inches  by  21.0  feet  long.  Two  firemen  are  required.  Steam  pressure  is  200  pounds. 


78 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  cylinders  on  each  side  are  21.5  inches  and  33  inches,  by  32-inch  stroke.  About 
100  Mallets  are  used. 

These  locomotives  were  designed  to  push  or  pull  an  800-ton  train  at  8.5  to  9 
miles  per  hour  up  a  2.2  per  cent,  grade  and  around  10-degree  curves. 

Coal  consumption,  with  11,000  B.  t.  u.  coal,  is  given  as  4.5  pounds  per  h.  p. 
hr.;  to  be  compared  with  5.5  for  2-cylinder  compounds,  and  6.33  for  simple  engines. 
As  much  coal  may  be  used  while  standing  as  during  the  run.  When  the  Mallet  runs 
above  or  below  the  most  economical  speed,  11  m.  p.  h.,  the  efficiency  drops  rapidly. 

Horse  power  at  the  drawbar,  at  9  m.  p.  h.,  is  only  1260,  or  5  h.p.  per  ton. 

GREAT  NORTHERN  MALLET  LOCOMOTIVE  OPERATING 
CHARACTERISTICS. 


Miles  per          Drawbar          Per  cent. 


Piston 


Drawbar 


hour. 

pull. 

of  pull.      speed.       h.  p. 

0 

55,000       85.0 

0 

0 

5       54,000       84.0 

169 

700 

9 

52,500 

81.7 

304 

1260 

10 

50,500   1    77.8 

338 

1345 

15 

44,500 

69.0 

507 

1780 

20       38,000 

59.0 

676 

2050 

25 

30,500       47.5 

845 

2040 

30 

22,500       35.0        1014        1800 

35 

12,500       19.3        1183 

1170 

37 

0 

0 

1250 

0 

Trailing 
tons. 


880 
880 
825 
815 
725 
570 
420 
270 
100 
0 


Trailing  tons  include  a  74-ton  tender.  Operation  is  at  best  efficiency 
on  2.2  per  cent,  grades,  at  11  m.  p.  h.,  hauling  800-ton  trailing  load;  but 
in  service  the  speed  is  9  to  7m.  p.  h.,  and  900- to  1,000-ton  trains  are  hauled. 
Toltz:  New  York  Railroad  Club,  Dec.,  1907. 

Operation  above  16  m.  p.  h.  is  dangerous.  Increase  of  speed  for  long 
runs  is  obtained  by  reducing  the  trailing  load. 

Note  the  rapid  decrease  in  drawbar  pull  as  the  speed  increases. 

The  light  load  carried  greatly  increases  the  number  of  trains  run.  If 
the  number  of  train-miles  could  be  reduced  one-half,  by  using  more 
powerful  engines,  the  net  saving,  with  6  trains  per  day  per  100-mile 
division,  of  only  20  cents  per  train-mile,  would  be  over  $30,000  per  year. 

Santa  Fe  Mallets,  built  by  Baldwin,  are  used  to  haul  passenger  trains,  at  express 
speed,  over  mountain  grades  of  Southern  California  and  Nevada.  Boiler  tubes,  294; 
length,  19  feet;  diameter,  2.5  inches.  Drivers  are  73  inches.  Engine  wheel  base  is 
52  feet.  Feed  water  heater  raises  water  temperature  to  300  degrees.  Superheater 
and  reheater  are  used.  Length  of  locomotive  105  feet.  Fuel  oil  is  burned. 

Southern  Pacific  Mallet  type  locomotives  are  used  on  the  Sacramento  140-mile 
division,  over  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  There  ?s  a  1.47  per  cent,  average  grade 
for  83  miles,  and  a  2.4  per  cent,  ruling  grade.  Two  Mal'ets,  or  four  consolidation 
engines  are  used  to  haul  a  2,000-  to  2400-ton  trailing  load.  The  running  speed  is  ordi- 
narily 10  to  7  miles  per  hour.  Fuel  consumption  is  one  gallon  of  oil  per  h.  p.  hour. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  79 

Wheel  base;  driving,  39  feet  4  inches,  locomotive,  56  feet  7  inches,  total,  83  feet 
6  inches.  Weight  of  engine,  426,000;  on  56.5-inch  drivers,  394,000;  total  600,000. 
The  cab  is  on  the  front  end  of  Southern  Pacific  locomotives. 


FIG.  24. — ATCHISON,  TOPEKA  &  SANTA  FE.  MALLET  ARTICULATED  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Cylinders   24   and   38  by  28;   heating  surface  4756  square  feet;   weight  610,000  pounds,  with  12,000 

gallons  of  water  and  4000  gallons  of  oil. 


FIG.  25. — SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  MALLET  ARTICULATED  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Cylinders,  26  and  40  inches  by  30  inches.  Locomotives  are  equipped  with  water 
heaters  and  superheaters.  Boiler  heating  surface,  5173  square  feet.  Steam  pres- 
sure, 200  pounds.  The  cut-offs  at  12  miles  per  hour  are  79  per  cent,  of  full  stroke. 

SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  MALLET  LOCOMOTIVE  OPERATING 
CHARACTERISTICS. 


Miles  per 
hour. 

Tractive 
power. 

Piston 
speed. 

Indicated                   I.h.p. 
h.  p.                     per  cent. 

0 

90,000                            0 

0 

0 

5 

86,055                        147.5 

1147 

45.1 

10 

77,136 

297 

2057 

82.3 

15 

59,349                       445.5 

2373 

94.9 

18 

51,796 

535 

2486 

99.4 

20 

42,090 

594 

2245 

89.8 

80 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Comparative  tests  of  simple  and  Mallet  locomotives  of  the  consolida- 
tion type,  on  the  Southern  Pacific  grade  over  the  Sierra  Nevada  Moun- 
tains, were  published  in  part  in  Railway  Age  Gazette,  January  14,  1910, 
p.  81.  The  deductions  from  these  service  tests,  comparing  simple  engine 
No.  2564  with  Mallet  compound  No.  4001,  are  that  on  the  1.47  per  cent, 
up-grade  run,  the  Mallet  was  more  economical  than  its  competitor. 


Tractive 

Effort 

40000 

30000 


Tractive 

Effort 

80000 

60000 
40000 


A° 


MALLET 
COMPOUND 
CONSOLIDATION 
4001 


15   1820 


M.P.H. 


-2000 — 
—1800— 


-1600— 
-1400— 


100   200  300  400  500  600  700 

Piston  Speed  in  Feet  per  Minute 

FIQ.  26. — OPERATING  CHARACTERISTICS  OP  SIMPLE  AND   MALLET  COMPOUND   LOCOMOTIVES. 

SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  Co. 


Tractive  effort  is  assumed  at  29.4,  plus  6.6,  or  36  pounds  per  ton. 
Mechanical  h.  p.  equals  tonnage  times  tractive  effort  per  ton,  times 
speed  in  miles  per  hour,  divided  by  375. 

Note  the  low  speed,  which  increases  the  trainmen's  wages;  the 
light  train,  with  a  locomotive  weighing  30  per  cent,  of  the  train 
weight;  the  maximum  h.  p.,  and  the  friction.  The  results  of  tests 
are  discouraging. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  81 
SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  MALLET  LOCOMOTIVE  TESTS. 


Locomotive. 


Mallet.          Simple. 


Number 4,001  . 

Pounds  of  steam  evaporated 365,500 

Pounds  of  steam  evaporated  f  &  a  212° j  445,000 

Average  speed  up  1 .47%  grade,  m.  p.  h .  9.91 

Weight  of  train I  1,006 

Weight  of  locomotive j  298 

Total  weight  of  train,  tons j  1,304 

Mechanical  h.  p.  for  the  train i  1,248 

Indicated  h.  p j  2,000 

Loss  between  indicated  and  drawbar  power |  37. 5% 

Average  number  of  hours,  for  87-mile  run 8 . 75 

Pounds  of  steam  per  drawbar  h.  p.  hour |  40 . 60 

Pounds  of  steam  per  indicated  h.  p.  hour |  25. 50 


2,564 
197,183 
237,500 

13.42 
478 
164 
642 
833 
1,150 
38.0% 

6.47 
44.20 
35.00 


STEAM  TURBINE  LOCOMOTIVES. 

A  turbine  locomotive  was  built  in  1909  by  the  North  Bristol  Loco- 
motive Company  of  Glasgow.  It  has  an  ordinary  locomotive  boiler 
with  a  superheater.  The  steam  which  is  generated  is  fed  to  a  3,000  r.  p.  m. 
impulse-type  turbine.  The  latter  is  coupled  to  a  direct-current,  com- 
pound-wound, variable-voltage  electric  generator,  which  supplies  current 
at  from  zero  to  600  volts  to  4  series-wound  traction  motors  built  on 
the  driving  axle  of  a  double-truck  locomotive.  The  exhaust  steam  from 
the  turbine  is  condensed  by  an  ejector  condenser  and  the  water  so  con- 
densed, and  free  from  oil,  is  used  over  and  over  again.  Forced  draft 
from  a  fan  is  used  for  the  furnace.  The  service  is  express  passenger 
work  on  the  main  line.  Railway  Age  Gazette,  July  22,  1910. 

Another  turbine  locomotive,  built  in  1910  by  a  Milan  firm,  has  two 
axles  driven  by  a  direct-action  steam  turbine.  The  blades  are  S-shaped 
and  the  motion  is  reversed  by  reversing  the  flow  of  steam.  The  drive 
is  thru  gearing,  and  speed  changes  are  effected  by  means  of  a  crown 
wheel  which  carries  several  rows  of  teeth.  The  economy  at  the  rated 
load  is  35  pounds  of  steam  per  h.  p.  hour. 

The  construction  of  these  turbine  locomotives  shows  clearly  the 
desire  of  steam  locomotive  builders  to  avoid  the  reciprocating  motion, 
to  decrease  the  cylinder  condensation  and  the  relative  consumption  of 
fuel  and  water,  and  to  produce  more  efficient  results  at  the  drawbar. 
The  complication  of  a  complete  generating  plant  on  each  moving  loco- 
motive and  the  lack  in  capacity  make  it  impractical. 
6 


82 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


COST  OF  OPERATION  OF  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Operating  expenses  of  steam  locomotives  exceed  one-third  of  the  total 
operating  expenses  of  steam  railroad  transportation.  In  general,  the  total 
cost  of  operation,  from  Interstate  Commerce  Reports,  includes: 


Maintenance  of  ways  and  structures 

Maintenance  of  all  equipment 

of  which  the  maintenance  of  locomotives  is 

Conducting  transportation, 

of  which  engine  and  round  house  wages  are 

of  which  fuel  for  locomotives  alone  is  an  added  .  .  . 
Totals.  . 


11% 


11% 
12% 
34% 


22% 
22% 

56% 


100% 


Where  the  traffic  is  heavy,  on  mountain  grades,  or  where  compound 
locomotives  are  used,  the  items  of  repairs  and  renewals  of  locomotives 
greatly  exceed  the  average.  Cost  of  coal  is  frequently  high,  and  fuel 
expense  greatly  exceeds  12  per  cent.  Where  water  is  bad,  both  fuel 
and  repairs  greatly  exceed  the  above  averages. 

Expenses  vary  with  the  work  done;  up-hill  or  level,  slow  or  time 
freight,  express  or  ordinary  passenger  trains;  and  with  the  weather, 
management,  etc.  These  elements  change  the  performance  and  mainte- 
nance cost  of  steam  locomotives  on  the  same  railroad.  General  data  are 
valuable  to  show  the  averages,  but  managers  and  engineers  find  that,  in 
practice,  actual  results  are  needed  for  each  branch  or  division  studied 

The  general  data  available  are  presented. 

POUNDS  OF  COAL  BURNED  PER  1000  TON-MILE. 


Name  of  railroad.               Kind  of  service. 

Joal  per  M. 
ton-miles. 

Train 
Remarks  ;  nd  authority, 
tons. 

New  York,  New  Haven 

Express  —  Local  

335 

527 

Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25, 

&  Hartford  (New  York    Express  

194|            314 

1907,  p.  148. 

Division). 

Freight  

169 

931 

Year  1906. 

Pennsylvania  R.  R  Ordinary  freight.  .  .  . 

60 

all         Good  average  on  tests. 

Chicago  &  Northwestern  . 

Freight  

255  to  280 

In  winter.     Henderson. 

Chicago  &  Northwestern.    Freight  

185  to  210 

In  summer.     Henderson. 

Chicago  &  Northwestern  . 

Freight  

226 

2-year  average.     Henderson. 

Delaware  &  Hudson  ....    Freight  pusher  

410  to  470 

1431        Ry.  Age,  May  27,  1910. 

Rock  Island  Fast  passenger  

238  to  287 

500 

Ry.  Age,  Jan.  6,  1911. 

Great  Northern  Mountain  freight.  .  .  . 

380 

1050        Consolidation. 

Great  Northern  !  Mountain  freight.  .  .  . 

251 

1600        Mallet  compounds. 

Great  Northern  

Level  freight  

130  to    94 

2000        Illinois  coal,  Supt.  M.  P. 

Great  Northern  Freight  —  Mallet  

890             810        1.35%  grade.     Pomeroy. 

Norfolk  &  Western  !  Freight  —  Mallet  

273:          1500        Ry.  Age,  May  19,  1911. 

Chicago  &  Alton  

Freight  

-230 

Ry.  Age,  June  16,  1911. 

Northern  Pacific  

Heavy  passenger.  .  .  . 

160  to  206 

590 

Ry.  Age,  June  22,  1910. 

Heavy  freight  

131  to  162 

2050 

Ry.  Age,  June  22,  1910. 

Six  western  roads  Freight  

215 

1200 

October,  1909. 

235 

1200 

November,  1909. 

270 

1200 

December,  1909. 

Ordinary     simple     loco-     Passenger  on  level  .  . 

250 

500 

Author. 

motives.                                Freight  on  level  

150 

1500 

Author. 

Freight  on  grades  .  .  . 

250 

1000 

Author. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  83 
POUNDS  OF  COAL  BURNED  PER  I.  H.  P.  HOUR  ON  TEST. 


Railroad. 


Service. 


Coal. 


Coal  used,  Ibs. 


Authority. 


f  Freight  

San  Coulle. 

12.3   to  14.0] 

\  Pomeroy, 

Mountain  

•j   Passenger  and  Ft. 

Montana.  ... 

10.6 

•j  A.I.E.E. 

[  Freight  

High-grade.  . 

9.6to  11.  2  J 

[  November,  1909 

Mountain  

Freight  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

4.0to    8.0 

Road  tests. 

Mountain  

Freight  

Pittsburg  ... 

G.Oto  12.0 

Road  tests. 

Ordinary  

Suburban  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

6.5to    7.0 

On  test. 

Passenger  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

3.8to    4.0 

On  test. 

Freight  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

4.8to    5.0 

On  test, 

New     York,     New 

Passenger  Express  . 

Pittsburg  ... 

4.  06  to  4.37 

Murray. 

Haven    &    Hart: 

Passenger  Local   .  .  . 

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

4.68  to  4.61 

A.I.E.E.,  Jan.  25, 

1907. 

Pennsylvania  

Freight  

Pittsburg.  .  . 

4.35  to4.71 

Ry.  Age,  June  21, 

1910. 

Electric  

Electric  plants  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

2.70  to  3.00 

Potter,  1905. 

Ordinary  

Turbine  plants  

Pittsburg  .  .  . 

2  .  00  to  2  .  20 

Guarantee. 

Cost  of  coal  burned  per  train-mile,  from  such  data  as  are  available, 
approximates  that  for  all  trains  in  Massachusetts,  17  cents.  Cost  of 
coal  for  Mallet  compounds  in  mountain  service  reaches  57  cents.  It 
varies  with  stops  per  mile,  weight,  speed  of  train,  temperature,  etc. 

Pounds  of  coal  burned  per  locomotive-mile  averages  about  104  for 
passenger  service,  208  for  freight,  130  for  mixed  and  non-revenue,  108 
for  switching,  and  about  150  for  all  service. 

Cost  of  operation  per  ton -mile  varies  from  5  to  6  mils  for  ordinary 
freight  service  up  to  17  mils  for  mountain-grade  work.  The  cost  varies 
with  the  character  of  service,  grades,  load,  nature  and  amount  of  repairs, 
as  well  as  the  cost  of  labor,  fuel,  and  supplies. 

Cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  per  ton-mile  is  2.0  to  3.5  mils 
for  ordinary  freight  locomotives,  up  to  7.1  for  Mallet  compounds. 

Cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  per  locomotive -mile  for  ordinary 
roads  reporting  to  Railroad  Commissions  averages  a  little  over  7  cents, 
but  this  excludes  data  for  mountain  divisions  on  which  the  cost  of 
maintenance  runs  up  as  high  as  57  cents.  The  road  that  has  given 
efficiency  methods  the  most  thoro  tryout,  the  Santa  Fe,  reported  that 
the  cost  of  repairs  and  renewals  in  1910  was  10.75  cents. 

Cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  per  locomotive -year  for  three  years 
prior  to  1909  averaged  about  $2200,  while  for  1909  the  average,  from 
the  annual  reports  of  15  common  roads,  was  about  $2600.  Roads  in 
the  mountains  average  higher  than  those  in  the  central  states. 


84 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


OPERATING    EXPENSES    FOR    REPAIRS    AND    RENEWALS    OF    STEAM 
CARS  AND  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Per  passen- 
ger car-mile. 

Per  freight 
car-mile. 

Per  locomo- 
tive-mile. 

Per  locomo- 
tive-year. 

Boston  &  Maine 

1  380 

66  6 

6  150 

$ 

Boston  &  Albany  

14  60 

Delaware  &  Hudson  

:::  

2821. 

New  Haven       .  . 

1  35 

66 

7  93 

New  York  Central  

1   14 

90 

7  72 

2128. 

Lackawanna  .           

1  48 

60 

6  76 

1732 

Central  of  New  Jersey 

1  19 

1  07 

8  54 

Pennsylvania 

1  37 

89 

10  05 

2694 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

98 

79 

9  22 

2889 

Lehigh  Valley     ... 

1  08 

79 

8  98 

2185 

Erie 

1  28 

76 
.  /u 

10  56 

Wabash  

89 

52 
•u 

8  82 

Philadelphia  &  Reading 

3  70 

1  33 

10  78 

Toledo,  St.  Louis  &  Western  .... 

.73 

23 

8  47 

Chicago  &  Alton  

77 

30 

8  37 

Chicago  &  North  Western 

84 

51 

6  30 

2300 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy.  . 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul.  . 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  and  Pacific 
Minneapolis  &  St.  Louis  

.76 

.81 
.84 
1.08 

.77 
.60 
.69 
.80 

7.65 
5.98 

8.27 
6  88 

2376. 
2361. 
2530. 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe.  .  . 
Denver  &  Rio  Grande 

1.23 

.71 

10.75 

2541. 
3156 

Illinois  Central 

10  21 

3085 

Mpls.,  St.  P.  &  St.  S.  Marie.      . 

7  72 

2320 

Southern  Pacific 

3343 

Union  Pacific     

3593 

Northern  Pacific   

8  21 

1916 

Great  Northern 

9  41 

2240 

LITERATURE. 
Weekly  and  Monthly  Papers. 
Railway   Age   Gazette,    New   York.     Railway  and   Locomotive  Engineering, 


New 


York;  Railway  Master  Mechanic,  Chicago;  American  Engineer  and  Railroad 
Journal,  Chicago ;  Railway  and  Engineering  Review,  Chicago;  American  Ry. 
Master  Mechanics'  Association,  Proceedings;  Master  Car  Builders'  Associa- 
tion, Proceedings;  American  Maintenance  of  Way  Association,  Proceedings; 
Western  Railway  Club,  Chicago,  Proceedings;  Western  Society  of  Engineers, 
Chicago,  Proceedings;  New  York  Railroad  Club,  New  York,  Proceedings. 

Text -Books. 

Goss:  "Locomotive  Performance,"  Wiley,  N.  Y.,  1907. 
HENDERSON:  "Locomotive  Operation,"  Wilson,  Chi.,  1907. 
HENDERSON:  "Cost  of  Locomotive  Operation,"  Railway  Age,  1906. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MODERN  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  85 

REAGAN:  "Simple  and  Compound  Locomotives,"  Wiley,  N.  Y.,  1907. 
SINCLAIR:  "Twentieth  Century  Locomotive,"  Ry.  &  Loco.  Engr.,  1903. 
SINCLAIR:  "Development  of  the  Locomotive,"  Sinclair  Pub.  Co.,  1907. 
WOODS:  "Compound  Locomotives,"  Railway  Age,  1893. 
Pennsylvania  R.R.,  "Tests  at  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,"  1905. 
Railway  Age,  "Locomotive  Dictionary,"  Railway  Age  Gazette,  N.  Y.,  1909. 

References  of  General  Interest. 

Baldwin  Locomotive  Works.     Handbooks  and  Records. 

American  Locomotive  Works.     Catalogs  and  Pamphlets. 

Walker:  Compensated  or  Balanced  Locomotives.     Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Aug.  14,  1908. 

Dodd:  Locomotive  Data.     Proc.  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 

Goss:  The  Effect  of  High  Rates  of  Combustion.     N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Sept.,  1895. 

Fry:  The  Proportions  of  Modern  Locomotives.     N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Sept.,  1903. 

Kennedy:  Walschaert  Valve  Gear  on  Locomotives.     N,  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Sept.,  1906. 

Superheaters. 

Toltz:  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Sept.,  1907:   S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  28,  1907. 

Schmidt:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  July  17,  1909. 

Converse:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Nov.  20,  1908. 

Fry:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  March  5,  1909. 

Report:  International  Railway  Congress,  June,  1910;  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  June  22,  1910. 

Report:  A.  S.  M.  E.,  1909,  XXXI,  p.  989;    Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Jan.  20,  1911. 

Goss:  A.  R.  M.  M.  Assoc.,  1909-10;  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Feb.  24,  1911. 

Vaughan:  Superheat  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Ry.,  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  April,  1906. 

Cost  of  Operation  of  Steam  Locomotives. 

Ry.  Age  Gazette:  Tests  at  St.  Louis  Exposition,  1904. 

L.  H.  Fry:  Cost  of  Handling  Locomotives,  R.  R.  Gazette,  Feb.  19,  1904. 

C.  &  N.  W.  Ry. :  Cost  of  Repairs  on  Each  Type  of  Passenger  and  Freight  Locomotive, 
A.  E.  &  Ry.  Journal,  Sept.,  1904. 

Murray:  N.Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.  Tests,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907,  p.  148;  Nov.  8,  1907, 
p.  1682;  April,  1911. 

Armstrong:  Steam  and  Electric  Locomotives,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.  8,  1907,  p.  1662. 

Courtin:  European  Locomotive  Practice  for  Very  High  Speeds,  International  Rail- 
way Congress,  1910. 

References  on  Mallet  Engines. 

Mellin:  Articulated  Compound  Locomotives,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Dec.,  1908. 

Emerson:  On  Great  Northern  Mallets,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  XXX,  p.  1029,  1908. 

Hutchinson:  Mallet  versus  Electric,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 

Southern  Pacific  Locomotives  and  Tests:  Railroad  Gazette,  Aug.  17,  1906;   Ry.  Age 

Gazette,  Jan.  14,  1910. 

Santa  Fe  Locomotives:     Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Nov.  26,  1909;  Apr.  14,  1911,  p.  906. 
Track:  Latter-day  Development  of  Amer.  Steam  Locomotives,  Eng.  Magazine,  Nov. 

and  Dec.,  1909. 
Scientific  American:  Papers  on  large  steam  and  electric  locomotives,  Vol.  62 — 25,678; 

25,698;  Sup.  22  and  29,  1906. 

Dean:  Mallet  Locomotives,  Railway  Age  Gazette,  June  10,  1910. 
Caruthers:  Development  of  Articulated  Locomotives,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Sept.,  1910. 
Table  on  Mallet  Locomotives,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Apr.  21,  1911,  p.  955. 


CHAPTER  III. 
ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Basis. 

Physical  Advantages: 

Capacity,  flexibility,  simplicity,  safety,  reliability,  improved  service. 

Financial  Advantages: 

Gross  Earnings  Increased. — Motive  power  characteristics,  passenger  traffic 
attracted,  freight  service  of  high-grade,  freight  service  for  trunk  lines,  termina 
traffic,  delivery  of  freight  and  passengers,  branch  line  electrification,  frequent 
train  service,  suburban  service. 

Operating  Expenses  Decreased. — Maintenance  of  ways  and  equipment,  wages 
and  time  saved,  fuel  and  power,  train-mile  and  ton-mile  data. 

Investments  decreased  or  increased. 

Earning  Power  and  Net  Earnings. 

By-products  of  Electrification. 

Advantages  in  Business  Depressions,  and  in  Competition. 

Social  Advantages : 

Safety  in  travel,  time  saved,  hard  labor  decreased,  conservation  of  natural 
resources,  cost  of  transportation,  cost  of  living,  esthetic  enjoyments,  social 
conditions  improved. 

Objections  to  Electric  Traction : 

Conservatism,  crude  presentation  of  situations,  investments  necessarily  larger, 
complication,  number  of  electric  systems,  interchangeability,  danger,  depend- 
ence on  power  plants,  transimission  losses,  interference  with  signal  lines,  dis- 
card of  steam  locomotives;  Illinois  Central  Railroad  case,  experimental  for 
important  service,  a  luxury,  the  financial  problem. 

Literature : 

Physical  advantages  of  electric  traction,  financial  data  on  operation. 


86 


CHAPTER  III. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS. 

BASIS. 

The  advantages  of  electricity  for  traction  form  the  basis  of  electric 
railway  economics.  These  advantages  will  now  be  outlined  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner  for  reference,  and  to  facilitate  a  study  and  comparison 
of  the  operating  features  of  steam  and  electricity  for  train  haulage. 

PHYSICAL  ADVANTAGES. 

All  of  the  advantages  of  electric  traction  depend  primarily  on  the 
application  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  electric  power.  This  appli- 
cation of  electric  power  requires  the  utilization  of  the  heat  of  burning 
fuel,  or  the  energy  of  falling  water,  as  a  primary  source  of  energy,  which 
is  then  converted  into  electric  power,  and  transmitted  by  wires  over  long 
distances  to  motors  which  propel  the  trains  on  the  railway  division. 
This  plan  is  now  used  in  modern  transportation,  and  it  provides: 

Capacity,  flexibility,  simplicity,  safety,  and  reliability ;  and  an  improved 
service  produces  two  definite  results: 

Financial  advantages  and  social  advantages. 

CAPACITY. 

Ample  capacity  is  a  very  useful  physical  advantage  in  transporta- 
tion. In  dealing  with  heavier  traffic,  capacity  must  be  increased  in 
every  direction,  in  the  motive  power,  and  also  in  the  efficient  use  of  the 
cars,  tracks,  and  terminals. 

Capacity  in  electric  motor  power  is  obtained  from  central  power 
stations,  from  wThich  energy  is  transmitted  in  large  amounts,  over  great 
distances,  to  electric  motors  which  have  great  power  per  unit  of  weight, 
and  which  are  able  to  withstand  heavy  overloads. 

Electric  motive  power  for  railway  train  service  means  ample  drawbar 
pull,  and  good  speed.  Electric  motors  on  the  locomotive  frame,  or  dis- 
tributed on  the  passenger-car  trucks,  provide  the  maximum  possible 
tractive  effort  for  heavy  tonnage,  or  for  rapid  acceleration. 

The  hauling  capacity  of  important  roads  having  frequent  and  heavy 
trains  is  often  limited  by  the  long  tunnels,  the  heavy  grades,  the  support 
for  the  roadbed,  the  single  track,  and  the  terminal  facilities. 

The  tendency  of  modern  methods  of  freight  transportation  is  to  use 
cars  in  2000-  to  3500-ton  trains.  In  ore  and  coal  trains,  the  rated  load 
of  each  car  runs  up  to  140,000  pounds  with  the  usual  10  per  cent,  over- 
load allowed  under  M.  C.  B.  rules.  The  drawbar  pull  for  heavy  trains 
on  the  up-grades  is  enormous.  Slow  speed  is  the  present  handicap  and, 

87 


88  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

while  ajiigh  speed  is  not  desired,  a  moderate,  sustained  speed  on  the  up- 
grades has  economic  advantages. 

Passenger  and  mail  coaches  of  steel  now  weigh  50  to  70  tons  each. 
The  best  steam  railroad  locomotive,  of  the  Pacific  type,  weighing  200 
tons,  with  4200  square  feet  of  heating  surface,  22x28  cylinders,  and 
79-inch  drivers,  as  used  on  the  "  Twentieth  Century  Limited/7  lacks  in 
capacity,  and  can  haul  only  six  (6)  steel  cars  at  60  miles  per  hour. 
(Railway  Age:  Editorial  and  data  beginning  Dec.  24,  1909.) 

Examples  are  given  to  illustrate  and  to  prove  that  ample  capacity  is 
available  with  electric  traction. 

New  York  Central  Railroad,  in  and  near  New  York  City,  uses  electric 
traction.  The  important  results  of  this  notable  electrification  were,  an 
increase  in  the  length  and  weight  of  the  trains,  an  increase  in  the  number 
of  trains,  an  increase  in  the  schedule  speed,  the  ability  to  use  locomotives 
with  greater  hauling  capacity  and  speed,  and  therefore  an  increase  in 
the  capacity  of  the  terminal.  The  capacity  could  not  be  increased  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  stockholders  and  the  public  by  using  more  and  heavier 
steam  locomotives.  Wilgus,  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  8,  1904. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,  of  New  York,  was  formerly,  in  point 
of  earnings,  one  of  the  largest  steam  roads  in  the  country.  Steam 
locomotives  hauled,  at  most,  4-  or  5-car  trains  at  11  to  10  miles  per  hour. 
The  elevated  structure  could  not  be  rebuilt  or  increased  in  strength;  nor 
was  there  any  way  of  improving  the  train  service  arid  capacity  except  by 
a  change  in  motive  power.  Electric  power  was  introduced  in  1902,  the 
installation  being  completed  in  June,  1903.  The  substitution  of  elec- 
tric power  made  possible  an  increase  of  33  per  cent,  in  the  carrying 
capacity  of  the  road,  as  was  proved  by  the  actual  increase  in  mileage 
and  in  passenger  traffic.  The  electric  trains  now  have  6  or  7  cars,  running 
at  15.0  to  13.5  miles  per  hour.  Incidentally,  between  1901  and  1904, 
the  operating  expenses  dropped  from  55  to  45  per  cent.,  and  the  traffic 
which  had  been  lost,  because  of  competition,  was  regained. 

New  York  Subway  of  the  Interboro  Rapid  Transit  Company  is  a  four- 
track  road.  Ten-car  passenger  trains  are  now  dispatched  on  the  local 
and  the  express  tracks  on  108-second  headway.  About  666  cars  pass  a 
given  point  per  hour  in  each  direction.  Electric-pneumatic  brakes  stop 
the  train,  running  at  a  speed  of  40  miles  per  hour,  in  a  distance  of  365  feet. 
Each  10-car  train  is  equipped  with  motors  equal  to  3200  h.-  p.  or  more 
than  twice  the  horse  power  used  on  steam  locomotive-hauled  trains. 
The  number  of  seats  per  train  is  500  and  the  service  requires  platforms 
of  the  full  train  length,  510  feet,  and  three  side  doors  per  car. 

Steam  railroads  cannot  even  approach  these  results.  Illinois  Central 
Railroad,  at  Chicago,  has  less  than  1000  cars  in  24  hours. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS    89 

Long  Island  Railroad  electrification  work  "  greatly  increased  the 
capacity  of  the  line,  and  especially  that  of  the  Brooklyn  terminal,  which 
could  not  be  operated  by  steam  up  to  its  present  capacity."  Gibbs. 

"  In  the  average  steam  terminal  it  was  rarely  possible  to  place,  load, 
and  dispatch  more  than  5  or  6  trains  per  hour  from. any  track.  But 
with  multiple-unit  equipment,  it  was  possible  to  increase  this  to  8  or  10 
trains  per  hour,  the  equipment  of  some  4  or  5  of  them  being  that  of  trains 
that  had  come  in  and  unloaded  their  passengers  on  that  track.  A  multi- 
ple-unit shifting  crew  makes  but  half  the  number  of  movements  as  com- 
pared with  steam  service  and,  with  a  crew  of  two,  easily  accomplishes 
the  work  of  two  yard  engines."  McCrea,  General  Superintendent. 

Great  Northern  Railway,  in  1909,  equipped  its  main  line  thru  the 
Cascade  tunnel  with  electric  power,  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  the  smoke 
and  the  gases  which  retarded  traffic  thru  the  tunnel,  and  the  capacfty 
of  the  Cascade  Division. 

"The  great  increase  in  the  speed  of  trains  with  electric  traction  and 
the  consequent  increase  in  the  capacity  of  a  single  track  will  operate  to 
postpone  for  a  long  time  the  necessity  of  double  tracking.  This  double 
tracking  in  the  mountains  is  a  very  expensive  piece  of  business,  and  the 
saving  alone  will,  in  some  cases,  more  than  offset  the  cost  of  electrical 
equipment."  Hutchinson,  before  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  of  England,  in  1904,  electrified  its 
Liverpool-Southport  passenger  branch.  The  results  were: 

Thirty  steam  locomotives  with  tenders,  and  152  coaches,"  having  a 
seating  capacity  of  5084,  were  replaced  by 

Thirty-eight  60-foot  electric  motor  cars,  and  53  coaches,  having  a 
seating  capacity  of  5814. 

Frequency  of  passenger  trains  was  doubled;  acceleration  and  average 
speed  were  increased;  and  two  of  the  four  tracks,  on  the  section  used  for 
passenger  service,  were  appropriated  for  freight  service.  The  number 
of  passengers  increased  14  per  cent.,  yet  the  ton-mileage  decreased  12 
per  cent. 

"The  electrification  of  the  line  from  Liverpool  to  Southport,  26 
miles,  will  double  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  line  and  also  practically 
double  the  terminal  accommodation."  J.  A.  F.  Aspinwall,  Manager. 

North -Eastern  Railway,  out  of  Newcastle,  England,  82  miles  of  track, 
with  an  average  distance  between  station  stops  of  1.25  miles,  was  elec- 
trified in  1904.  Motor  cars  are  used  for  freight  and  for  passenger 
haulage.  Train  haulage  on  this  road  has  since  increased  about  100  per 
cent.,  yet  the  ton-mileage  has  actually  decreased. 

Much  more  work  is  now  done  at  the  terminal  stations,  as  there 
are  no  engines .  to  attach  or  detach.  Trains  are  dispatched  at  one- 
minute  intervals.  Signal  operations  were  reduced  about  one-half. 


90  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Higher  acceleration  was  realized  which  decreased  the  running  time 
between  stations  15  to  19  per  cent.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to 
carry  by  the  steam  service  the  number  of  passengers  now  electrically 
conveyed.  Harrison,  to  British  Inst.  of  Civil  Engineers,  November,  1909. 
Capacity  Can  be  Gained  without  Electric  Operation. — However,  that 
may  require  an  increase  in  the  weight  and  heating  surface  of  steam 
locomotives  to  increase  the  drawbar  pull  and  the  accelerating  rate;  or 
a  long  and  wasteful  cut-off  in  the  steam  cylinder  to  get  faster  accelera- 
tion or  higher  speed.  It  may  require  the  use  of  double-end,  tank  types, 
or  concentrated  weights  in  steam  locomotives;  an  increase  in  the  rolling- 
stock;  an  increase  in  the  number  of  trains;  or  heavy  expenditures  for 
double  tracking  and  grade  reduction.  Expenses  are  increased  by  the 
unnecessary  or  undesirable  increase  in  the  ton-mileage  of  the  steam 
equipment,  and  often  the  increased  operating  expenses  and  interest 
charges  cannot  be  balanced  by  an  increase  in  the  net  earnings. 

FLEXIBILITY. 

Flexibility  is  a  valuable  physical  advantage,  since  it  contributes  to 
the  economic  superiority  of  electric  traction.  Examples  are  reviewed: 

Electric  locomotives  in  1000-h.p.  units  are  used  to  haul  ordinary 
250-ton  trains,  while  two  coupled  locomotive-units  are  used  for  heavy 
550-ton  trains  in  thru  train  service  (New  Haven  Railroad).  This  is 
often  done  with  steam  locomotives,  but  not  to  advantage,  for  it  is  hard 
for  2  enginemen  and  2  firemen  to  control  2  independent  steam 
locomotives.  The  2  electric  locomotive  units  are  controlled  from  the 
front  cab  by  one  operator.  Again,  two  66-ton  coupled  electric  loco- 
motives are  operated  as  one  unit  for  1000-ton  freight  trains,  while  one 
66-ton  electric  locomotive  is  used  for  a  200-  to  350-ton  passenger  train 
(Grand  Trunk  Railway) .  Again,  one  type  and  size  of  electric  locomotive 
is  often  inherently  suited  for  either  passenger  or  freight  service.  (New 
Haven  1300-h.  p.  freight  locomotives). 

"On  the  New  York  Central  electrification  one  of  the  results  was  to 
replace  the  dozen  types  and  sizes  of  locomotives  formerly  used  within 
the  territory  determined  for  electric  operation  by  a  single  type  and  size 
of  electric  locomotive  with  such  a  capacity  and  capable  of  such  control 
as  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  speed  and  power,  whether  switching  in 
the  yards  or  hauling  the  heaviest  trains  at  schedule  speed."  Sprague. 

Electric  locomotive  frames,  superstructures,  and  wheels  are  sym- 
metrical, which  provides  flexibility  in  operation  and  eliminates  the 
great  expense  at  the  turn-table.  With  steam  locomotives  the  coal  and 
water  supply  must  trail,  for  safety.  With  electric  equipment,  the  most 
advantageous  use  of  cars,  tracks,  and  terminals  becomes  possible, 
particularly  for  concentrated  working  of  express  and  freight  service. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS     91 

Motor-car  trains  provide  for  absolute  flexibility  of  train  operation. 

Controllers  of  the  automatic  type  may  be  located  for  use  at  either  end 
of  each  electric  locomotive,  motor-car,  or  coach — whichever  happens  to 
come  at  the  head  of  the  train.  Similarity  of  equipment  of  motor-cars 
is  such  that  they  may  be  coupled  up  in  any  combination,  whatever  the 
nature  of  the  service  or  length  of  the  train.  Head-  and  tail-switching  are 
abolished.  Electrically  controlled  trains,  by  reason  of  the  mechanical 
flexibility  are  economical,  and  are  adapted  to  frequent  service  and  to 
rapid  changes  in  the  traffic. 

SIMPLICITY. 

Simplicity  is  evident.  Compare  the  moving  parts,  the  rotating  motor 
armature  in  one  case,  and  the  eccentric  strap,  rocker  arm,  valve  gear, 
reciprocating  valves  and  stems,  pistons,  piston  rods,  cranks,  and  unbal- 
anced driving  wheels  in  the  other  case.  Boilers  and  furnaces  are  absent 
in  electric  trains.  Fewer  parts  reduce  the  wear,  tear,  and  maintenance. 

SAFETY. 

Safety  to  life  and  property,  and  reliable  service,  are  promoted  by 
electric  railway  transportation.  Simplicity  and  safety  in  the  operation 
of  electric  locomotives  and  of  the  motor-car  train  are  discussed  at  length 
under  the  following  headings: 

Design  of  electric  motors  avoids  track  pounding. 

Control  circuits  prevent  accidents. 

Automatic  devices  safeguard  operation. 

Speed  may  be  decreased  with  safety,  or  limited,  by  design. 

Long  wheel  bases  are  avoided  on  trucks. 

Vigorous  tests  are  easily  made. 

Regeneration  of  energy  in  braking  prevents  accidents. 

Tunnels  are  made  safer. 

Boilers  are  avoided. 

Fire  risk  to  property  is  decreased. 

Exhaust  steam  and  smoke  are  absent. 

Enginemen  are  not  distracted  with  other  duties. 

Electric  meters  assist  in  operation. 

Weights  are  not  excessive,  so  as  to  spread  rails. 

Design  of  electric  motors  is  such  that  there  is  an  absence  of  that  track 
pounding  which  in  steam  locomotives  is  caused  by  the  reciprocating 
motion  and  unbalanced  forces.  After  a  single  trip  of  the  Pennsylvania 
18-hour,  New  York  to  Chicago  train,  20  broken  rails  were  reported. 
This  did  not  reflect  so  much  on  the  integrity  of  the  rail'  manufacturer,  or 
upon  the  design  of  the  rail  section  or  weight,  as  on  a  characteristic  of 
the  steam  locomotives. 

The  distribution  of  weight  and  the  uniformity  of  the  tractive  effort  in 


92  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

electric  motors  contribute  to  safety  on  the  roadbed,  curves,  and  bridges. 
Broken  rails  and  driver  axles,  common  sources  of  wrecks,  are  decreased. 
Control  circuits  prevent  accidents.  The  section  terminals  in  the 
regular  signal  towers  of  the  New  Haven  and  other  electric  rail- 
roads are  2  to  3  miles  apart,  and  are  placed  in  charge  of  signal  men. 
This  introduces  a  new  element  in  the  safe  running  of  trains,  because  a 
signal  man  can  stop  a  train  by  cutting  off  power  at  his  end  of  the  section 
and  telephoning  the  signal  man  at  the  other  end  to  do  the  same.  Power 
circuits  can  be  opened  to  prevent  accidents  by  providing  distant  control 
of  circuits  at  the  signal  stations,  substations,  or  power  plant. 

Automatic  devices  are  provided  on  the  controllers  in  the  cabs  of 
electric  trains  to  shut  off  the  power  instantly,  if  the  engineman  for  any 
reason — death,  collision,  etc. — removes  his  hand  from  the  control  handle. 
This  is  a  further  safeguard  to  the  traveling  public. 

The  accelerating  rate  is  controlled  automatically,  independent  of  the 
operator.  Controllers  are  often  so  arranged  that  the  train  cannot  be 
started  if  the  air  reservoirs  have  not  sufficient  pressure  for  braking. 
Other  devices  automatically  shut  off  the  power  and  apply  the  brakes  if 
the  train  passes  its  signals.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  March  5,  1910,  p.  419. 

Speed  may  be  increased  safely  as  was  proved  by  Berlin-Zossen  tests, 
where  speeds  of  130  m.  p.  h.  were  attained.  In  motor  controllers,  speed 
limiting  devices  are  in  common  service.  Synchronous  motors  have  a 
fixed  maximum  speed. 

Long  rigid  wheel  bases  are  not  required,  and  thus  the  curves  are 
taken  smoothly,  and  safely,  at  high  speed. 

Vigorous  tests  to  detect  troubles  on  electric  power  equipment  can  be 
made  with  ease,  and  in  a  simple  way,  by  using  a  voltage  3  or  4  times  the 
normal. 

Regeneration  of  energy  provides  for  electric  braking  on  down-grades. 
Electric  trains  in  the  mountains  are  so  controlled,  regularly,  and  not  in 
the  emergency;  and  the  air  brakes  are  used  for  reserve.  It  is  very 
advantageous  to  run  down  the  grade  with  the  train  under  full  control. 
Air-braking  in  the  mountains  causes  shoes  to  wear  out  quickly,  defective 
brakes,  brake-rigging,  and  loosened  wheel  rims.  A  decrease  in  the 
number  and  in  the  cost  of  wrecks  is  important. 

Tunnels  are  made  safer  with  electric  power.  This  is  the  universal 
experience.  The  walls  are  lighted  and  whitewashed;  the  rails  are  not 
greasy  or  slippery  from  condensed  steam;  the  smoke  and  gases  do  not 
suffocate;  and  little  danger  exists  if  the  train  stalls.  Long  tunnels  may 
be  operated  as  safely  as  short  ones.  Electric  locomotive  operation  on 
the  steepest  and  longest  tunnel  grades  is  practical.  Enginemen  and 
trainmen  have  confidence  in  electric  power,  and  the  long  mountain 
tunnel  has  lost  its  terrors. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS    93 

Air  brakes,  or  electric  brakes,  can  be  used  on  electric  trains  on  heavy 
grades  in  tunnels  where  'formerly  it  was  necessary  to  use  hand  brakes. 
With  a  -break-in-two  of  a  steam  train  in  a  tunnel,  the  air  could  not  be 
released  or  the  train  recoupled,  because  the  trainmen  were  suffocated 
by  the  locomotive  gases. 

Boilers  present  dangers  from  furnaces,  high  pressures,  explosions, 
scaldings,  water  in  cylinders,  damage  from  reciprocating  pistons  and 
mechanism,  which  are  avoided  in  electric  trains. 

Fire  risk  is  decreased  and  loss  is  avoided  with  electric  traction  as 
there  are  no  sparks  to  set  fire  to  valuable  forests,  buildings,  docks, 
snow  sheds,  grain  and  hay,  freight  cars,  and  their  contents.  There  is 
less  risk  of  fire  in  case  of  a  wreck. 

Exhaust  steam  clouds,  the  cause  of  many  expensive  railroad  accidents, 
following  the  inability  of  the  lookout  to  see  the  signals  and  the  track, 
in  the  tunnel  or  in  the  open,  are  absent  in  electric  traction. 

Enginemen  of  electric  trains  have  clearer  judgment.  They  are  placed 
in  a  cool  and  comfortable  situation.  The  view  between  the  cab  and  the 
track  and  signals  in  foggy  weather  is  clearer.  Electrical  control  allows 
them  to  put  their  mind  on  the  safe  piloting  of  the  train,  without  the 
distraction  due  to  steam-power  generation  and  the  care  of  mechanism. 
The  importance  of  this  is  evident  to  one  who  knows  the  strain  on  an 
engineman  in  watching  for  -signals  and  listening  to  the  train  motion. 
Safety  is  also  promoted  by  the  quietness  which  is  due  to  the  absence  of 
exhaust  steam,  the  pounding  of  reciprocating  pistons,  and  unbalanced 
drivers.  Judgment  of  enginemen  of  electric  trains  is  thus  clearer  in 
emergencies. 

Electric  meters  assist  in  intelligent  operation  of  the  motive  power 
and  this  is  recognized  as  a  great  advantage  accompanying  electric 
traction.  The  exact  service  performance  of  each  electric  generating 
unit  at  the  station,  and  of  each  feeder  section,  is  obtained  by  a  glance 
at  indicating  meters,  or  a  study  of  curve-drawn  power  sheets,  and  the 
integrated  record  of  the  energy  supplied.  Meters  in  the  cab  indicate  the 
h.  p.  which  is  supplied  to  the  railway  motors.  A  glance  at  the  meter 
shows  the  rate  at  which  the  train  is  accelerating.  Tests  are  not  needed; 
the  facts  are  instantly  apparent,  and  the  engineman  is  posted,  is  fore- 
warned, and  acts  intelligently  to  remove  the  cause  of  any  defect.  He 
gains  confidence  while  the  equipment  is  in  operation. 

Enginemen  on  the  electric  locomotives  of  the  New  York  Central,  the 
New  Haven,  the  Grand  Trunk,  and  other  roads,  use  the  indicating  meters 
to  advantage,  and  particularly  so  if  the  overload  is  great.  When  the 
snow  is  deep  and  the  tractive  effort  is  high,  the  meter  is  particularly 
advantageous;  and  if  trouble  is  suspected,  the  meters  in  the  cab  furnish 
valuable  information.  Steam  locomotive  enginemen,  by  long  experience 


94  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

under  set  conditions,  know  the  drawbar  pull  and  the  h.p.  developed  and 
the  boiler  overload,  but  only  in  a  general  way. 

Weights  are  not  excessive  with  electric  traction.  Weight  per  foot  of 
total  wheel  base  varies  from  6000  to  7000  pounds  and  is  only  10  per 
cent,  less  than  in  steam  locomotive  practice;  but  the  total  weight  of  an 
electric  locomotive  is  about  one-half  that  of  a  steam  locomotive  per 
h.  p.  developed.  In  motor-car  trains  the  weight  is  only  one-third,  and 
its  distribution  is  excellent.  The  decreased  strains  promote  safety. 

RELIABILITY. 

Reliability  in  electric  traction  results  from  simplicity.  Reliability 
of  service  has  been  radically  increased  by  electric  roads,  particularly  on 
trunk  lines  and  in  terminal  service.  This  fact  is  particularly  noticeable 
in  times  of  snow  storms  and  extremely  cold  weather.  Duplication  of 
boilers,  generators,  transmissions,  and  motors,  is  necessary  for  reliability, 
but  generally  these  do  not  add  to  the  total  cost  of  the  equipment  needed. 
A  single  motor  of  many  in  a  train  may  burn  out,  yet  not  affect  the  service. 
Controllers  are  complicated  yet  are  wonderfully  reliable. 

Results  on  electrified  roads  furnish  this  evidence: 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  was  a  good  example  of  a  well  managed 
steam  road  from  1872  to  1902.  Records  fairly  compared  show  double 
the  car-mileage  per  train-minute  delay,  with  electric  power.  "The 
delays  in  traffic  with  electric  power  were  less  than  40  per  cent,  as  numer- 
ous as  when  steam  power  was  used."  Still  well. 

New  York  Central  records  for  the  New  York  terminal  service  for 
four  months,  July,  August,  September,  and  October,  1908,  show  a  total 
train  delay  of  only  160  minutes. 

New  York  Central  records  for  1909  state  that  177,802  trains  were 
handled  by  electric  motors  with  a  total  train-minute  delay  of  36,563,  or 
an  average  detention  of  12  seconds  per  train,  a  record  unequalled  in  the 
history  of  railroading. 

"New  York  Central  electrical  service  during  1908  showed  there  was 
not  one  minute  delay  because  of  the  power  station,  substations,  or  trans- 
mission lines.  The  delays  from  feeders  were  7  train  minutes;  from  third- 
rail,  150  train  minutes;  from  electric  locomotives,  400  train  minutes,  out 
of  a  total  locomotive  mileage  of  1,000,000  and  a  total  multiple-unit  train 
mileage  of  over  3,500,000.  The  average  delay  was  1  minute  for  each 
3,000  train  miles  travelled.  The  average  train  movements  per  day  in 
and  out  of  the  Grand  Central  Station  was  450."  Katte,  before  New  York 
Railroad  Club,  March  19,  1909. 

Long  Island  Railroad  records:  "  Motor-car  miles  per  detention,  9514." 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore:   " Motor-car  miles  per  detention,  6118.'' 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS     95 

Interborough  Rapid  Transit  records,  noted  in  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  March 
28,  1908,  show  that  an  average  of  257,759  car-miles  were  operated  per 
1-minute  delay  in  power  supply  on  the  Manhattan  or  Elevated  division. 
Figures  showing  such  a  reliability  of  power  supply  have  never  been  pro- 
duced by  any  steam  railroad. 

Hudson  and  Manhattan  Railroad  motor-car  train  service  between 
New  York,  Jersey  City,  and  Hoboken,  averages  about  72,000  car  miles 
per  1-minute  delay.  The  service  is  severe,  with  the  recognized  dis- 
advantage of  underground  operation,  a  headway  during  rush  hours  of 
60  seconds,  2200  trains  per  day  on  a  double  track,  more  passengers  per 
car-mile  than  any  rapid  transit  line,  numerous  sharp  curves,  and  grades 
from  2.0  to  4.5  per  cent. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  locomotives  are  in  severe  tunnel-grade  service 
for  freight  and  passenger  traffic  between  Port  Huron  and  Sarnia,  and 
each  makes  over  100  miles  per  day.  Records  recently  given  by  the  elec- 
trical engineer  to  the  writer  show  one  8-minute  delay  in  one  year. 

New  York,  New  Haven  Hartford  records  made  for  the  year  1910 
show  that  the  electric  locomotive  failures  per  train-mile  were  only  two- 
thirds  as  frequent  as  those  of  the  former  and  existing  steam  locomoth  es. 
The  average  mileage  per  detention,  many  of  which  only  slightly  exceeded 
one  minute  duration  and  include  all  mechanical  trouble,  is  2  to  3  times 
better  than  with  steam  locomotives. 

The  reputation  of  a  railroad  for  reliability  of  schedule  speed,  and  for 
safety,  determines  the  amount  of  traffic,  in  some  measure.  The  weak 
roads,  the  ones  with  inferior  power  and  delayed  trains,  are  known  and 
avoided.  Reliable  service  and  ample  capacity  are  determining  features 
in  passenger  and  freight  haulage,  when  there  is  a  choice  of  routes. 

Improved  service  results  from  these  physical  advantages — capacity, 
flexibility,  simplicity,  safety,  and  reliability. 

That  electric  traction  can  meet  all  the  physical  requirements  for  train 
service  is  now  an  established  fact. 

FINANCIAL  ADVANTAGES. 

The  physical  characteristics  outlined  contribute  directly  to  definite 
commercial  and  economical  advantages.  Electric  traction,  however, 
always  necessitates  a  large  outlay  of  capital,  and  therefore  the  increased 
capital  charges  must  be  met  by  a  combination  of  increased  gross  earnings 
and  decreased  operating  expenses. 

GROSS  EARNINGS  INCREASED. 

The  adoption  of  electric  traction  for  train  service  has  generally  in- 
creased the  gross  earnings.  Electric  roads  have  increased  their  business 
per  mile  of  track  more  rapidly  than  other  roads.  Patronage  has  been 


96  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

attracted  and  traffic  has  been  developed,  so  that  electrically  operated 
trains  now  monopolize  the  suburban  traffic,  and  without  changes  in  fares 
and  rates  secure  the  interstate  business  and  local  freight  haulage. 

Gross  earnings  are  increased  when  the  facilities  offered,  methods  of 
transportation,  and  rates  are  satisfactory  to  shippers  and  to  travelers. 

In  general,  it  is  more  practical  in  railway  transportation,  electric  or 
steam,  to  increase  the  net  earnings  by  an  increase  in  gross  earnings  than 
by  a  reduction  in  the  operating  expenses. 

Motive  power  characteristics  of  any  road  influence  the  amount  of 
traffic  or  business.  The  railroad  which  handles  the  heaviest  freight-  and 
passenger-train  service  most  advantageously  will  find  that  preference 
is  given  to  it,  and  that  business  is  routed  via  its  road.  Electric  power 
can  provide  for  increased  train  loads,  with  the  same  or  higher  speed, 
and  facilitate  the  handling  at  terminals;  and  thus  the  profits  on  the  in- 
creased or  competitive  business  may  overbalance  the  increased  interest 
charges  for  electrification. 

Electric  roads  certainly  have  acquired  and  retained  traffic,  and  are 
progressing  rapidly  in  train  haulage. 

Railways  create  their  own  business  and  this  is  increased  when  the 
traffic  is  attracted  by  the  motive  power,  excellent  operative  results, 
rapid  acceleration,  high  schedule  speeds,  safety,  cleanliness,  increased 
conveniences,  and  comfort. 

Passenger  traffic  is  attracted  by  electric  trains  and  to  such  an  extent 
that,  with  equal  fares,  speed,  and  equipment,  the  public  seems  to  even 
discriminate  in  favor  of  electric  motive  power  wherever  it  can  be  obtained. 

Freight  service  of  a  high  grade  is  provided  by  electric  trains,  and  is 
used  by  manufacturers,  shippers,  and  merchants.  Ample  motive  power, 
rapid  work,  and  convenient  transportation  facilities  induce  traffic. 
These  advantages  are  steadily  increasing  the  amount  of  the  fast  or 
time  freight  business  of  electric  railways.  With  the  heaviest  traffic, 
and  on  grades,  the  freight  service  is  neither  bunched  nor  throttled, 
because,  with  ample  central  station  capacity,  it  is  not  necessary  to  reduce 
the  loads  or  the  speed,  or  to  delay  the  switching.  Freight  traffic  is  thus 
expedited. 

Electric  roads  have  now  equipped  freight  cars  with  electric  motors 
on  the  trucks;  and  these  cars,  when  loaded,  are  hauled  in  three-car  or 
longer  trains  for  the  local  service  on  lines  30  to  100  miles  long.  Box 
cars  with  motors  on  axles  are  loaded  with  freight,  and  haul  other  cars. 
Hundreds  of  30-  to  50-ton  locomotives  have  been  put  in  service. 

Trunk  lines  in  freight  service  can  increase  their  gross  earnings  by 
adopting  electric  power.  The  laws  of  induced  traffic  apply  equally 
well  to  trunk-line  freight  and  to  branch-line  passenger  traffic. 

The  present  method  of  operation,  with  steam  traction,  calls  for  a 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS     97 

train  load  which  the  locomotive  can  just  drag  up  the  ruling  grade.  The 
locomotive  works  overloaded,  at  1/2  to  3/4  stroke;  it  runs  at  6 
to  12  miles  per  hour;  it  delays  all  overtaking  and  opposing  traffic; 
and,  during  30  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  time,  it  is  held  at  sidings,  to  avoid 
other  traffic.  The  result  is  not  only  waste  of  fuel,  high  maintenance  per 
ton-mile,  waste  of  time  of  men,  but  a  loss  of  time  by  other  trains,  in  effi- 
cient use  of  track,  procrastination  in  freight  delivery,  extra  investments, 
car  and  locomotive  shortage,  dissatisfied  shippers,  and  disappointment; 
but  a  heavy  tonnage  per  train  appears  on  the  office  records. 

At  present  freight  service  is  not  satisfactory  to  shippers,  and  gross 
earnings,  or  business  offered,  are  reduced  when  longer,  slower  trains  are 
operated.  The  capacity  of  the  road  in  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  system 
is  restricted  by  the  opposing  freight  trains,  particularly  in  stormy  weather. 

The  value  of  a  reduction  in  train-miles  is  evident,  provided  speed  is 
well  maintained.  Expenses  of  operation  are  per  train-mile,  and  amount 
to  50  to  60  cents  for  transportation  expense,  exclusive  of  fixed  charges, 
office  and  general  expense;  so  that  on  a  100-mile  division  with  10  trains 
per  day,  or  3,650,000  train-miles  per  year,  the  expenses  are  about 
$1,825,000  per  year.  Any  small  reduction  in  train-miles  by  more  power- 
ful motive  power  makes  the  capitalized  saving  a  large  item. 

Low-grade  freight  service  may  be  considered  as  traffic  well  estab- 
lished and  somewhat  set  in  its  w-ays.  In  this  service,  longer  trains  can 
be  hauled  by  electric  power,  to  reduce  the  expense  per  ton-mile  hauled. 

Electric  locomotives  improve  the  present  methods  of  operation,  and 
haul  heavier  tonnage  at  a  higher  schedule  speed.  Traffic  is  not  delayed, 
and  congestion  is  prevented.  The  equipment  may  be  limited,  but 
worked  efficiently.  When  tonnage  is  carried  at  higher  speed,  the 
shipper  remembers  which  road  delivers  the  goods  on  time — winter  and 
summer — and  has  efficient  and  powerful  equipment. 

Traffic  can  be  induced  because  most  traffic  is  competitive.  Traffic 
is  given  to  the  trunk  line  with  adequate  motive  power,  electric  or  steam. 
New  business  and  manufacturing  is  started  along  a  trunk  line,  when  its 
reputation  for  service  is  good.  Business  is  attracted  by  service. 

The  central  idea  is  to  create  new  business,  and  to  increase  the  gross  earn- 
ings by  simply  providing  better  service,  and  higher  speed,  for  the  tonnage. 
The  greatest  field  for  electric  power  is  in  heavy  steady  freight  traffic, 
because  the  amount  of  business,  and  the  economies  to  be  effected  in  fuel 
and  labor,  are  larger  than  that  with  the  fluctuating  passenger  service 
alone. 

Terminal  traffic  is  made  attractive  by  the  use  of  electric  locomotives 

and  motor-car  trains.     Flexibility  is  also  available  for  freight  terminal 

service.     The  yards  can  be  cleared  as  the  freight  accumulates;  and  thus 

the  best  facilities  for  concentrated  working  at  congested  terminals  are 

7 


98  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

provided.  Extra  movements  are  not  required  for  switching  and 
coupling;  the  acceleration  rates  used  save  time;  signal  operations  are 
reduced  one-half;  and  complication  is  avoided. 

Terminal  traffic  is  ordinarily  dense;  real  estate  is  expensive,  and  track- 
age is  limited.  Minutes  or  even  seconds  saved,  per  train,  by  electric 
power  may  therefore  be  important,  in  order  that  the  limited  trackage 
may  be  used  efficiently. 

Boston  &  Albany  Railroad  has  considered  electric  traction  for  its 
Boston  terminal.  A.  H.  Smith,  Vice-president,  reports  that  if  electricity 
were  used  as  a  motive  power  there  would  be  an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  in 
terminal  facilities;  and  incidentally,  the  cost  of  rolling  stock  would  be 
reduced  20  per  cent.;  the  running  cost  decreased  30  to  50  per  cent.;  and 
the  repairs  to  rolling  stock  reduced  from  10  to  50  per  cent.  Report  to 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Railroad  Commissioners,  1908,  on  Electrification 
of  Boston  Steam  Terminals. 

Boston  Transit  Commission,  George  C.  Crocker,  Chairman,  reporting 
to  the  Legislature  in  April,  1911,  contended  that  the  increased  traffic 
certain  to  follow  the  adoption  of  electricity  within  the  Boston  district 
would  render  the  change  financially  profitable  to  the  railroads.  The  total 
traffic  at  the  steam  railroad  terminals  at  Boston  exceeds  60,000,000 
passengers  per  year — or  three  times  the  terminal  traffic  at  the  Grand 
Central  Station  at  New  York.  An  increase  of  20  per  cent  in  the  traffic, 
assuming  that  each  passenger  travels  ten  miles  within  the  electrical 
district,  at  1.6c.  per  mile,  would  add  $2,000,000  to  the  gross  earnings 
the  first  year,  and  more  thereafter,  which  would  pay  5  per  cent,  on  the 
estimated  cost  of  $40,000,000  required  to  electrify  all  the  lines  in  the 
metropolitan  district.  The  saving  in  real  estate  and  its  advantageous 
use  would  add  greatly  to  the  gross  earnings. 

Grand  Central  Station  terminal  at  New  York,  with  steam  service, 
had  a  car  capacity  of  366,  while  with  electric  service  it  will  have  1149. 
The  terminal  track  mileage  is  32  miles,  with  46  tracks  against  platforms. 
The  new  terminal  has  46 . 2  acres  on  the  main  level  and  23 . 6  on  the  sub- 
urban level.  Electricity  as  a  motive  power  changed  old  conditions,  and 
it  is  now  only  necessary  to  provide  sufficient  head  room  for  the  trains. 

Terminal  capacity  of  most  railroads  is  limited.  Many  railroads  have 
already  adopted  electric  power  at  terminals  to  increase  their  gross  earn- 
ings. Congestion  has  been  derceased,  and  train  movements  simplified. 
The  matter  is  important  because  the  cost  of  increasing  terminal  space 
and  facilities  is  enormous,  the  cost  being  decidedly  greater  than  the  entire 
cost  of  electrification  of  existing  terminals. 

Gross  earnings  are  increased  at  terminals  when  ample  capacity  and 
increased  drawbar  pull  per  pound  in  the  electric  motive  power  allow 
heavier  tonnage  and  faster  schedule  speeds  than  is  possible  in  steam 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS     99 

traction.  Electric  service  provides  for  much  greater  ton-mileage  with- 
out an  increase  in  track,  terminals,  or  car  equipment.  The  improve- 
ment is  of  a  magnitude  and  character  impossible  with  steam  service. 
The  increased  facility  for  handling  business  always  results  in  augmented 
traffic  and  increased  use  of  the  given  trackage,  roadbed  and  equipment. 
The  efficiency  of  a  road  is  proportional  to  the  ton-miles  of  freight,  or  the 
passenger  car-miles  hauled  in  a  unit  of  time. 

Terminal  yardage  in  some  roads  is  ample;  and  additional  cars  would 
mean  congestion  of  traffic.  What  is  wanted  to  prevent  congestion  is 
not  more  trackage,  or  more  locomotives,  but  efficient  switching  service. 
With  electric  traction  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  in  this  respect  is  possible. 

Delivery  of  freight  and  passengers  is  facilitated  and  oftentimes  is 
made  practical  only  with  electric  traction.  Convenient  terminals  are 
important  for  long  distance  traffic;  and  they  are  very  advantageous  for 
short-haul  traffic  or  rapid  transit  near  large  cities,  since  the  convenience 
of  the  passenger  and  freight  terminals  increases  the  gross  earnings. 
Interurban  electric  cars  which  pass  thru  city  business  districts  now 
carry  the  bulk  of  the  short-haul  passenger  traffic  and  much  of  the  light 
freight.  Problems  concernings  grade-crossings,  terminals  sites,  and  the 
best  use  of  real  estate  are  often  to  be  solved  by  the  use  of  a  subway 
leading  to  a  convenient  terminal.  Good  facilities  for  passenger  and 
freight  delivery,  especially  where  the  traffic  is  competitive,  are  paying 
investments. 

With  steam  traction,  passengers  are  often  carried  to  a  terminal  very 
far  from  the  business  and  resident  center  of  the  city,  and  a  ferry  trip,  a 
trolley  transfer,  or  a  long  walk  is  required.  Electric  trains  make  possible 
a  more  convenient  and  less  expensive  terminal,  and  this  is  especially  true 
if  a  subway,  tunnel,  or  elevated  approach  is  utilized. 

Branch  line  electrification  is  often  advantageous  because  with  electric 
power  on  the  main  line,  its  use  on  the  branch  line,  with  electricity  supplied 
from  the  central  power  stations  to  locomotives  and  to  motor-car  trains, 
is  practical.  Freight  or  passenger  cars,  wholly  or  partly  equipped  with 
electric  motors,  may  be  attached  to,  or  taken  from,  the  main  thru  train 
at  a  junction  point.  This  plan  increases  largely  the  facilities  for  service, 
induces  new  traffic,  and  results  in  decreased  cost  of  operation  per  train- 
mile  on  the  branch  line. 

Joint  use  of  tracks  by  both  steam  and  electric  trains  is  now  common 
on  the  same  right-of-way,  and  without  embarrassment  to  either.  The 
track,  the  terminals,  the  labor,  the  management,  and  the  capital  are 
thus  utilized  to  increase  the  gross  earnings. 

Frequent  train  service  is  commercially  practical  with  electric  traction, 
and  results  in  increased  earnings.  Ordinary  steam  railroad  traffic  must 
for  economy  of  operation  be  concentrated  in  several  heavy  trains  per  day. 


100          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

In  steam  service,  the  irreducible  elements  entering  into  train-mile  cost 
are  so  large  that,  in  practice,  a  passenger  train  must  earn  at  least  50  cents 
per  train-mile.  In  electric  service,  the  cost  per  train-mile  is  radically 
reduced.  Frequent  freight  train  service  is  furnished  without  a  propor- 
tional increase  in  expense  and,  for  times  of  light  traffic,  short  freight 
trains  may  be  run  with  economy.  This  reduction  in  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation makes  possible  a  more  frequent  freight  and  passenger  service, 
to  increase  the  gross  earnings. , 

In  ordinary  long-distance  electric  railway  traffic,  the  method  of  opera- 
tion is  to  use  many  short  or  long  trains  for  first-class  fast-freight  traffic, 
and  to  run  them  at  frequent  intervals,  instead  of  long  trains  at  infrequent 
intervals.  This  is  the  most  economical  method  in  a  small  electric  rail- 
way, but  it  is  not  essential  with  20  or  more  trains  each  way  per  day. 

The  load  on  the  electric  power  station  furnishing  service  for  frequent 
trains  with  long  runs  is  much  more  uniform  or  steady  than  for  infrequent 
service;  and  the  operating  expenses  and  amount  of  equipment  are  thereby 
reduced  per  ton-,  or  per  train-mile,  so  that  the  cost  of  power  is  not  neces- 
sarily greater  than  for  less  frequent,  longer  trains  operated  with  steam 
locomotives.  In  practice,  it  is  found  that  frequent  passenger  train  service 
and  the  steady  pull  of  the  thru  freight  trains,  on  long  lines,  provides  a 
most  desirable  load  on  the  power  station. 

Suburban  traffic  earnings  increase  in  amount  and  profit,  and  growth 
of  suburban  districts  results  when  electric  power  is  furnished  from  a  central 
station  for  frequent  train  service.  Suburban  business  is  generally  com- 
petitive business.  It  is  steady  and  dependable;  it  is  not  affected  by 
hard  times,  and  requires  small  organization. 

There  is  at  present  almost  universal  complaint  on  the  part  of  steam 
roads  that  subrban  service  does  not  pay.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  uni- 
versally accepted  as  a  fact  that  electric  suburban  lines  on  a  private  right- 
of-way,  with  termini  in  large  cities,  pay  handsomely,  when  in  the  hands 
of  skilfully  managed  electric  railway  organizations.  Steam  railroads  are 
now  seldom  willing  to  give  up  their  alleged  money-losing  suburban 
service  to  an  electric  railway  lessee;  nor  should  they,  in  the  light  of 
recent  electric  railroad  experience. 

"Economy  of  operation  derived  from  the  running  of  short  and  frequent 
trains  will  benefit  the  public  and  the  railroads.  Short,  frequent  trains 
are  exactly  what  the  suburbanite  needs.  The  flexibility  of  electric 
power  will  give  more  frequent  service  at  reduced  cost;  the  elimination  of 
switching  will  be  advantageous,  and  overcrowding  will  be  diminished. 
With  more  frequent  and  cleanly  service,  population  will  be  attracted  to 
the  suburban  territory  as  it  is  not  under  the  present  regime.  The 
traffic  will  be  generally  increased  by  the  introduction  of  electric  service." 
Report  of  United  Improvement  Association,  Boston,  1910. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC 


Suburban  lines  of  steam  railroads  will  certainly  be  gradually  con- 
verted to  electrical  operation,  to  get  more  satisfactory  results  for  the 
stockholders  and  for  the  public.  The  work  already  done,  and  the  econ- 
omic results  thereof,  justify  this  statement. 

Electric  trains  on  city  streets  radiating  from  our  large  cities  will  take 
the  business  away  from  the  steam  roads  until  they  in  turn  use  modern 
motive  power  for  suburban  train  service  extending  from  10  to  30  miles 
out  from  cities;  yet  the  steam  railroad,  with  its  superior  right-of-way, 
requires  a  much  smaller  investment  to  attract  this  business,  or  to  regain 
what  has  been  lost.  A  commuter  on  the  train  of  an  electrified  steam 
road  can  be  assured  of  a  comfortable  seat,  and  decidedly  better  service. 

"  The  present  cost  of  doing  suburban  business  upon  our  lines  is  excessive, 
it  is  only  by  largely  increasing  the  volume  that  we  can  hope  for  remuneration. 
To  handle  the  same  as  at  present  is  a  burden,  and  to  increase  the  volume 
and  reduce  the  cost  thru  the  substitution  of  electricity  for  steam  seems  the 
only  solution."  President  Mellin,  of  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
Railroad  in  annual  report,  June,  1904. 

FINANCIAL  ADVANTAGES—  OPERATING  EXPENSES  DECREASED. 

Statistics  on  classification  and  proportion  are  first  presented. 

OPERATING  EXPENSES  OF  STEAM  RAILROADS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Interstate  commerce  commission  report  for 
Year  ending  June  30. 


1899 


1908 


Maintenance  of  way  and  structures : 

Repairs  of  roadway 

Renewals  of  rails 

Renewals  of  ties 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  bridges,  culverts 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  fences,  crossings 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  buildings,  fixtures 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  docks  and  wharves 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  telegraph 

Other  expenses 


Maintenance  of  equipment: 

Superintendence 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  locomotives 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  passenger  cars 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  freight  cars 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  work  cars 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  marine  equipment, 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  shop  machinery 

Other  expenses 


10.720% 
1.322 
2.901 
2.374 

.487 
2.181 

.254 

.142 

.472 


.632 

6.208 

2.164 

7.038 

.210 

.247 

.512 

.584 


10.834% 
1.145 
2.388 
1.984 

.407 
2.288 

.224 

.211 

.175 


.567 

7.664 

1.932 

9.114 

.276 

.196 

.657 

.658 


i  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


OPERATING  EXPENSES  OF  STEAM  RAILROADS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Continued. 

Interstate  commerce  commission  report  for 

•\r          T      T       o/-\  1899 

Year  ending  June  30. 


Conducting  transportation : 

Superintendence. 1 . 767  1 . 761 

Engine  and  roundhouse  men 9 . 690  9 . 366 

Fuel  for  locomotives 9.478  11.471 

Water  supply  for  locomotives .  619  . 670 

Other  supplies  for  locomotives .  536  . 631 

Train  service '  7.583  6.389 

Train  supplies  and  expenses 1 . 527  1 . 597 

Switchmen,  flagmen,  and  watchmen 4. 149  4 . 509 

Telegraph  expenses j  1 . 906  1 . 763 

Station  service  and  supplies » 8 . 206  7 . 022 

Car  mileage — balance 2 . 010  1 . 427 

Loss  and  damage .  734  1 . 477 

Injuries  to  persons .  874  1 . 229 

Clearing  wrecks .  147  . 348 

Operating  marine  equipment .  868  . 667 

Outside  agencies  and  commissions 1 .975  1 . 300 

Rents  for  tracks,  yards,  and  terminals,  etc 2.388  2.023 

Other  expenses 2.574  1.894 

General  expense 4 . 521  3 . 736 


GrandTotal..  100. 000          1 00 . 000 


Operating  expenses  of  steam  railroads,  given  in  the  accompanying 
table,  are  changed  by  electrical  operation  about  as  follows: 

COMPARISON  OF  EXPENSES  OF  STEAM  AND  ELECTRICAL  OPERATION. 


Motive  power.  Steam.  Electric. 


Maintenance  of  roadway  and  rails I        11. 98%  10 . 00% 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  locomotives 7 . 66  4 . 00 

Engine  and  roundhouse  wages !         9 . 37  6 . 00 

Fuel  and  power  for  trains 11.48  6 . 00 

All  other  items 59 . 51  56 . 00 

Repairs  and  renewals  of  overhead  work 1 . 00 


Totals 100.00%  83.00% 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  103 

Repairs,  wages,  and  fuel  of  many  steam  railroads  are  frequently  30 
per  cent,  higher  than  the  average. 

The  exact  amount  which  can  be  saved  in  the  above  items  by.  the  use 
of  electric  power  depends  largely  upon  the  density  of  traffic,  the  cost  of 
coal  or  water  power,  and  the  local  situation;  but,  in  general,  competent 
engineers  hold  that  many  railroads  can  reduce  the  percentages  noted  for 
steam  operation  to  those  noted  for  electric  operation.  The  conditions 
are  even  more  favorable  for  a  reduction  in  operating  expenses  when  a 
new  road  is  built  and  operated  with  electric  power. 

Comparable  conditions  of  operation  must  be  considered,  including 
all  of  the  freight  and  passenger  service,  and  a  sufficiently  long  run. 

Decrease  in  operating  expenses,  with  electric  traction,  is  now  found  to 
amount  in  the  aggregate  to  a  relatively  large  sum.  The  subject  was 
first  analyzed  by  Mr.  William  Baxter  in  a  technical  article  in  the  Elec- 
trical Engineer,  New  York,  February  19,  1896.  The  writer  of  this  book 
presented  the  subject  in  greater  detail  in  a  paper  before  the  Northwest 
Railway  Club  in  January,  1901  (St.  Ry.  Review,  Jan.  15,  1901,  p.  39; 
St.  Ry.  Journ.,  March  9  and  30,  1901,  p.  328).  Messrs.  Lewis  B.  Stillwell 
and  Henry  S.  Putnam  have  treated  the  subject  comprehensively  in  a 
paper  on  "The  Substitution  of  the  Electric  Motor  for  the  Steam  Loco- 
motive," to  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  January,  1907. 

The  classification  of  operating  expenses  in  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission's  annual  reports  are  often  used  as  a  basis  for  comparisons 
of  the  cost  of  steam  operation  under  existing  conditions  with  the  probable 
operating  results  by  electricity.  Heretofore  the  latter  were  estimates 
by  operating  engineers  or  engineers  for  electrical  manufacturers.  Many 
were  biased.  However  the  records  of  the  Long  Island,  West  Jersey  & 
Seashore,  New  York  Central,  New  Haven,  Erie,  Grand  Trunk,  Great 
Northern,  and  many  other  railroads  are  actual.  The  records  are  now 
being  compared  with  results  from  steam  traction;  and  some  general 
facts  regarding  the  financial  value  of  electrification  are  thus  being- 
established.  Some  facts  are  being  furnished  to  electric  traction  engineers 
and  to  the  technical  press. 

The  physical  advantages  of  electric  power,  when  properly  applied  to 
railways,  have  actually  decreased  the  operating  expenses  and  increased 
the  net  earnings.  The  matter  therefore  deserves  study.  The  best  of  the 
meager  financial  data  which  are  now  available  will  be  considered  briefly, 
and  reasons  given  for  the  conclusions  reached. 

OPERATING  EXPENSES. 

Cost  of  maintenance  of  way,  particularly  of  the  roadway  and  rails, 
is  reduced  when  electric  power  is  used,  for  several  reasons: 


104          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

a.  Rotary  motion  and  steady  continuous  effort  of  balanced  armatures 
of  spring-mounted  motors  cause  less  track  shifting,  rail  spreading,  damage 
and  breakage  at  switches,  at  special  work  and  at  curves,  and  less  loss  to 
roadbed,  masonry,  steel  bridges,  heavy  grades,  and  trestles,   than  is 
caused  by  the  steam  locomotive,  with  its  long  rigid  wheel  bases,  its  con- 
centration of  weight  per  axle,  the  pounding  of  its  unbalanced  drivers, 
the  varying  reciprocating  effort  of  its  pistons,  and  its  enormous  thrusts 
and  nosing  effects. 

b.  Weight  of  electric  locomotives  is  about  one-half  of  the  weight  of 
steam  locomotives,  per  h.  p.  developed.     See  tables  pages  56  and  291. 

c.  Distribution  of  the  weight  of  the  electric  locomotive  and  of  the 
motor-car  train  is  materially  better  than  that  of  the  steam  locomotive 
hauled  train. 

"Mersey  Railway  records  for  three  years  of  steam  traction  fairly 
compared  with  three  years  of  electric  traction,  show  that  the  effect 
of  electric  traction  on  the  maintenance  of  the  permanent  way  has  been 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  maintenance  per  ton-mile  from  0.0416  cent  to 
0.0240  cent;  and  as  regards  the  life  of  rail  under  the  two  systems,  the 
average  rolling  load  over  the  track  before  the  rails  require  renewing  is 
increased  from  32,000,000  to  47,500,000  tons."  J.  Shaw,  before  British 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  November,  1909. 

Burgdorf  and  Thun  Railway,  a  steam  road,  electrified  in  1896,  has 
found  that  the  expense  for  track  maintenance  has  decreased.  Tissot. 

Metropolitan  West  Side  Elevated  Railroad,  Chicago,  reports: 

"The  fear  that  renewal  of  track,  frogs,  switches,  armatures,  commu-^ 
tators,  gears,  pinions,  etc.,  might  after  a  certain  period  become  expensive 
has  not  been  realized  after  10  years  of  constant  heavy  service.     At  the 
same  time  the  service  has  been  immensely  improved  in  frequency,  speed, 
and  general  desirability."     Brinckerhoff,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907. 

Non-spring-borne  weights  of  motors,  with  low  center  of  gravity,  on 
small  driving  wheels  are  harder  on  the  special  track  work,  crossings, 
and  curves  than  on  the  main  track.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  service 
with  electric  trains  is  at  least  double  that  of  steam;  and  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  way  and  structures,  and  of  rails,  increases  as  the  car  or  ton- 
mileage  increases.  The  additional  hammer  of  the  small  wheel  when 
going  over  the  intersecting  gap  of  the  crossing,  coupled  with  the  non- 
spring-borne  weight  of  the  motors,  has  been  found  to  decrease  the  life  of 
the  crossing.  On  the  straight  track,  no  definite  opinion  can  be  formed 
that  there  is  an  increase  or  decrease.  The  difference  is  not  very  marked. 
If  acceleration  rates  with  steam  locomotives  were  high,  the  weight  would 
be  increased,  making  steam  locomotives  more  severe  on  the  track. 

In  high-speed  electric  railroad  train  service,  weights  of  large  armatures 
and  motors  must  be  spring-borne. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  105 

Cost  of  maintenance   and  repairs   of  equipment  is  decreased  with 
electric  power  for  the  following  reasons : 

1.  Simplicity  of  moving  machinery  and  apparatus  is  evident. 

2.  Friction  of  electric  power  equipment  is  smaller. 

3.  Depreciation  rate  is  therefore  much  slower. 

4.  Inspection  required  to  maintain  equipment  is  less. 

5.  Repairs  and  renewals  of  electric  locomotives  and  motor  cars  are 
less  than  with  steam  locomotives,  as  is  detailed  later. 

6.  Coal    and    water    supply   substations,    with    labor    to   maintain 
them,  are  not  needed.      These  are  concentrated  for  economy  at  one 
station. 

7.  Fewer  locomotives  are  required  to  do  an  equal  amount  of  work. 
Three  electric  locomotives  will  ordinarily  replace  five  steam  locomotives. 

8.  Wrecks  are  fewer,  and  the  expense  in  connection  therewith  is  less. 
Wrecks   are   decreased   by  automatic   electric   devices,   meters,   circuit 
control,  etc.,  as  described  under  Safety. 

9.  Cleaning   and   renovating  of   car  equipment   is   a   smaller  item. 
Steam  locomotive  smoke,  dirt,  and  cinders,  when  mixed  with  condensed 
steam,  cling  tenaciously  to  cars,  seats,  varnish,  and  paint;  and  their 
removal  is  expensive,  and  wears  the  materials. 

10.  Painting  and  cleaning  of  cars,  stations,  overhead  bridges,  and 
tunnels  are  less  in  the  absence  of  locomotive  gas  and  smoke. 

11.  Corrosion  of  steel  in  structure,  viaducts,  telegraph  wires,  signal 
cables,  pipes,  rails  and  spikes  is  also  less. 

These  items,  except  the  last,  are  considered  in  detail  in  other  chapters, 
under  Maintenance  of  Electric  Locomotives,  and  Motor  Cars. 
Wage  expense  is  reduced  where  electric  traction  is  used. 

1.  Locomotive  and  roundhouse  work  is  less.     The  cost  of  maintenance 
of  the  electric  locomotive  is  about  50  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  steam  loco- 
motive.    The  inspection  and  repairs  are  less;    time  is  not  required  for 
drawing  fires,  washing  flues,  cleaning  boilers,  etc. 

2.  Locomotive  enginemen  do  not  receive  the  same  high  rate  of  wages 
on  electric  locomotives  as  on  steam  locomotives.     Electric  locomotive 
operation  is  simpler  and  requires  less  skill  than  the  running  of  a  compli- 
cated power  house  on  wheels.     On  many  electrified  roads  the  same  wages 
are  paid  now  as  before,  but  this  may  not  be  continued.     The  New  York 
Central  zone  rates  are  38.5  cents  for  enginemen  on  electric  and   steam 
trains,  23  cents  for  firemen  on  steam  trains  and  21  cents  for  helpers  on 
electric  trains. 

3.  Helpers  are  generally  superfluous  with  electric  locomotives,  altho 
one  helper  is  always  necessary  on  heavy  trunk-line,  high-speed  service. 
There  is  some  work,  in  terminal  yards,  on  work  trains,  construction  work, 
branch  lines,  etc.,  where  one  locomotive  man  is  ample.     On  some  German 


106          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

and  Italian  railways  the  train  conductor  rides  with  the  electric  locomotive 
operator;  and  is  competent  to  take  his  place  in  an  emergency. 

Motor-car  passenger  trains  require  only  three  men  per  6-  to  10-car 
train,  a  motorman,  conductor,  and  brakeman;  and  the  total  wages  paid 
are  about  one-half  of  what  was  formerly  paid  for  the  same  service  with 
locomotive-hauled  trains. 

New  York  Central  motor-car  trains  run  at  high  schedule  speed  in  the 
electric  zone  from  the  Grand  Central  Station  to  North  White  Plains,  24 
miles,  and  to  Hastings,  20  miles;  and  with  a  car  mileage  of  4,000,000  per 
year,  a  large  saving  is  made.  Similar  results  are  obtained  on  other  elec- 
trified steam  roads. 

4.  Automatic  devices,  like  the  dead-man 's  handle,  and  interlocking 
devices  on  control  mechanism,  make  two  men  in  the  cab  unnecessary  in 
many  cases.     Meters  in  the  cab  facilitate  intelligent  operation. 

5.  Ton-mileage  per  day  with  electric  traction  for  freight  trains  is 
also  greater.     A  saving  of  25  per  cent,  is  to  be  expected  in  wages,  because 
of  the  higher  schedule  speed  of  freight  trains,  particularly  so  on  heavy 
grades.      Electric   passenger  locomotives  make  double   the  mileage  of 
steam  passenger  locomotiveson    the  same  line,  because  there  are  fewer 
and  quicker  switching  movements  and  less  time  is  spent  in  repair  and 
inspection,  in  building  fires,  in  washing  out,  etc. 

6.  Increased  hauling  capacity  with  electric  traction  makes  a  remark- 
able saving  in  the  wages  of  the  engineman  and  the  fireman,  and  also  in 
the  wages  of  the  entire  train  crew,  because,  with  the  longer  train  at  some- 
what higher  speed,  the  wages  paid  per  ton-mile  hauled,  or  per  train-mile 
run,  are  less. 

7.  Double-heading  of  electric  locomotives  does  not  require  a  duplica- 
tion of  the  locomotive  crew,  because  the  control  is  so  arranged  that  one 
engineman  operates  both  units. 

8.  Time  is  not  wasted,  with  electric  power,  in  delays  caused  by  lack 
of  good  coal,  inefficient  steaming,  bad  water,  and  cold  weather;  and  less 
time  is  needed  for  road  repairs. 

9.  Electric  locomotives  can  perform  more  continuous  service,  and 
wages  expended  in  shopping  are  saved. 

10.  Less  time  and  labor  are  required  for  switching  service. 

11.  Labor  is  more  efficient,  because  a  better  class  of  skilled  men  and 
laborers  are  attracted  by  electrical  operation.     Cleanliness   and  skilled 
mechanical  work  are  contrasted  with  washing  of  hot  boilers,  removal  of 
boiler  mud  and  scale,  dirt  and  smoke,  and  ash  and  clinker  cleaning. 

The  wages  paid  at  the  central  electric  power  station  and  on  trans- 
mission line  repairs  are  in  themselves  a  large  item;  but  they  are  a  small 
item  per  train-mile,  or  per  ton-mile  hauled. 

12.  Speed  of  suburban  trains  is  increased,  25  to  50  per  cent.     It  is 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  107 

clear  that  higher  speed  saves  in  wages.  In  service  with  frequent  stops, 
the  rapid  acceleration  of  trains  radically  increases  the  schedule  speed. 
In  fact,  electric  railway  operators  join  in  stating  that  steam  locomotives 
could  not  handle  the  now  largely  augmented  traffic  and  the  present  sched- 
ules, without  prohibitive  expenditures  for  terminal  trackage,  locomotives, 
cars,  trains,  and  wages. 

Fuel  and  motive  power  expenses  per  ton-mile  or  per  train-mile  hauled 
are  reduced  about  50  per  cent,  with  electric  traction,  because: 

1.  Cheap  water  power  reduces  the  cost  of  fuel,  and  for  that  reason 
water  power  has  been  adopted  by  a  large  number  of  electric  railways. 
The  subject  is  detailed  under  Steam,  Gas,  and  Water  Power  Plants. 

2.  Cheap  fuels  reduce  expenses.     The  cheapest  fuels  are  burned  on 
suitable  stokers  of  large  boilers  with  ample  draft  in  modern  power  plants 
The  lowest  grades  of  fuel,  lignites,  culm,  cheap  screenings,  and  waste 
products  can  be  burned  under  properly  designed  boilers  and  in  gas  pro- 
ducers.    It  is  predicted  that  many  important  railway  power  plants  will 
be  built  at  coal  mines  to  use  the  abundant  lowr-grade  fuel  which  is  now 
wasted  and  that  the  power  will  be  transmitted  by  wires,  rather  than  by 
high-grade  bituminous  or  anthracite  coal,  or  fuel  oil  for  service  near 
terminals,   tunnels,  resident   districts,  flour   mills   and   factories   where 
cleanliness  is  necessary;   and  at  forests,  wharves,  sheds,  and  yards  where 
the  fire  risk  must  be  reduced. 

3.  Power  is  produced  efficiently  on  a  large  scale,  by  means  of  eco- 
nomical apparatus,  in  one  plant,  and  not  in  many  relatively  wasteful  small 
locomotive  plants. 

"  Railroads  will  have  to  come  to  electricity,  not  only  to  get  a  larger 
unit  of  motive  power,  but  on  account  of  fuel.  We  have  to  use  fuel  to 
carry  our  fuel  and  there  are  certain  limitations  here,  particularly  when 
we  consider  the  distribution  of  the  coal-producing  regions  with  respect 
to  the  major  avenues  of  traffic.  This  great  saving,  resulting  from  the 
use  of  electricity  is  apparent,  quite  aside  from  the  increased  tractive 
power  and  the  train  load."  E.  H.  Harriman,  Elec.  World,  March, 
1907,  p.  538. 

4.  Furnace  efficiency  of  boilers  is  high  because:     Furnaces  and  grates 
are  properly  designed  to  burn  the  bituminous  coal  available;  coal  is  fed 
and  ash  is  removed  continually,  not  intermittently;  sufficient  and  proper 
draft  is  provided;  firemen  are  skilled;  combustion  space  is  ample;  fire- 
brick arches  further  combustion  before  the  gases  reach  the  boiler  surfaces; 
load  is  uniform  or  does  not  change  quickly;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  have 
great  overloads  at  a  central  station.     The  opportunity  to  burn  common 
bituminous  coal  efficiently,  in  an  individual  locomotive  furnace,  does  not 
exist.     A  central  station  furnace  which  smokes  is  seldom  found,  and 


108          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

indicates  gross  negligence,  lack  of  common  engineering  skill  in  design, 
or  lack  of  money  to  build  properly. 

5.  Utilization  of  the  power  produced  is  efficient  because  there  is  a 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  power  required. 

a.  Weight  of  the  electric  locomotive  is  only  one-half  of  the  weight  of 
the  steam  locomotive  and  tender,  as  was  explained.     The  excess  weight 
of  a  common  170-ton  steam  passenger  locomotive,  over  a  100-ton  electric 
locomotive,  with  equal  weight  on  drivers  and  with  equal  capacity,  is 
large.     Many  electric  locomotives  weigh  less  than  a  loaded  coal  and 
water  tender.     If  hauled  100  miles  per  day,  300  days  per  year,  at  a  net 
cost  of  $0.003  per  ton-mile,  the  saving  of  70  tons,  made  possible  with 
electric  power,  is  $6300  per  year  per  locomotive.     An  additional  saving 
of  15  to  45  per  cent,  in  weight,  is  made  by  the  motor-car  train. 

b.  Power  is  transmitted    to    the   axles  with  minimum  friction,  by 
means  of  economical  motor  drive,  and  not  by  cumbersome  mechanism. 
Head-end,  bearing,  and  rubbing  friction  are  less. 

6.  Regeneration  of  energy  on  the  down  grade  and  in  braking,  which 
is  practical,  represents  a  large  possible  saving. 

Fuel  saving  is  discussed  qualitatively  under  "Electric  Locomotives." 

INVESTMENTS  INCREASED  OR  DECREASED. 

Investments  are  generally  increased  with  electric  traction.  This  is 
clearly  a  set-off.  Net  earnings  are  reduced  by  the  added  interest,  the 
depreciation,  and  the  taxes  on  the  investment  in  the  power  plant,  trans- 
mission lines,  and  motor  equipment. 

Capitalization  per  mile  of  track  is  not  an  indication  of  high  or  low  net 
earnings.  The  important  point  in  operation  is  to  utilize  the  investment 
in  the  road  to  the  highest  degree  and  to  reduce  the  capital  charges  by 
providing  the  maximum  tonnage  per  mile  of  track.  Ample  capacity  and 
economical  power  with  electric  traction  favor  this  plan  of  operation. 

Higher  investment  in  electric  motive  power  equipment  is  a  drawback, 
but  the  cost  of  electric  motive  power  is  only  a  fraction,  about  20  per  cent., 
of  the  total  cost  of  a  railway,  as  is  detailed  in  Chapter  XIV. 

Investments  are  decreased  in  many  cases: 

a.  Immense   investments    are   unnecessary   when,    with   reasonable 
investments  in  electric  motive  power,  existing  facilities  and  expensive 
terminals  suffice  for  decidedly  greater  traffic. 

b.  Terminals  and  entrances  to  our  larger  cities,  for  both  freight  and 
passenger  tracks,  may  be  made  underground,  or  by  superimposing  the 
tracks,  either  above  or  below  the  ground  level. 

c.  Grades   may   be   steeper,    and   total   investments   be   decreased, 
because  the  height  and  length  of  bridges  may  be  less,  and  roads  may  be 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  109 

shorter.  The  Colorado  Springs  and  Cripple  Creek  Railway  is  19  miles 
long,  with  5  per  cent,  ruling  grade  and  3  per  cent,  average  grade;  while 
the  steam  railroad,  with  low  grades  between  the  same  terminal  points, 
17  miles  apart  by  air  line,  is  52  miles  long.  E.  T.  W.,  Sept.  25,  1909. 

d.  Limiting   grades   are   higher   on  electric  railroads.     The   steeper 
grade  may  result  in  a  shorter  route,  or  in  reduction  in  the  amount  of  the 
cuts  and  fills.     The  traffic  is  not  throttled  or  congested  at  the  mountain 
division.     The  " ruling  grade"  becomes  an  obsolete  term  and,  in  place 
thereof,  the  longer  trains  are  limited  by  the  "ruling  curve." 

e.  Roadbed  may  cost  less.     Narrow-gage  railways,  which  are  com- 
mon in  Europe,  use  electric  power  where  steam  locomotives  would  not 
have  the  requisite  capacity  for  heavy  and  long  trains. 

f.  Substructures  may  be  lighter  with  electric  power,  because  of  the 
weight  distribution  and  the  absence  of  reciprocating  machinery. 

g.  Motive  power  equipment  and  rolling  stock  are  used  efficiently. 
More  work  is  accomplished  over  a  given  track,  or  tunnel  section,  or  over 
a  mountain  division.     Time  is  saved  by  higher  speed  and  by  efficient 
and  simple  movements,  to  prevent  further  investments  for  double  tracks, 
bridges,  tunnels,  and  rolling  equipment.     The  cost  or  amount  of  rolling 
stock  needed  is  frequently  reduced  20  per  cent,  by  advantageous  use. 

h.  Three  electric  locomotives  replace  five  steam  locomotives,  because 
the  former  can  be  kept  almost  continuously  in  operation. 

ti.  Round-house  equipment  is  reduced,  by  the  substitution  of  inspec- 
tion sheds  for  round  houses,  turn-tables,  heating  plants  to  wash  out  boilers, 
coaling  plants,  pumps,  water  tanks,  and  piping. 

j.  Heavier  traffic  on  2.2  per  cent,  grades  is  practicable  with  electric 
power;  and  this  prevents  immense  investments  for  double  tracking  or 
for  grade  reduction.  As  an  example  of  the  latter: 

Bernese-Alps  Railway,  Switzerland,  has  recently  bored  a  new  double- 
track  tunnel,  the  Loetschberg,  thru  the  Alps,  for  a  direct  north  and 
south  line  between  London  and  Milan,  via  Berne  and  the  Simplon  Tun- 
nel. Two  distinct  plans  for  handling  the  traffic  were  under  consideration 
— a  1.5  per  cent,  grade  route  with  a  tunnel  13.1  miles  long,  and  a  2.7  per 
cent,  grade  route  with  a  tunnel  8.5  miles  long.  Steam  locomotives  would 
have  required  the  low-grade  route.  Electric  locomotives  are  used  and 
they  saved  about  $6,000,000  in  the  cost  of  the  tunnel. 

EARNING  POWER  AND  NET  EARNINGS. 

The  ratio  of  gross  earnings  less  operating  expenses  to  investment  is  a 
measure  of  the  earning  power  of  railways.  It  is  therefore  essential  that 
gross  earnings  be"  larger,  or  that  operating  expenses  be  smaller,  in  order 
that  net  earnings  shall  be  in  proportion  to  the  total  capital  invested. 


110  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Analysis  is  simpler  when  the  increased  net  earnings  are  compared  with 
the  increased  capital  required  to  furnish  the  electrified  track  or  other 
improvements. 

Gross  earnings  are  easily  compared;  but  a  comparison  of  operating 
expenses,  before  and  after  electrification,  is  difficult.  It  is  practically 
impossible  to  compare  directly  the  cost  of  steam  and  electricity  per  train- 
mile.  The  introduction  of  electricity  generally  alters  the  type  and  size 
of  the  train.  Each  steam  locomotive-hauled  train  with  five  to  ten 
passenger  cars  is  changed  to  several  3-  or  4-car  trains,  operating  on  the 
multiple-unit  system.  In  freight  service  the  trains  may  be  either 
decidedly  longer,  or  have  a  higher  schedule  speed. 

Comparison  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  good  service,  on  the  basis 
of  traffic  hauled,  per  seat-mile,  per  car-mile,  per  ton-mile,  but  not  per 
train-mile.  In  some  cases  it  is  found  that  the  cost  of  service  by  electricity 
is  higher  than  for  service  by  steam,  because  of  the  faster  rate  of  acceler- 
ation, higher  speed,  better  care  of  equipment,  and  the  better  service 
provided;  but  all  of  these  may  radically  increase  the  gross  earnings.  It 
is  recognized  that  there  is  an  increase  of  traffic,  and  a  changed  condition 
of  business,  when  electric  power  is  used  on  a  large  scale  or  main  lines. 

INCOME   ACCOUNT   OF   STEAM    RAILROADS   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 
Item.  Total,  1908.        Per  track-mile.      1908.       1907. 


100%  100% 

68  60 

32  34 

19  16 

9  9 

4  9 

Cost  of  road  and  equipment  was  $19,472,650,000  for  333,646  miles 
of  single  track  or  $58,363  per  mile.  The  year  1908  represents  a  lean 
year  while  1907  was  more  prosperous. 

EXAMPLES  OF  FINANCIAL  ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 

Data  per  mile  of  track  on  a  prairie  division: 

Motive  power Steam  Electric 

Investment $30,000.  $36,000. 

Gross  earnings $5000 .  $6000 . 

Operating  expenses 2800 .  (56%)  3000 .  (50%) 

Net  earnings 2200.  3000 . 

Interest  on  investment at  6%          1800.  at  7%      2520. 

Net  income .  .  400 .  480 . 


Gross  earnings  
Operating  expenses  

.    $2,458,000,000 
.      1,670,000,000 

$7,366 
5,005 

Income  from  operation  
Interest  on  debts,  paid  
Dividends  paid.  . 

.  i        788,000,000 
459,000,000 
228,000,000 

2,361 
1,377 

682 

Available  for  improvements.  .  . 

101,000,000 

302 

ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  111 


Estimate  for  a  proposed  200-mile  road: 
Assets:  January  1st.  1910 

Cost  of  road  and  equipment $8,000,000 

Materials  and  cash  on  hand 400,000 

Total  cost  of  road 8,400,000 

Liabilities: 

Capital  stock 4,000,000 

Funded  debt 4,000,000 

Surplus 400,000 

Total..                                                               .  8,400,000 


1912 

10,000,000 

430,000 

10,430,000 


4,000,000 

6,000,000 

430,000 

10,430,000 


Year  ending  Dec.  31. 
Motive  power. 


Gross  earnings  from  operation 

Less  operating  expenses  and  depreciation .  .  . 

Income  from  operation 

Deductions  from  income: 

Interest  on  funded  debt,  5% 

Net  income  or  net  earnings 

Dividends  on  stock,  3% 

Surplus  from  operation 


1910 

Steam. 

1,000,000 

650,000 

350,000 

200,000 

150,000 

120,000 

30,000 


(65%) 


1912 

Electric. 
1,250,000 
750,000    (60%) 
500,OOCT 

300,000 


200,000 
120,000 

"so^ooo" 


Electric  traction  increases  the  cost  of  road  and  equipment,  and  thus  the  interest 
charges  on  funded  debt  are  greater.     Gross  earnings  increase,  and  expenses  decrease. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  Company  statistics  are  presented: 


Comparison : 


Steam,  1896.        Electric,  1904. 


Operating  expenses,  per  cent 

Passengers  carried 

Car  mileage 

Receipts  per  car-mile 

Operating  expense  per  car-mile 

Operating  expense  per  passenger 


58.1 

185,138,000. 
43,241,000. 

21.600 

12.20 

2.92 


41.2 

286,634,000. 
61,743,000. 

22.95^ 
9.50 
2.04 


Operating  expenses  per  car-mile: 


Steam  1901 


Electric  1904 


Maintenance  of  way  and  structures. . . 
Maintenance  of  equipment  and  plant. 

Power  supply,  for  transportation 

Total  operating  expense  per  car-mile. 


0.927^ 
1.304 
10.046 


12.277 


1.047^ 
1.325 
7.096 
9 . 468 


112  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  Railway,  electrified  in  1909,  reports 
that  there  has  been,  as  compared  with  the  corresponding  period  of  the 
last  year  of  steam  operation,  an  increase  of  55  per  cent,  in  the  number 
of  passengers  carried,  and  a  recovery  of  practically  the  whole  traffic 
abstracted  by  the  local  electric  tramways. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad,  running  between  Philadelphia  and 
Atlantic  City,  increased  in  traffic  at  a  rate  of  less  than  2  per  cent,  per 
year  until  it  was  electrified  in  1907.  The  first  year  showed  an  increase 
in  gross  earnings  of  20  per  cent,  over  the  preceding  year  of  steam  opera- 
tion; and  operating  expenses  were  decreased.  See  Chapter  XV. 

New  York  Central  Railroad  terminal  division  at  New  York,  where 
economy  could  hardly  be  expected  because  of  the  short  distance  and 
the  time  electric  power  had  been  used,  to  Sept.,  1907,  shows  a  decided 
decrease  in  operating  expenses  after  allowing  for  the  increased  capital 
charges  for  electrification;  the  prediction  is  made  of  still  larger  savings. 
Wilgus,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March,  1908. 

Long  Island  Railroad  was  the  first  steam  railroad  company  to  use 
electric  power  on  a  large  scale  over  a  considerable  portion  of  its  line. 
Operation  began  in  1905.  The  1909  mileage  was  120;  the  number  of 
motor  cars,  used  in  3-  to  6-car  trains,  was  136.  The  annual  report  of 
President  Peters  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1908,  endorsed  the 
electric  railway  service,  which  had  been  in  operation  for  about  four  years. 
In  addressing  the  stockholders  he  stated: 

"The  extension  of  electric  service  from  Queens  to  Hernpstead  was 
put  in  service  May  26,  1908,  and  all  train  service  to  Hernpstead  branch 
has  since  been  operated  by  electric  power.  The  results  therefrom  are 
very  satisfactory  both  in  increased  business  and  in  economy.  The 
gerieral  results  on  that  portion  of  your  system  which  has  been  electrified 
fully  justified  the  expenditure  made  in  accomplishing  that  result." 

Long  Island  Railroad  has  recently  announced  that,  as  a  result  of 
the  electrification,  the  road  was  operating  at  a  cost  sufficiently  below 
that  of  steam  operation  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  extra  investment 
and  to  yield  a  handsome  surplus.  The  steam  road  had  been  operating 
with  an  annual  deficit.  The  results  were  a  pleasant  surprise,  in  view  of 
the  incompleteness  of  the  installation  and  the  large  expenditures  at  termi- 
nals, power  stations,  etc.,  from  which  only  a  small  advantage  could  be 
at  once  derived. 

BY-PRODUCTS  OF  ELECTRIFICATION. 

By-products,  or  incidental  advantages,  often  accompany  electric 
traction.  For  example,  several  by-products  of  the  New  York  Central 
electrification  were  the  following: 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  113 

Underground  or  sub-tracks  were  used  for  all  suburban  railway  trains, 
the  level  being  retained  for  main-line  trains.  This  saved,  at  the  ter- 
minal station,  two  city  blocks,  valued  at  $50,000,000. 

There  was  a  saving  of  $200,000  per  year  in  current  for  lighting 
terminal  yards,  power  for  isolated  service,  and  for  freight  elevators. 

There  was  a  saving  of  $114,000  per  year  on  switching,  now  carried  on 
during  the  period  of  non-peak  loads  at  the  power  station. 

Safety  devices  in  connection  with  signals  allowed  a  greater  degree  of 
automatic  control  of  train  movement.  The  second  engineman  was 
superfluous,  even  for  checking  signals.  A  great  saving  in  labor  resulted. 

Railway  plant  service  by  electric  power  combined  effectually  with 
electric  Jighting,  air  compressing,  water  pumping,  exhaust  steam  heating, 
and  power  service,  to  reduce  materially  the  fuel,  labor,  and  maintenance 
cost  of  these  services. 

Double  decking  of  freight  tracks  in  buildings  and  freight  storage 
warehouses  will  economize  in  real  estate,  and  in  freight  handling. 

Streets  again  occupy  the  space  over  many  depressed  tracks  leading 
from  the  railroad  terminal.  Frequently  these  cross  streets  are  several 
blocks  long,  and  give  to  the  public  very  valuable  and  increased  facilities 
for  normal  street  traffic. 

Buildings  were  placed  over  the  tracks  to  use  the  valuable  real  estate 
for  immense  office  buildings,  substations,  a  Government  Post  Office,  etc. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  terminal  building,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
important  office  buildings  in  New  York  City,  is  located  over  subterranean 
railway  loops. 

Real  estate  salvage  following  electrification  generally  amounts  to 
large  sums,  since  the  abolition  of  the  steam  locomotive  enables  sweeping 
changes  to  be  affected  along  the  route,  and  in  the  terminals  and  yards, 
allowing  the  construction  of  new  streets,  and  the  building  of  commercial 
structures,  union  stations,  post  office  substations,  etc.,  immediately 
above  the  electrified  trackage.  Real  estate  and  property  along  the 
right-of-way  generally  show  a  great  increase  in  value  for  residential 
and  office  purposes,  resulting  from  cleanliness  and  the  absence  of  noise 
from  exhaust  steam. 

ADVANTAGES  DURING  BUSINESS  DEPRESSIONS. 

Advantages  during  business  depressions,  such  as  the  financial  flurry 
which  began  in  October,  1907,  and  ended  about  May,  1909,  are  noted. 

The  Commercial  and  Financial  Chronicle  of  March,  1908,  gives  the 
January,  1908,  losses  by  steam  railroads,  compared  with  those  of  January, 
1907;  and  the  Electric  Railway  Journal  of  April  4,  1908,  quotes  the  gains 
of  electric  railways  for  the  same  period. 
8 


114  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAIL  WAY- TRAINS 

COMPARISON  OF  EARNINGS 


-D   .,  103  representative  steam     29  representative  electric 

roads.  roads.. 


Gross  earnings 

Net  earnings 


12.9%  loss.  5.3%  gain. 

22.9%   loss.  10.0%  gain. 


Statistics  recently  compiled  show  that  electric  railways  fared  much 
better  than  steam  railroads  during  the  late  depression. 

Returns  from  203  electric  railways  show  an  increase  in  both  gross  and 
net  earnings  in  1908  over  1907.  The  gross  earnings  for  1908  were 
reported  as  $280,262,681  against  $278,387,557  in  1907,  and  net  earnings, 
$117,441,782  as  against  $114,406,399  in  1907. 

The  gross  earnings  of  164  steam  railroads  in  1908  decreased  11.89 
per  cent,  compared  with  1907,  while  electric  railways  increased  their 
gross  and  net  earnings.  If  the  record  had  been  on  heavy  electric  rail- 
ways in  place  of  strictly  passenger  lines  they  would  have  been  more 
comparable.  Voegelin,  in  Railroad  Age  Gazette,  Dec.  24,  1909. 

ADVANTAGES  IN  COMPETITION. 

Advantages  in  competition  are  obvious  at  this  time.  Lower  fares 
and  freight  rates  will  be  the  rule  with  electric  trains  because  the  cost  of 
operation  with  electric  power  is  lower;  because  the  method  of  operation 
is  improved;  and  because,  cumulatively,  the  density  of  increased  traffic 
makes  for  economy.  The  product  of  the  lower  fare  by  the  number  of 
passengers,  and  the  product  of  the  lower  freight  tariff  by  the  tonnage  are 
both  greater  than  the  corresponding  income  from  less  business  at  higher 
rates,  when  the  railway  uses  a  motive  power  having  the  greatest  physical 
advantages  and  economy  of  operation. 

Mersey  Railway,  of  England,  Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,  and  scores  of  steam 
railroads  have  been  compelled  to  adopt  electric  power  to  avoid  bankruptcy. 

Boston  &  Albany,  Boston  &  Maine,  and  the  New  Haven  road  have  recently  been 
subject  to  such  competition  by  the  growth  of  suburban  electric  railways  at  Boston 
that,  to  regain  their  traffic  from  their  terminals  and  to  handle  business  with  economy, 
they  are  now  considering  the  electrification  of  large  zones  radiating  from  the  North 
and  South  stations  at  Boston. 

A  very  large  traffic,  which  was  previously  taken  away  from  the  Lancashire  & 
Yorkshire  Railway  by  electric  lines  which  ran  parallel  to  it,  was  regained,  after  the 
road  was  electrified,  according  to  J.  A.  F.  Aspinwall,  General  Manager  and  Engineer. 

The  subject  of  competition  and  patronage  was  reviewed  on  pages  20,  21,  22. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  115 

SOCIAL  ADVANTAGES. 

One  advantage  of  electric  traction,  which  the  broad-gage  engineer 
should  not  fail  to  see,  is  that  by  its  use  human  society  is  distinctly  bene- 
fited. Engineers  are  employed  primarily  to  save  money  for  stockholders. 
There  is,  however,  real  and  legitimate  gratification  when  the  engineer 
realizes  that,  with  the  reduction  of  the  cost  of  freight  and  passenger 
transportation  by  the  use  of  better  and  more  economical  motive  power, 
he  has  effected  safety,  health,  and  comfort  in  travel,  a  conservation  of 
natural  resources,  and  improved  social  conditions.  Professional  success 
of  the  engineer  may  well  include  fame  and  honor  and^the  accumulation 
of  wealth,  all  of  which  are  worthy  ends;  but  if  engineering  is  a  worthy 
art,  it  must  also  include  the  promotion  of  welfare  and  happiness  of  others, 
and  a  bettered  condition  of  humanity. 

There  is  no  work  which  gives  such  gratification  in  transportation 
service  as  the  making  of  provision  for  greater  safety  to  property,  and 
particularly  to  life.  Safer  travel,  fewer  wrecks,  and  a  saving  in  time 
furnish  to  all  society  pleasures,  contentment,  and  freedom  from  anxiety. 
The  engineer  often  has  an  opportunity  to  prevent  social  unhappiness 
incidental  to  economic  waste.  There  is  an  incentive  in  such  work. 

Conservation  of  natural  resources  results  from  efficient  use  of  coal. 
Much  of  the  coal  mined  is  now  used  very  wastefully  in  locomotive  fur- 
naces. The  coal  used  at  the  central  electric  railway  power  station  is 
burned  economically,  by  mechanical  stokers,  and  the  records  show  that 
50  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  fuel  is  saved,  per  ton-mile,  in  transportation. 
Coal  is  expensive;  it  is  generally  hauled  500  to  1000  miles  before  it  is 
used,  and  it  should  be  burned  in  an  economical  manner. 

Labor  is  decreased,  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  the  engineer  to  save 
coal,  which  now  requires  so  much  brutal  labor  and  drudgery. 

The  governments  of  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Germany,  and  Italy  use 
water  powers  and  lignite  coal  fields  in  order  to  prevent  the  necessity  of 
importing  foreign  coal.  This  plan,  in  connection  with  the  electrification 
of  their  railways,  will  conserve  the  natural  resources,  and,  moreover,  will 
keep  the  nation's  money  in  the  country.  Many  railways  in  America 
will  consider  the  installation  of  electric  power  stations  at  coal  mines  to 
utilize  the  waste  coal,  culm,  duff,  dust,  lignite,  and  screenings. 

Reduction  in  the  cost  of  freight  transportation  will  follow  the  reduction 
already  made  in  the  cost  of  fares.  Electric  power,  with  its  physical 
advantages,  reduces  the  cost  of  transportation  by  reason  of  the  economies 
effected.  More  scientific  and  efficient  methods  can  be  used  in  operation. 
Lower  freight  rates  allow  the  movement  of  low-grade  freight,  and  improve 
the  "business  situation"  on  which  most  of  the  people  of  the  country  are 
more  or  less  dependent. 


116  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Cost  of  living  is  decreased  when  electric  lines  make  suburban  and 
country  districts  accessible,  by  frequent  service,  fast  schedule,  and  low 
fares.  Lower  rent,  goo$  health,  and  reduced  prices  for  vegetables,  fruit, 
and  transported  food  will  prevail.  (It  is,  however,  not  the  trolley  car 
which  will  carry  the  suburban  resident,  but  the  high-speed  electric 
train  on  the  private  right-of-way  with  a  terminal  station  in  the  heart 
of  the  business  district.  Distances  are  really  measured  on  a  time  basis, 
and  the  time  of  regular  daily  travel  should  not  exceed  one  hour.) 

Esthetic  enjoyments  are  realized  when  electric  traction  is  used. 
Cleanliness  and  fresh  air  contribute  to  the  pleasures  of  travel,  and 
consequently  to  1?he  welfare  of  the  public.  Ventilation  of  steam  trains 
is  bad,  for  it  is  necessary  to  exclude  the  locomotive  gas,  smoke,  and 
cinders.  It  is  not  practical  to  ventilate  even  sleeping  and  dining  cars  in  a 
suitable  manner.  The  majority  of  travelers  do  not  ride  in  the  sleeper, 
but  in  the  crowded  coaches  and  their  health  must  be  conserved.  The 
Lackawanna  Railroad  uses  anthracite  coal,  and  therefore  advertises 
cleanliness  via  the  "  white  way."  Travelers  remember  the  cleanliness 
of  electric  roads,  from  Philadelphia  to  Atlantic  City,  from  New  York  to 
Stamford,  to  White  Plains,  and  to  Yonkers,  the  tunnel  connections 
from  New  York  City  to  distant  points  on  Long  Island  and  New  Jersey, 
Rochester  to  Syracuse,  Chicago  to  Aurora,  Chicago  to  Milwaukee, 
Springfield  to  St.  Louis,  etc. 

Smoke  from  locomotives  is  a  nuisance  not  to  be  tolerated  in  business 
and  resident  districts.  The  injury  to  persons,  to  their  health,  and  to 
their  property  is  large.  Smoke  is  a  hindrance  to  the  development  of  civic 
beauty  and  refinement.  The  sociological  importance  of  cleanliness  is 
well  understood.  The  financial  importance  of  the  subject  is  becoming 
known.  The  cost  of  cleaning  smoke  and  dirt  from  the  body  and  the 
grime  and  soot  from  the  clothing  is  large.  The  traveling  public  includes 
those  who  journey  for  pleasure  and  necessity,  but  all  want  fresh  air  and 
cleanliness.  Black  smoke  from  the  stacks  of  locomotives  is  especially 
a  nuisance.  The  use  of  fuel  oil,  coke,  smokeless  and  anthracite  coal,  is 
expensive,  and  not  a  practical  remedy.  It  is  possible  to  operate  loco- 
motives without  smoke,  but  it  is  not  economical  to  do  so,  on  account  of 
the  labor  involved,  and  the  additional  maintenance  cost  at  the  furnace. 

Lives  of  millions  of  people  are  shortened  by  the  necessity  of  breathing 
gases  and  soot  arising  from  the  use  of  steam  locomotives  in  cities. 

Noise  from  exhaust  of  steam  locomotives  disturbs  sleep,  particularly 
that  of  nervous  or  sick  people,  young  or  old.  Portions  of  cities,  even  at 
some  distance  from  steam  railroad  tracks,  are  now  rendered  by  this  noise 
absolutely  undesirable  for  homes.  The  noise  from  train  movement  is 
not  objectionable,  but  that  from  the  harsh,  unmuffled  exhaust  is  detri- 
mental to  public  welfare. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  117 

Property  close  to  steam  roads  suffers  from  cinders,  smoke,  noise,  and 
dingy  conditions,  caused  by  the  steam  locomotives;  it  is  not  desirable 
for  offices  or  residential  purposes.  Windows  cannot  be  kept  open,  and 
not  only  cleanliness,  but  also  good  health  is  affected  adversely.  When 
roads  are  electrified,  property  increases  very  much  in  value,  and  apart- 
ments which  were  uninhabitable  can  be  occupied  without  disturbance. 
Real  estate  dealers  recognize  this  fact. 

Ordinances  now  prohibit  the  use  of  steam  locomotives  within  large 
parts  of  Annapolis,  Brooklyn,  Hoboken,  and  New  York  City.  Similar 
ordinances  will  soon  govern  in  Boston,  Washington,  Buffalo,  Cleveland, 
and  Chicago. 

Social  conditions  are  improved,  as  a  result  of  low  passenger  rates  and 
decreased  cost  of  living.  These  two  items  affect  largely  the  comfort, 
welfare,  and  amount  of  recreation  of  the  inhabitants  of  cities.  In  some 
American  and  in  many  foreign  cities,  millions  are  saved  every  year,  in 
hospital  bills  alone,  to  say  nothing  of  happiness,  health,  and  improvement 
in  social  conditions,  where  the  inhabitants  of  the  congested  districts  get 
to  the  country,  to  the  suburbs,  and  to  the  lakes  cheaply  and  frequently. 

With  the  more  frequent  and  cleanly  service  which  can  be  furnished 
with  economy  in  electric  traction  for  railway  trains,  population  will  be 
attracted  to  the  suburban  territory  many  miles  from  the  city,  as  it  is  not 
under  the  present  conditions. 

OBJECTIONS  AND  OBSTACLES  TO  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 

There  are  objections  and  obstacles  which  prevent  a  general  applica- 
tion of  electric  power  to  railways.  Reasons  for  these  are  here  outlined. 

Conservatism  is  generally  a  marked  characteristic  of  railway  men,  to 
whom,  naturally,  the  untried  electric  railway  is  not  attractive.  Capital 
also  is  shy  and  hard  to  interest  in  a  new  investment.  Electric  railways 
have  usually  been  built  by  successful  promoters,  men  with  daring,  enthu- 
siasm, and  resourcefulness,  men  who  have  waited  and  worked  for  years 
to  carry  out  their  plans. 

Crude  presentations  of  situations,  made  by  enthusiasts,  young 
engineers,  New  York-Chicago  air-line  promoters,  and  men  without 
experience  in  railroading,  have  been  responsible  for  much  opposition  and 
distrust.  Electrification  plans  must  be  well  presented.  , 

Lack  of  ample  information  on  the  part  of  the  promoter,  of  his  engin- 
eers, and  of  conservative  capitalists,  frequently  results  in  the  abandon- 
ment of  deserving  propositions.  There  may  be  simply  a  lack  of  facts  on 
operation,  and  experience  and  resources  with  which  to  surmount  obstacles. 
There  are,  however,  conditions  which  make  electrification  impractical, 
as  detailed  in  Chapter  XIV,  " Procedure  in  Railroad  Electrification." 


118          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Investments  are  always  larger  with  electric  traction  than  with  steam 
traction,  and  there  is  an  added  annual  charge  for  interest,  taxes,  and 
depreciation.  The  extra  investment  may  be  justified  by  increased  net 
earnings,  but  the  initial  outlay  required  is  often  a  handicap'. 

Some  American  railroads  have  already  issued  stocks  and  bonds  up  to 
the  limit  of  their  average  earning  capacity.  Other  roads  can  raise  the 
funds,  but  the  terms  would  bring  an  undesirable  burden,  too  heavy  to 
be  carried  comfortably.  Money  for  improvements  of  undoubted  value 
is  frequently  unobtainable  when  large  amounts  are  needed.  Increased 
economy,  with  electricity,  may  be  in  sight,  but  it  is  quite  another  thing 
to  take  advantage  of  electric  traction. 

Many  vested  interests  are  deeply  concerned  in  the  railroad,  as  one 
finds  when  the  electrification  of  a  road  is  considered.  The  business 
interests  of  the  country  and  of  the  railroad  are  not  separated,  but  are 
dependent  on  each  other,  and  sometimes  these  interests  are  opposed  to  a 
change  in  motive  power. 

The  actual  cost  of  the  electric  power  equipment  required  is,  however, 
generally  a  small  portion  of  the  total  cost  of  a  railroad.  This  is  not  always 
understood  by  those  who  oppose  investment  for  electric  traction. 

In  many  cases  electrification  was  or  will  be  compulsory,  and  estimates 
and  reports  made  by  railroads  have  been  and  certainly  will  be  adverse,  in 
fact  a  railroad  is  not  expected  to  minimize  its  difficulties  when  a  large 
possible  expenditure  confronts  it. 

Complication  is  suggested  by  the  central  electric  power  station, 
electric  generators,  transmission  lines,  distribution  at  high  voltages, 
transformation  and  utilization  of  power  by  motors,  in  place  of  a  multitude 
of  simple  steam  locomotives.  The  necessity  exists  for  different  tools, 
and  trained  labor  for  the  inspections,  maintenance,  and  repairs  of  the 
electrical  equipment.  Added  standards,  patterns,  castings,  and  also 
office  records  are  needed  if  the  two  motive  powers  are  combined  on  a 
steam  and  electric  railway.  Technical  skill  of  a  different  grade  is  required 
with  electric  traction. 

Systems  of  electrification  are  confusing,  for  there  are  advocates  of  the 
third-rail  vs.  trolley,  direct  current  at  1200  volts  with  many  substations 
vs.  alternating  current  at  6000  or  11,000  volts;  25  vs.  15  cycles;  single- 
phase  vs.  three-phase  current;  series-compensated  vs.  series-repulsion 
motors.  Some  electric  systems  are  not  interchangeable.  Moreover,  each 
system  has  been  so  successfully  applied  to  train  service  that  the  best  is 
not  easily  selected.  Steam  railroad  engineers,  after  50  years  of  splendid 
experience,  are  still  unsettled  on  the  relative  merits  of  different  mechani- 
cal types  and  frames;  singe  vs.  compound  engines;  2-  vs.  4-cylinder 
compound;  balanced  engines  vs.  track  pounders;  and  there  are  to-day 
may  distinct  kinds  of  locomotives  advocated  for  common  railroad  service. 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  119 

Danger  to  employees  and  to  the  public,  from  the  use  of  electric  power,  is 
to  be  considered.  Accidents  occur  from  unprotected  third  rails  and  from 
crude  overhead  high-potential  construction. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  has  over  100  miles  of 
11,000-volt  trolley  in  regular  freight  and  passenger  service  on  its  New 
York  Division.  There  have  been  accidents  and  fatalities,  and  a  few 
trainmen  have  been  killed  by  contact  with  the  trolley  wires;  but  no 
trainmen  has  ever  been  killed  in  the  locomotive  or  motor  cars. 

Prussian  State  Railway  has  made  tests  on  its  high- voltage  railway  lines  to  deter- 
mine the  liability  of  fire  and  the  danger  to  life  resulting  from  cars  coming  in  contact 
with  broken  trolley  wires.  Passenger  cars  with  standard  wooden  bodies  were  forced 
in  contact  with  live  wires.  Tests  showed  that  every  contact  between  the  car  and 
the  wire  produced  a  short  circuit  which  instantly  tripped  the  circuit  breaker  in  the 
substation  and  automatically  cut  off  the  power.  In  a  few  cases  imperfect  short 
circuits  were  established,  and  fire  resulted;  but  if  there  was  the  slightest  movement 
of  the  car  there  was  a  complete  short  circuit  and  the  power  was  cut  off.  Tests  made 
inside  the  car  showed  that  in  no  case  was  any  leakage  produced  which  could  be 
detected  by  the  human  hand  or  body.  In  practice,  grounding  wire  are  provided  on 
car  roofs  to  make  sure  that  there  will  be  sufficient  current  to  open  the  automatic 
circuit  breaker  and  thus  prevent  risk  to  trainmen  and  passengers. 

Electric  motive  power  at  practical  voltages  will  always  be  dangerous; 
high  pressures  on  steam  locomotives  are  always  dangerous;  but  all  are 
necessary  for  economy. 

Dependence  on  electric  power  plants  for  the  entire  motive  power  of 
important  railways  may  seem  unwise.  The  break-down  of  a  steam  loco- 
motive cripples  only  a  short  section  of  the  division.  A  failure  of  electric 
power  means  that  the  expense  continues  as  usual,  but  with  a  loss  of 
earnings,  a  loss  of  reputation,  and  demoralization  of  the  men,  management , 
and  traffic.  The  capacity  of  a  division  of  a  railway  which  uses  electric 
power  is  decreased  by  an  accident  to  the  transformers,  controllers, 
transmission,  or  contact  line;  and,  in  some  measure,  trains  will  be 
bunched. 

There  is,  however,  in  common  power  plants,  because  economy  and 
physical  reasons  require  it,  a  duplication  of  boilers,  turbo-generators, 
transformers,  and  feeders.  The  important  exception  is  the  overhead 
contact  line,  and  it  is  essential  that  simplicity  should  govern  here  because 
on  single-track  roads  this  is  the  only  equipment  which  cannot  be  easily 
duplicated.  Reliability  of  service  in  practice  has  not  been  questioned. 
Prudence  dictates  that  two  separate  power  plants  be  erected  for  important 
long  trunk-line  railroads. 

Transmission  losses,  with  large  amounts  of  power,  were  so  large, 
until  about  1896,  that  power  transmission  for  railroad  service  was  not 
practical.  Power  could  not  be  furnished  directly  from  one  central 
power  plant  to  15  scattered  electric  locomotives  until  the  power  could 


120          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

be  transmitted  economically  at  least  30  miles.  Electric  traction  for 
trunk-line  service  required  that  high  voltages — above  5000  volts — be 
utilized  on  the  contact  line.  High-voltage  transmission  and  contact 
lines  have  been  so  perfected  that  reliable  electric  power  is  now  delivered, 
with  very  small  loss,  to  distant  railroad  trains. 

Interference  with  signal  systems,  blocks,  and  telephone  and  telegraph 
lines  is  no  longer  caused  by  electric  currents.  Apparatus  has  been 
devised  to  effectually  prevent  interference  from  high-voltage  lines,  by 
leakage,  induction,  static  discharges,  or  ground  currents.  Reference: 
Taylor,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Oct.,  1909;  G.  E.  Review,  Aug.,  1907. 

Discard  of  steam  locomotives  is  not  necessary  when  electric  traction 
is  adopted.  Steam  locomotives  are  short-lived  at  best,  and  12  years  is  a 
long  life  if  the  equipment  is  really  used.  Steam  locomotives  may  be 
used  advantageously  on  other  divisions.  Renewals  of  locomotives  by 
purchases  of  equipment  are  charged  to  maintenance,  not  to  construction. 

Illinois  Central  Railroad  case  is  here  considered  briefly.  Upon  demand 
of  the  Chicago  City  Council  in  1909  that  all  suburban  lines  be  changed 
to  electric  power,  it  gave  four  reasons  why  electrification  could  not  be 
undertaken. 

First. — The  state  of  the  art  is  such  that  electric  operation  of  large 
freight  terminals  at  Chicago  is  impracticable. 

Second. — Operation  by  electricity  would  not  result  in  economies 
sufficient  to  pay  an  adequate  return  on  the  large  additional  investment. 

Third. — Interchangeable  electric  motive  power  equipment  for  motor 
cars  and  locomotives  has  not  yet  been  developed. 

Fourth. — Smoke  nuisance  can  be  avoided  by  using  coke  as  fuel  for 
locomotives  and  gasolene  as  fuel  for  motor  cars,  and  this  improvement 
would  suffice  in  place  of  electric  operation. 

Extensive  freight  terminals  are  now  electrically  operated  by  the 
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway,  England;  by  Grand  Trunk  Railway 
at  its  Sarnia  Tunnel;  by  Michigan  Central,  at  Detroit;  by  Hoboken 
Shore  Railroad,  and  a  score  of  small  terminals  listed  in  Chapter  I,  which 
use  electric  locomotives  for  freight  haulage.  The  matter  of  size  or 
degree  does  not  radically  increase  the  difficulty  of  the  situation,  but 
sometimes  improves  the  financial  prospect. 

Data  on  cost  of  operation  presented  by  the  railroad  were  based  on 
82.9  per  cent,  operating  expenses  for  steam  and  66  per  cent,  for  elec- 
tricity. Increase  in  traffic  and  in  gross  and  net  revenue  which  were 
not  admitted  in  the  Illinois  Central  report,  can  be  anticipated  to  a  very 
large  extent. 

The  cost  of  electrification  of  52  miles  of  suburban  road  was  estimated 
at  $154,000  per  single-track  mile,  a  sum  which  was  certainly  based  on 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  121 

improvements  much  more  far-reaching  than  were  actually  required  for 
providing  electric  motive  power  and  equipment.  Rearrangement  of 
tracks  and  terminals  was  certainly  advisable,  but  there  was  no  reason 
why  the  substitution  of  electric  power  for  steam  power  should  necessitate 
track  changes,  particularly  so  when  overhead  conductors  are  used. 

The  financial  results  from  operation  on  the  New  York  Central  and 
Long  Island  Railroads  are  held  to  have  increased  the  net  earnings  more 
than  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  added  investment  for  electrifi- 
cation; and  if  this  is  true  with  passenger  traffic  from  a  terminal,  addi- 
tional economies  will  be  effected  when  the  whole  road  is  electrified  and 
the  freight  and  yard  work  is  added. 

The  third  objection  reported  by  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  officials 
was  that  at  New  York  City  the  New  York  Central  and  New  Haven 
equipments  were  not  interchangeable,  and  that  the  Central  could  not 
send  its  direct-current  electric  trains  over  the  long-distance  11,000-volt 
electric  lines  of  the  New  Haven  road.  This  objection  is  true.  New 
Haven  single-phase,  electric  motor-car  trains  and  freight  and  passenger 
locomotives  can,  however,  run  anywhere  over  the  New  York  Central, 
Long  Island,  and  Pennsylvania  Railroad  electric  tracks. 

Finally,  the  use  of  coke  and  of  gasolene  for  heavy  work  is  an  experi- 
ment; and,  up  to  this  time,  there  is  little  to  indicate  that  either  fuel  would 
be  physically  successful.  Gas  from  the  coke,  and  the  noise  and  odor 
from  the  gasolene,  would  be  a  nuisance;  economy  would  probably  not 
result;  and  traffic  would  not  be  increased  with  such  a  motive  power. 

An  important  meeting  of  railroad  officials  with  the  transportation 
committee  of  the  Chicago  City  Council  was  held  December  8,  1909,  at 
which  the  electrification  of  the  terminal  lines  was  considered.  The  rail- 
road men  contended  that  " electrification  was  impracticable:  first, 
because  of  cost;  second,  because  of  danger  to  employees;  third,  because  the 
science  of  electrification  is  not  sufficiently  matured  to  make  it  applicable 
to  the  freight  terminals" 

The  Illinois  Central  could  adopt  electric  power  to  realize  higher 
economy  and  greater  net  earnings;  but  that  would  precipitate  a  situation 
on  all  the  steam  roads.  The  example  at  the  New  York  City  terminals 
already  worries  the  railroads  entering  Chicago. 

In  February,  1911,  all  of  the  steam  railroads  having  terminals  at 
Chicago  agreed  to  a  2-year  study  of  the  electrification  problem,  by  a 
Commission  of  17  steam  railroads  executives,  city  officials  and  business 
men,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Chicago  Association  of  Commerce.  The 
scope  of  the  work  embraces  the  following  investigations:  The  necessity 
for  electrification;  the  mechanical  feasibility  considering  all  engineering 
possibilities  and  problems;  and  the  financial  feasibility,  whether  the  cost 
is  prohibitive  and  the  results  commensurate  with  the  cost. 


122          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Electric  railroads  are  often  called  an  experiment  for  heavy  freight 
and  passenger  service.  The  following  railroads  are  exceptions: 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  in  trunk-line  service. 

New  York  Central,  in  heavy  switching  and  terminal  work. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  Railroad,  in  tunnel  and  suburban  service. 

New  York  Subway  for  10-car  trains,  in  real  rapid  transit. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  in  heaviest  terminal  service. 

Long  Island  Railroad,  for  dense  main-line  traffic. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad,  for  heaviest  passenger  service 
between  Camden  and  Atlantic  City,  on  a  double-track,  65-mile  road. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio,  in  heaviest  freight  traffic  thru  a  tunnel. 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line,  for  common  railroad  service. 

All  elevated  roads,  including  the  Manhattan  Elevated,  formerly  one 
of  the  largest  steam  roads  in  the  country. 

Albany  Southern  Railroad,  for  freight  and  passenger  work. 

West  Shore  Railroad,  between  Utica  and  Syracuse. 

Erie  Railroad,  on  its  Rochester-Mt.  Morris  Division. 

Michigan  Central  Railroad,  for  all  Detroit  River  tunnel  trains. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  for  traffic  thru  the  Sarnia  Tunnel  and  grades. 

The  thru  interurban  roads  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  New  York. 

Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend  Railway,  for  excellent  traffic. 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  Railroad,  for  high-speed  rapid  transit. 

Chicago,  &  Milwaukee  Electric  Railroad,  for  2-car  train  service. 

Illinois  Traction  Company,  for  general  freight  work  and  for  sleeping 
car  service  between  St.  Louis  and  Peoria,  172  miles. 

Colorado  &  Southern,  for  heavy  work  on  grades  near  Denver. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad,  freight  and  passenger  service. 

Great  Northern  Railway,  for  a  tunnel  on  a  heavy  grade. 

Puget  Sound  Electric  Railway,  for  3-car  passenger  train  service. 

Southern  Pacific  Company,  for  suburban  traffic  near  San  Francisco. 

Huntingdon  roads  in  California,  for  heavy  trains. 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway,  between  Liverpool,  Southport,  and 
Crossens,  82  miles  of  single  track,  for  a  large  amount  of  ordinary  suburban 
and  terminal  service,  much  like  that  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad. 

North-Eastern  Railway,  of  England,  82  miles  of  track  for  excellent 
service  with  electric  trains,  in  both  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 

Central  London  Railway,  which  carries  60,000,000  passengers  per 
year  and  operates  3-car  trains  on  less  than  a  3-minute  headway. 

London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  Railway,  on  62  miles  of  2-  to  7-track 
road,  in  heavy  suburban  service. 

Paris  Subway,  which  has  heavier  service  than  the  New  York  Inter- 
borough. 

Paris-Orleans    Railway,    between    the    Quai    d'Orsay    and    Orleans 


ADVANTAGES  OF  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  TRAINS  123 

station,  where  all  main-line  and  overland  trains  are  hauled  by  electric 
locomotives. 

Bernese- Alps  Railroad,  with  heavy  thru  freight  and  passenger  trains. 

Valtellina  Railway,  of  Italy,  for  light  freight  and  passenger  service. 

Giovi  Railway  of  Italy,  for  heaviest  freight  service  with  twenty-five 
2000-h.  p.  locomotives,  on  heavy  mountain  grades. 

A  luxury  which  the  people  must  pay  for  is  an  objection  given  at  Boston; 
but  electric  transportation  history  shows  that  when  the  capital  has  been 
wisely  invested  for  improved  motive  power  on  electric  roads  the  people 
are  willing  to  pay  for  it;  and  they  have  usually  furnished  such  an  increase 
in  passenger  and  freight  traffic,  and  in  gross  and  net  earnings,  that  the 
improvements  were  not  paid  for  by  any  increase  in  rates. 

The  financial  problem  is  reduced  to  this:  Will  electric  traction  for 
heavy  railway  service  be  capable  of  earning  a  greater  percentage  of 
interest  on  the  invested  capital? 

In  general,  it  is  practical  for  electric  traction  to  supersede  steam 
traction  only  where  scientific  reasons  and  technical  judgment  make  it 
clear  that  the  physical  advantages,  capacity,  flexibility,  simplicity,  and 
safety  will  produce  a  definite  commercial  advantage. 

Electric  traction  may  be  used  to  prevent  or  to  meet  competition,  to 
promote  traffic,  or  to  improve  the  welfare  or  civic  conditions  of  a  city. 
In  special  cases,  efficient  and  economical  operation  may  not  be  para- 
mount, yet  even  here  there  must  be  some  financial  necessity. 

In  the  business  world  electric  traction  is  not  a  matter  of  sentiment, 
policy,  safety,  or  cleanliness  except  when  these  produce,  for  the  whole 
railway,  greater  financial  returns. 

LITERATURE. 

References  on  Physical  and  Financial  Advantages  of  Electric  Traction. 

Crosby:  Limitations  of  Steam  and  Electricity  in  Transportation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May, 

1890;  E.  E.,  May  28,  1890. 
Sprague:  Elevated   and    Suburban  Problems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,   1892;  May,   1897. 

Multiple-Unit  Systems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1899;  S.  R.  J.,  May  4,  1901. 

Facts  and  Problems  on  Electric  Trunk-line  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907. 
Baxter:  Electricity  to  Supplant  Steam  Locomotives  on  Trunk  Railways.  Electrical 

Engineer,  Feb.  19,  1896  (excellent  article). 
Boynton:  Electric  Traction  Under  Steam  Railway  Conditions  (N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H.), 

A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1900;  S.  R.  J.,  May  14,  1904. 
Burch:  Electric   Traction   for  Heavy    Railway  Service,  Northwest  Ry.  Club,  Jan., 

1901;  S.  Ry.  Rev.,  Jan.,  1901;  S.  R.  J.,  March  9  and  30,  1901. 
Potter:  Developments  in  Electric  Traction,  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Jan.,  1905;  S.  R.  J., 

Jan.  28,  1905;  A.  I.  E.  E  ,  June,  1902. 
Stillwell:  Electric  Traction  Under  Steam  Road  Conditions,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904; 

A.  I.  E.  EM  Jan.,  1907. 
White:  Arnold:  Siemens:  International  Elec.  Cong.,  St.  Louis,  Sept.,  1904,  S.  R.  J., 

Oct.  29,  1904. 


124          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

De  Muralt:  Heavy  Traction  Problems  in  Electric  Engineering,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905, 

p.  525;  S.  R.  J.,  May,  1903. 
Smith,   W.  N.:  Practical  Aspects  of  Steam  Railroad  Electrification.     A.  I.  E.  E., 

Nov.,  1904;  Dec.,  1907. 

McHenry:  Advantages  of  Electric  Traction,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.,  17,  1907. 
Carter:  Technical  Considerations,  Inst.  of  Elec.  Eng'rs.,  Jan.  25,  1906. 
Street:  Electricity  on  Steam  Railroads,  Western  Ry.  Club,  May,  1905;  S.  R.  J.,  May 

27,  1905. 

Vreeland:  Problems  on  the  Electrified  Steam  Road,  S.  R.  J.,  June  25,  1904. 
Brinckerhoff:  Elevated  Railways  and  Heavy  Electric  Traction,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  20, 

1906;  N.  W.  Elev.  R.  R.  results,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907. 
Harriman:  On  Electric  Traction,  E.  W.,  March  16,  1907,  p.  538. 
Darlington:  Substitution  of  Electric  Power  for  Steam  on  American  Railroads,  Eng. 

Mag.,  Sept.,  1909;  Financial  Aspects,  Feb.,  1910. 

Fowler:  Value  of  Electrification  to  Railroads,  E.  W.,  March  21,  1908. 
Electrification  of  Steam  Railroads,  New  York  R.  R.  Club,  annual  discussion  at  the 

March  meeting. 
See  literature  on  Characteristics  of  Electric  Locomotives,  Chapter  VII. 


NOTES  125 


CHAPTER  IV. 
ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION. 

Outline. 
Classification. 
Direct-current  Systems : 

Generation  as  three-phase  current,  transmission  at  high  voltage,  transfor- 
mation to  low  voltage,  conversion  to  direct-current,  substation  with  attend- 
ants along  route,  600  and  1200  volts,  one  overhead  trolley,  third-rail  contact 
line,  two-wire  circuits,  three-wire  circuits,  polyphase  generation,  motor- 
generators,  1200  volts  from  converters,  converters  vs.  motor-generators, 
mercury  gas  rectifiers. 

Three-phase  System: 

Generation  and  transmission,  number  of  substations,  two  overhead  trolleys, 
750,  3000,  6000  volts,  15,  25,  60  cycles,  transformation  at  substations  or  on 
locomotives. 

Single -phase  Systems: 

Generation,  single-  or  three-phase;  transformation  if  required  for  transmission, 
substations  if  required,  no  attendants,  one  overhead  trolley,  600,  3000,  6000, 
11,000,  15,000  volts,  15,  25,  60  cycles. 

Combinations  of  Electric  Systems : 

Leonard-Oerlikon,  direct-current  single-phase,  three-phase  direct-current, 
single-phase,  three-phase,  direct  single-phase,  three-phase,  single-phase 
rectifier  plan,  gas-electric  plan,  storage  batteries. 

Interchangeable  or  Universal  Systems . 

Relative  Advantages  of  Each  System : 

Generating  equipment,  power  transmission,  railway  motor  equipment,  cost 
of  complete  equipment,  operation  and  maintenance. 

Conclusions  and  Opinions. 

Literature. 


12C 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION. 
CLASSIFICATION. 

The  development  of  electric  traction  systems  preceded  an  extensive 
use  of  electric  power  for  railway  train  service.  The  progress  made 
between  1890  and  1910  will  be  outlined,  and  a  summary  of  the  present 
status  of  each  system  will  precede  the  details  of  the  development. 

Commercial  systems  are  first  classified. 

Direct-current,  600,  1200,  1500,  or  2000  volts. 

Three-phase,  alternating-current,  3000  or  6000  volts. 

Single-phase,  alternating-current,  3000,  6000,  11,000,  or  15,000  volts. 

Combinations  of  these  three  systems;  their  use  with  current  rectifiers; 
their  use  with  steam  or  gasoline  power,  etc. 

The  choice  of  an  electric  system  is  necessary  in  every  electrification, 
and  obviously,  each  system  has  its  advantages.  The  final  choice,  often 
a  compromise,  is  influenced  by  existing  systems,  by  manufacturers' 
standards,  by  financial  interest,  and  by  the  real  needs  of  the  situation. 

Essential  features  which  should  receive  consideration  are: 

Service — trolley,  interurban  railway,  or  railroad. 

Traffic — density,  frequency,  weight  of  individual  trains. 

Power  characteristics — source,  cycles,  conversion,  transformation. 

Power  plant  load  factor — the  effect  of  diversity  of  load  on  economy 
when  heavy  individual  train  loads  are  widely  separated. 

Cost  of  electrical  equipment — motor  cars  and  locomotives,  feeders 
and  contact  lines,  and  substations. 

Cost  of  maintenance — substation  equipment,  transmissions,  and 
motors  per  ton-mile  or  per  passenger-mile. 

Distance  between  stops,  and  total  distance,  are  not  essential  features. 

DIRECT-CURRENT  SYSTEM  FOR  RAILWAYS. 

Direct -current  systems  now  have  the  following  status:  With  a 
potential  between  the  trolley  or  the  third-rail  and  the  track  rails,  direct- 
current  at  600  volts  is  used  by  all  street  railways,  most  of  the  interurban 
railways;  the  New  York  City  terminals  of  the  New  York  Central,  the 
New  Haven,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Long  Island  Railroads;  also  for 
one  important  tunnel  where  there  are  heavy  grades  on  the  Baltimore  & 
Ohio,  and  one  on  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad.  The  only  example  in 
common  long-distance  passenger-train  service  is  on  the  West  Jersey  and 
Seashore  Railroad,  a  65-mile  road  between  Camden  and  Atlantic  City. 

127 


128          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

All  subway  lines,  elevated  roads,  and  terminal  railways,  in  local  passenger 
service,  have  adopted  the  direct-current,  600-volt,  third-rail  system. 

Direct  current  at  1200  volts  is  now  usedby  14  American  interurban 
railways,  and  by  7  European  railways.  No  railroad  yet  uses  1200  volts 
for  train  service,  except  the  Southern  Pacific,  with  an  overhead  trolley, 
for  its  suburban  work,  partly  on  city  streets,  in  and  near  Berkeley  and 
Oakland,  California. 

Direct  current  when  used  by  railroads  at  low  voltages  requires  an 
excessive  investment  and  a  large  loss  in  the  transmission,  conversion, 
and  transformation  of  the  electrical  energy.  Direct  current  at  1200 
to  2000  volts  allows  an  increase  in  the  length  of  the  electrical  zone, 
since  the  loss  in  the  local  contact  line  is  reduced. 

The  generation  of  energy,  for  the  direct-current,  600-  or  1200-volt 
system,  for  railway-train  service,  is  not  as  direct  current,  but  as  three- 
phase  alternating  current;  the  latter  is  generally  transmitted  at  high 
voltage,  then  transformed  to  low  voltage,  and  then  changed  by  rotary 
machinery  to  direct  current,  at  600  or  1200  volts,  in  substations  along 
the  route  of  the  railway. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  DIRECT -CURRENT  SYSTEMS. 

Generation,  transmission,  and  utilization  of  direct  current  came  first. 
The  development  began  with  75  volts,  was  soon  200,  and,  by  the  year 
1895,  had  increased  to  600  volts,  a  standard  which  is  now  used  by  over 
95  per  cent,  of  the  street,  interurban,  and  elevated  railways  of  this  country. 

The  1200-volt,  direct-current,  two-wire  system,  first  tried  in  1907, 
requires  that  the  insulation  be  doubled  at  generators,  trolley  wires,  con- 
trollers, motor-windings,  and  commutators.  Voltages  which  are  higher 
than  600  volts  are  not  used  across  the  commutators  of  railway  motors  or 
rotary  converters.  At  the  substations,  two  600-volt  generators,  or 
two  600-volt  rotary  converters  are  connected  in  series.  On  the  cars, 
two  600-volt,  interpole-type  motors,  each  insulated  for  1200  volts,  are 
connected  in  series,  and  each  pair  is  arranged  for  series-parallel  operation. 

Central  California  Traction  Company  is  the  exception.  It  uses  four  1200-volt, 
G.  E.,  No.  205  motors,  rated  75  h.  p.  each,  for  35-ton  passenger  cars.  In  the  city 
streets,  600  volts  are  used;  on  the  right-of-way  current  is  collected  at  1200  volts, 
from  a  40-pound  third-rail.  This  road  has  7  motor  cars. 

A  table  which  follows,  on  the  development  at  higher  direct-current 
voltages  since  1904,  shows  that  about  20  small  railways  in  Europe  have 
adopted  the  two-wire  750-  to  2000-volt  direct-current  system, 

Three-wire  systems  are  those  in  which  the  track  is  used  as  a  neutral 
line,  not  for  the  return  of  the  main  current.  Track  feeders  and  bonding 
may  be  reduced.  Electrolytic  troubles  may  be  done  away  with.  The 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       129 

full  advantage  of  the  three-wire  system  is  realized  when  the  load  on  the 
two  sides  is  balanced,  and  the  minimum  current  is  returned  via  the  neutral 
or  tracks.  A  balance  of  the  load  on  the  feeders  can  be  obtained  by 
splitting  the  various  sections  and  dividing  the  grades  or  heavy  service 
portions  of  the  line,  by  means  of  double-throw  switches. 

The  three-wire,  direct-current  system,  with  600  volts  between  the  trolley  and  the 
track,  was  used  for  a  short  time,  in  1894,  by  W.  C.  Gotshall,  at  St.  Louis,  on  a  road 
with  250  cars.  The  system  was  also  used  in  Portland,  Oregon,  and  in  Pittsburg; 
see  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  July,  1899,  p.  426.  City  and  South  London,  see  St.  Ry.  Journ., 
Aug.  16,  1902,  p.  229.  With  the  introduction  of  three-phase,  high- voltage  trans- 
missions, about  1896,  the  use  of  1200- volt,  three-wire  systems  decreased  rapidly. 

Within  the  past  ten  years  the  two-wire  and  the  three-wire  1200-volt 
system  has  again  received  serious  consideration,  as  is  shown  below. 


DIRECT-CURRENT  RAILWAYS  USING  750  TO  2000  VOLTS.     EUROPEAN. 


Name  of  railway  or            Name  of       Installa-                             Mile- 
location,                      country.        tion  by.                 age'        age. 

Reference  or  notes. 

City  &  South  London  

England  .  . 

500* 

15 

Electric  Review,  Feb.  13,  1909. 

Grenoble-Charpareillan  .  .  .  |  France.  .  .  . 

Thury  

600* 

26 

E.  R.  J.,  Oct.    31,  1903. 

Iselle  Mining  District  

France  .... 

Thury  .... 

2,000 

55-ton,  550-h.p.   locomotive 

St.  Georges-  La  Mure  

France  .... 

Thury  .... 

1,200* 

20 

To  be  changed  to    2400-volt, 

two-  wire. 

Paris  North-South  

France.  .  .  . 

Thury  .... 

750* 

4 

London    Elect.,   Dec.  9,  191C. 

Mozelle-Maizieres       Saint  1  France.  .  .  . 

Siemens  .  . 

2,000 

9 

Described  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Marie. 

Third-rail  line. 

Villefranche-Bourg   Mad-     France.  .  .  . 

Alioth    ... 

850 

34 

ame  

Cologne-Bonn  

Germany  . 

Siemens.  . 

990 

18 

S.R.J.,  May  2,  1908. 

Berlin  Elevated  

Germany.  . 

Siemens.  .  . 

750 

16 

Castellamare  

Germany.  . 

Siemens.  .  . 

825 

12 

Anhalt   Coal  

Germany  . 

Siemens..  . 

900 

4 

Stuttgart-Dagerloch  }  Germany.  . 

Siemens.  .  . 

800 

18 

Shunt  motors.    Regeneration. 

Hamburg  City  Germany.  . 

800 

Year  1909. 

Salzberg  Tramway  Germany.  . 

A.E.G  .... 

900 

8 

1909. 

Nuremberg  1  Germany 

550* 

13 

S.R.J.,  July  1,  1905,  p.  15. 

Berchtesgaden  Austria  .  .  . 

1,000 

8 

Nine  120-h.p.  cars. 

Vienna  City  Austria  .  .  . 

Krizik.  .  .  . 

1,500* 

18 

S.R.J.,  Nov.  3,  1906. 

Tabor-  Bechyne,   Austria  .  .  . 

Krizik  .... 

700* 

16 

S.R.J.,  Dec.  10,  1904. 

Trient-Male  Austria  .  .  . 

800 

40 

Montreux-  Bernois  Swiss.  .  .    . 

Alioth  

850 

39 

S.R.J.,  Nov.  13,  1909. 

Bellinzona-Mesocco  

Swiss.    ... 

Rieter  .   .  . 

1,500 

19 

S.R.J.,  Nov.  4,  1905. 

Brian  tae  Electric  

Italy.....' 

Gen.  Elec. 

1,200 

16 

Bresciana  Electric  

Italy  

Gen.Elec. 

1,200 

33 

18  cars;  45-h.p.  motors. 

*  The  star  indicates  that  the  three-wire  system  is  used. 

The  voltage  given  is  that  between  the  trolley  and  the  rail. 

Complications  are  experienced  with  lighting,   compressor,   controller,  and  contactor  circuits. 

Four  550-volt  motors  are  used  in  series,  on  2000  volts.     Series-parallel  control  is  abandoned. 

The  roads  listed  are  city  or  interurban  trolley  lines. 


130          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

DIRECT-CURRENT  RAILWAYS  USING  1500  VOLTS.     AMERICAN. 


Name  of  railway. 

Mile- 
age. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Elec.  Ry.  Jour, 
reference. 

Piedmont  &  Northern  .    . 

125 

23  MC 

4-90 

May  20    1911    p    885 

4-14L 

Ten  500-kw.  motor-generator  sets  are  to  be  used.  Locomotives  weigh  55  tons 
and  will  haul  800-ton  freight  trains  on  long  steep  grades  between  Charlotte,  N.  C., 
and  Greenwood,  S.  C.  Westinghouse  equipment  is  used. 

DIRECT-CURRENT  RAILWAYS  USING  1200  VOLTS.     AMERICAN. 


Name  of  railway. 

Mile- 
age. 

Motor 
cars. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Elec.  Ry.  Journal 
references. 

Indianapolis  &  Louisville..  .         .... 

42 

10 

4-75 

Jan  4   1908  p  4 

Pittsburg,  Harmony,  Butler  &  New  C  . 
California  Midland 

77 
2 

16 

2 

4-75 
4-75 

Jan.  16,  1909,  p.  92 
July  13    1907 

Central  California  Traction 

49 

10 

4-75 

April  17   1909  p  738 

Stockton-Lodi,  third-rail. 
Southern  Pacific  Co.,  Oakland,  Cal.  . 
San  Jose  &  Santa  Clara,  California 

35 
25 

65 
39 

4-125 

Feb.  4,  1911. 

Milwaukee  Electric  Ry  

68 

15 

4-125 

March  13,  1909,p.460. 

Waukesha  Beach  to  Watertown. 

15 

4-75 

July  16    1910   p  102 

St.  Martins  to  East  Troy. 
St.  Martins  to  Burlington. 
Southern  Cambria  Ry.,  Johnstown,  Pa. 
Aroostook  Valley  R.  R.,  Maine  

24 
12 

4 
2    - 

4-75 
4-50 

Sept.  3,  1910. 

1 

4-75 

Albuquerque  Traction  Co.,   N.  M  .  .  . 
Sapulpa,  Oklahoma  Interurban 

5 
9 

6 

7 

4-50 
4-50 

3-wire  system.   Aban- 
doned in  1907. 

Washington,  Baltimore  &  Annapolis 
Shore  Line  Electric  Ry.,  New  Haven 
Meriden,  Middleton  &  Guilford,  Conn. 

60 
52 
20 

30 
3 
10 
2 

4-75 
4-125 
4-50 
4-75 

See  single-phase  roads. 

Dec.  4,  1909,  p.  1133. 
May  20,  1911. 

Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  Southern  .  . 
Total  —  14  roads 

70 
550 

6 
4 

247 

4-75 
4-125 

Jan.  14,  1911,  p.  81. 

Equipment  for  the  above  trolley  line  lines  was  furnished  by  the  General  Electric 
Company,  which  had  advocated  the  1200- volt  system  since  1908,  when  it  abandoned 
the  manufacture  of  single-phase  series-compensated  and  series-repulsion  motors. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       131 

General  Electric  Company's  annual  report,  January,  1909,  stated: 
"The  continued  successful  operation  of  our  1200-volt  direct-current 
railway  apparatus  fully  demonstrates  the  reliability  of  this  most  valuable 
system,  which  fulfils  the  requirements  of  railway  companies  for  extensions 
and  for  interurban  service  beyond  the  economical  limits  of  600-volt  dis- 
tribution, avoiding  the  complication  incidental  to  single-phase,  alterna- 
ting current  equipments  when  operated  over  direct-current  lines." 

"Prior  to  January,  1911,  over  85,000  h.  p.  of  1200-volt  direct-current 
G.  E.  motor  equipment  was  in  service  or  on  order." 

DIRECT-CURRENT  SYSTEM,  WITH  POLYPHASE  GENERATION. 

Generation  and  transmission  of  three-phase  current  at  60,  35,  or  25 
cycles,  at  high  voltages,  and  its  utilization,  after  its  transformation,  and 
its  conversion  by  rotary  converters,  to  direct  current  at  600  volts,  at  many 
substations,  for  electric  railway  service,  was  an  important  development. 
A  historical  outline  is  presented. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  POLYPHASE  CURRENT  FOR  DIRECT-CURRENT 

RAILWAYS. 

Taftsville,  Conn.,  2500  volts,  300  h.  p.,  3.5  miles,  1894. 

One  50-cycle  synchronous  motor,  belted  to  a  250-k.  w.  railway  generator,  was 
installed  by  the  Baltic  Power  Company,  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Louis  Bell 
and  Mr.  H.  E.  Raymond,  and  furnished  power  to  about  16  cars  on  16  miles  of 
road,  for  the  Norwich  Street  Railway. 

Lowell,  Mass.,  5500  volts,  800  h.  p.,  15  miles,  1895. 

This  is  said  to  be  the  first  three-phase  transmission  plant  with  direct-current 
converters.  Four  75-k.  w.,  900  r.  p.  m.,  30-cycle  converters  were  installed 
for  railway  work.  The  power  was  used  by  the  Lowell  &  Suburban  Street 
Railway. 

Portland,  Oregon,  6000  volts,  2000  h.  p.,  13  miles,  1895. 

Two  450-k.  w.  rotary  converters  on  a  33-cycle,  three-phase  circuit  were  used 
for  railway  work.  The  cycles  were  adapted  for  rotary  converters  and  also 
for  the  arc  and  incandescent  lighting  service  of  this  pioneer  company.  Dr. 
Louis  Bell,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.,  1898,  calls  this  the  first  railway  converter  installation. 

Sacramento,   California,  11,000  volts,   3000  h.  p.,   23  miles,   1895. 
Two  60-cycle  synchronous  motors  ran  railway  generators. 

Fresno,  California,  19,000  volts,  900  h.  p.,  35  miles,  1895. 
A  60-cycle  motor  ran  a  railway  generator. 

Bakersfield,  California,  10,000  volts,  1000  h.  p.,  12  miles,  1896. 
One  100-k.  w.,  60-cycle  synchronous  converter  was  used. 

Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  11,000  volts,  3000  h.p.,  21  miles,  1896.  22,000  volts,  6,000  h.p. 
21  miles,  1899.  60,000  volts,  14,000  h.p.,  160  miles,  1907.  Two  450-kilowatt, 
600-volt,  25-cycle  converters,  placed  in  service  at  Niagara  Falls,  and  at 
Buffalo,  in  1896,  were  quite  successful.  They  marked  a  decided  improvement 
over  60-cycle  converters,  most  of  which,  up  to  the  year  1902,  were  failures. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  13,200  volts,  4000  h.  p.,  9  miles,  1897. 

Electric  power  aggregating  4200  k.  w.  was  transmitted  to  three  substations  in 


132          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  entirely  underground,  in  three-phase,  paper-insulated 

cables.     Six  600-k.w.,   35-cycle  railway  converters  were  placed  in  service. 

The  engineering  work  was  carried  out  by  the  writer. 
Mechanicsville,  N.  Y.,  12,000  volts,  5000  h.  p.,  14  miles,  1898. 

Use  of  38-cycle  power  for  electric  railway  at  Schenectady. 
Helena,  Montana,  45,000  volts,  8000  h.p.,  57  miles,  1898. 

Two  60-cycle,  300-k.w.  converters  were  used  in  Butte. 
Redlands,  California,  33,000  volts,  4000  h.  p.,  80  miles,  1898. 

One  100-k.w.,  50-cycle  converter  was  used  at  Los  Angeles. 
Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Railroad,  5500  volts,  650  h.p.,  9  miles,  1899. 

Four  125-k.w.,  25-cycle  converters  were  used.     E.  W.,  Apr.  8,  1899. 
Union  Traction  Company,  22,000  volts,  4000  h.p.,  30  miles,  1900. 

This  was  for  a  modern  interurban  railway  in  Indiana. 
Snoqualmie  Falls  Company,  33,000  volts,  8000  h.  p.,  40  miles,  1900. 

Four  60-cycle,  railway  rotary  converters  were  used  in  Seattle  and  Tacoma. 
Metropolitan  Street  Railway,  N.  Y.,  6600  volts,  15,000  h.  p.,  1901. 

This  became  at  once  the  largest  installation.     Twenty-six  900- k.  w.  converters 

were  installed.     The  use  of  25  cycles  was  now  established. 

GENERATORS   FOR  1200-  TO  1500- VOLT,  DIRECT-CURRENT  SYSTEM. 

I20o-volt  rotary  converters  are  not  used  for  heavy  railroad  work. 
At  the  present  state  of  the  development,  two  600-volt  generators  or  two 
rotary  converters  are  operated  in  series,  in  1200-  to  1500-volt  systems. 
The  generators  are  designed  as  follows: 

1.  Large  interpoles  are  used,  which  are  far  below  saturation  until  a 
very  heavy  overload  is  reached;  and  the  poles  must  be  so  proportioned 
that  they  will  follow  any  sudden  change  in  load.     The  interpole  coils  must 
not  be  shunted  with  resistance  or  impedance,  otherwise  they  will  not  be 
effective  on  short  circuit.     The  danger  from  a  heavy  rush  of  current  due 
to  short  circuit  will  always  be  greater  in  1200-volt  railway  systems  than 
in  a  600-volt  system.     The  danger  from  flashing  at  the  600-volt  commu- 
tator is  also  large  where  two  generators  operate  in  series  as  one  unit;  for, 
if  either  commutator  should  flash  in  case  of  a  short  circuit,  then  1200 
volts  are  thrown  across  the  other  commutator  to  flash  that  commutator; 
and  the  disturbance  is  liable  to  flash  the  other  machines  in  the  same  sub- 
station and  do  much  more  damage  than  in  the  case  of  600-volt  service. 
In  a  rotary  converter,  commutating  poles  can  seldom  be  made  large 
enough  for  short-circuit  conditions. 

2.  A  large  number  of  commutator  bars  are  used  between  neutral  points 
or  brushes,  to  decrease  the  flashing  tendency  in  case  of  a  short  circuit,  as 
with  ordinary  600-volt  generators;  but  600-volt  converters  flash  viciously 
on  a  short  circuit,  regardless  of  the  number  of  commutator  bars  per  pole; 
jand  what  is  safe  in  a  generator  will  not  prevent  trouble  in  a  converter. 

3.  Standard  direct-current  generator  designs  are  used  for  the  magnetic 
field  structure.    This  design  embraces  a  cast  iron  field  yoke  and  laminated 
poles.     When  a  short  circuit  occurs  or  flashing  exists  across  the  brushes, 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       133 

the  fields  are  quickly  demagnetized.  In  rotary  converters  the  yokes  are 
of  steel,  which  have  about  four  times  the  conductivity  of  cast  iron  for  sec- 
ondary currents,  and  the  pole  faces  are  solid  and  provided  with  dampers. 
This  standard  design,  which  is  necessary  for  converters,  allows  heavy 
secondary  currents  to  be  induced,  and  these  tend  to  maintain  the  mag- 
netization and  current  during  flashing  or  short  circuit.  The  converter 
is  tied  to  the  alternating-current  system  which  can  feed  excessive  cur- 
rent to  the  commutator;  and  further,  after  the  alternating-current  cir- 
cuit breaker  opens,  the  flashing  with  the  reduced  direct-current  field  is 
found  to  be  decidedly  severe.  The  converter  may  even  pull  out  of  the 
service  and  drop  back  again  with  reversed  polarity.  This  makes  in 
all  a  relatively  bad  showing  for  a  converter  in  case  trouble  arises. 
Naturally  more  short  circuits  will  arise  from  railway  motor  flashing  and 
from  break-down  of  insulation  with  1200-volt  than  with  600-volt  circuits 
Mercury-arc  or  other  types  of  rectifiers,  placed  at  frequent  intervals 
along  the  line  may  be  developed,  to  do  away  with  rotating  apparatus 
and  attendants  at  substations. 

THREE-PHASE  ALTERNATING -CURRENT  SYSTEMS  FOR  RAILWAYS. 

Three-phase  systems  have  the  following  status:  With  3000  or  6000 
volts  and  with  15  and  25  cycles,  they  are  used  by  three  railroads  in  Europe 
and  one  in  America,  for  heavy  railway  train  service.  The  four  roads  are 
here  described  briefly. 

1.  Three  lines  of  the  Italian  State  Railway: 

Valtellina,  with  67  miles  of  main  track  between  Lecco,  Sondrio,  and 
Chiavenna,  was  electrified  in  1902,  for  operation  with  two  3000-volt 
trolleys.  The  equipment,  built  by  Ganz,  includes  ten  58-ton,  300-h.p. 
motor  cars  with  coaches  and  six  locomotives.  Five  to  six  trains  are 
in  service  at  one  time.  This  road  is  being  extended  25  miles  to  Milan. 

Giovi  Line,  north  of  Genoa,  with  13  miles  of  double  track,  and  3.5  per 
cent,  ruling  grades,  including  a  2.6  mile  tunnel  with  a  2.9  per  cent,  grade, 
was  equipped  in  1909  with  the  15-cycle,  3000-volt,  three-phase  system. 
The  equipment  built  by  Westinghouse  includes  twenty  67-ton,  2000-h.  p. 
locomotives,  which  are  used  in  pairs  to  haul  420-ton  trains,  at  14  or  28 
m.  p.  h.,  up  2.9  per  cent,  grades.  The  service  is  the  heaviest  in  Europe. 

Savona-Ceva,  or  Savona-San  Giuseppe  Line,  13  miles  long,  in  service 
since  1909,  uses  10  locomotives  similar  to  the  Giovi. 

Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel,  between  France  and  Italy,  built  in  1910,  was 
equipped  with  10  locomotives  similar  to  the  Giovi. 

2.  Swiss  Federal  Railway  equipped  its  Simplon  Tunnel  and  terminal 
yards,  14  miles  of  road,  in  1907,  with  the  15-cycle,  3000-volt,  three-phase 
system.     The  equipment,  manufactured  by  Brown,  Boveri  &  Company, 


134          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

includes  three  locomotives,  for  hauling  730-ton  freight  trains,  at  22  m.  p.  h. , 
on  0.7  per  cent,  grades. 

In  the  installations  noted  above,  the  3000  volts  are  used  directly  on 
the  motor  field  windings. 

3.  Santa  Fe-Gergal  road,  in  southwestern  Spain,  a  mountain  road,  15 
miles  long,  uses  five  320-h.  p.,  three-phase,  15-cycle  locomotives,  built 
by  Brown,  Boveri  &  Company. 

4.  Great  Northern  Railway  electrified,  in  1909,  4  miles  of  main  track 
and  2  miles  of  terminal  track,  at  the  Cascade  tunnel,  in  Washington, 
using    the    6000-volt,   three-phase,   25-cycle   system.     The   equipment 
consists  of   four  115-ton,  1700-h.  p.  locomotives   which  haul  1800-ton 
trailing  loads  up  the  1.7  per  cent,  grade  at  one  speed — 15  m.  p.  h. 

The  complication  of  the  necessary  double  overhead  contact  wires  had 
debarred  this  system  from  all  high-speed  interurban  railways,  and  from 
large  railroad  switching  yards. 

OUTLINE   ON  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THREE-PHASE  SYSTEM  FOR 

RAILWAYS. 

Generation,  transmission,  transformation,  and  use  of  three-phase 
current  at  15  and  25  cycles,  and  at  3000  and  6000  volts,  followed  the 
direct-current  system,  for  railway  train  service. 

Alternators,  with  revolving  fields  and  large  transformers  for  high 
voltages,  had  been  developed  in  Europe  by  1896.  Three-phase  induction 
motors,  with  and  without  collector  rings,  had  been  developed  by  Tesla 
and  others,  and  the  time  had  come  for  the  development  of  a  new  system 
to  utilize  and  adapt  this  equipment  for  heavy  railroading. 

Siemens  &  Halske  exhibited  at  Chicago  Exposition,  in  1893,  a  three- 
phase,  600-volt,  50-cycle,  1400  r.  p.  m.,  11  to  1  geared,  railway  motor, 
which  had  been  used  on  an  experimental  track  at  Charlottenburg. 

Brown,  Boveri  &  Company  equipped  a  street  railway  in  Lugano, 
Italy,  in  1896;  three  mountain  railways  in  Switzerland,  in  1898;  and  an 
interurban  line  between  Burgdorf  and  Thun,  26  miles,  in  1899.  The 
voltages  used  were  from  500  to  750. 

Ganz  Electric  Company  installed  this  system  for  railway  service 
between  London  and  Port  Stanley,  Ontario,  27  miles,  in  1905.  Two 
1100-volt,  65-h.  p.  motors  were  used  per  motor  car.  Trailers  were  hauled. 
The  line  loss  was  heavy,  and,  on  the  grades  at  the  ends  of  lines,  the  motors 
simply  died  down  or  fell  out,  when  overloaded,  because  of  lack  of  draw- 
bar pull.  Had  additional  transformer  stations  been  installed,  the  motor 
trouble  would  have  been  avoided;  but  this  experience  showed  that,  with 
the  low  voltage  necessarily  used  with  a  two-trolley,  three-phase  system, 
substations  must  be  frequent.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  9,  1905,  p.  1026. 

Ganz  Electric  Company  must,  however,  be  credited  with  the  first  real 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       135 

advance  in  the  application  of  the  three-phase  system  for  railroads. 
Its  initial  electrification  was  in  1902  for  the  Italian  State  Railway.  The 
number  of  cycles  used  was  15,  which  was  advantageous  for  the  motors. 
The  voltage  between  the  2  trolleys  and  the  rails  was  3000,  which 
voltage  has  not  since  been  exceeded  in  Europe.  It  is  a  safe  pressure  for 
collecting  devices  from  2  overhead  conductors  which  must  be  insulated 
from  each  other  in  railroad  switching  yards,  terminals,  and  bridges;  and 
for  the  controller  and  motor  wiring;  and  it  is  safe  for  stator  and  rotor 
windings  of  motors  on  locomotives,  but  not  on  motor  cars.  The  3000- 
volt  three-phase  installation  required  substations  6  miles  apart. 

Berlin-Zossen  tests,  made  at  Berlin  in  1903,  for  the  study  of  high 
speeds  on  railways  used  the  three-phase  system.  Speeds  up  to  130 
m.  p.  h.  were  obtained.  Experimental  motor-car  equipments  built  by 
Allgemeine  Elektricitats-Gesellschaft  and  by  Siemens-Schuckert  were 
designed  for -10,000  volts,  and  50  cycles.  The  overhead  construction, 
with  three  10,000-volt  trolley  wires  in  a  vertical  plane,  would  not  be 
practical  in  railroading. 

Brown,  Boveri  &  Company,  in  1907,  equipped  the  Simplon  Tunnel. 

Westinghouse  Company  of  Italy,  in  1909  and  1910,  equipped  the 
Giovi,  Savona-Ceva,  and  Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel  roads  as  detailed. 

Technical  descriptions  of  all  locomotives  are  given  later. 

THREE-PHASE  RAILROADS— EQUIPMENT  AND  MILEAGE. 


Name  of  railroad. 

1 
Mile- 
age. 

Locomo- 
tives. 

H.P.  per 
locomotive. 

Cycles 
used. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

Burgdorf-Thun 

I 
26 

3 

300 

40 

750 

Italian  State: 
Valtellina  

70 

2 
2 

600 
1200 

15 

3000 

Giovi   

38 

2 
20 

1500 
1980 

15 

3000 

Savona-Ceva 

13 

10 

1980 

15 

3000 

Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel  
Swiss  Federal  : 
Simplon  1906  
1909 

5 
14 

10 

2 
2 

1980 

1100 
1700 

15 

16 
16 

3000 

3000 
3000 

Santa  Fe-Gergal  

15 

5 

320 

15 

5500 

Great  Northern 

6 

4 

1700 

25 

6000 

1 

Street  railways  and  rack  and  pinion  railways  are  not  listed. 

Burgdorf-Thun  Railway  has  six  60-h.p.  motor  cars,  each  of  which  hauls  one  or 
two  coaches.  Valtellina  Railway  has  ten  300-h.p.  motor  cars. 

Great  Northern  locomotive  rating  is  1900-h.p.  with  forced  draft.  The  motor 
voltage  is  only  500.  In  the  European  motor-car  and  locomotive  installations,  the 
full  trolley  voltage  is  used  directly  on  the  motor  fields. 


136  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

SINGLE -PHASE  ALTERNATING -CURRENT  SYSTEMS  FOR  RAILWAYS. 

Single-phase  systems  now  have  the  following  status:  They  are  used 
with  3000  to  11,000  volts,  and  15-  and  25-cycle  alternating  currents  for 
many  interurban  roads  and  particularly  for  the  haulage  of  heavy  indi- 
vidual train  units  in  trunk-line  work.  In  America,  the  11,000-volt,  25- 
cycle  system  was  selected,  in  1906,  by  the  New  Haven  road  for  the  electri- 
fication of  its  New  York-New  Haven  Division,  73  miles.  The  first  half, 
to  Stamford,  is  now  in  successful  operation,  and  plans  have  been  devel- 
oped for  its  use  in  all  freight  and  passenger  work  for  the  balance  of  the 
division.  The  single-phase  system  is  also  employed  by  these  other  roads : 
Rochester  branch  of  the  Erie  Railroad,  which  has  used  11,000  volts  since 
1907;  Indianapolis  and  Cincinnati  line,  116  miles,  since  1904;  Baltimore 
&  Annapolis  Short  Line,  35  miles;  Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad 
which,  since  1906,  has  used  6000  volts  for  ordinary  freight  and  passenger 
service  over  162  miles  of  track;  Visalia  Division  of  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railway;  Denver-Boulder  branch  of  the  Colorado  &  Southern  Railroad; 
Rock  Island-Galesburg  Division,  52  miles,  of  the  Rock-Island  Southern 
Railroad;  and  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  for  the  Sarnia-Port  Huron  tunnel, 
where  41  freight  and  passenger  trains  per  day  are  hauled  thru  the  yards 
and  up  the  2  per  cent,  grades  in  the  tunnel. 

In  Europe,  the  single-phase  system  has  been  adopted  by  these  roads: 
Swedish  State  Railways;  Midland  Railway  of  England;  London,  Brighton 
&  South  Coast;  Bavarian  State  Railway;  Mariazell  Railroad;  Blank- 
enese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf,  and  other  lines  of  the  Prussian  State  Railway; 
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen  Railway;  Weisental  Railway;  Bernese- 
Alps  Railway;  and  Midi  or  Southern  Railway  of  France.  The  freight 
and  passenger  equipment  is  tabulated  in  the  tables  which  follow,  and 
the  locomotive  equipment  is  described  in  Chapter  X. 

OUTLINE  OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  SYSTEMS. 

Generation,  transmission,  and  utilization  of  single-phase,  alternating- 
current,  at  15  and  25  cycles  is  a  recent  development. 

In  September,  1902,  at  an  A.  I.  E.  E.  meeting,  Mr.  B.  G.  Lamme 
presented  a  paper  which  advocated  the  use  of  single-phase  alternating- 
current  for  railways.  The  details  of  the  new  system  had  been  developed 
by  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Pittsburg. 
This  system  marked  a  great  advance  in  the  struggle  against  the  economic 
limitations  imposed  by  the  direct-current  system  on  the  transfer  and 
distribution  of  power  to  widely  separated,  heavy,  individual  train  units. 
Heretofore  there  had  been  heavy  transformation  and  conversion  losses, 
also  an  excessive  cost  for  substation  equipment,  maintenance,  and 
feeders. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       137 

Many  engineers  had  been  working  along  this  line,  the  objects  of  their 
study  being: 

1.  An  alternating-current  system  for  electric  railways. 

2.  Prevention  of  electrolysis  of  rail-base  metal,  water-supply  pipes, 
and  of  lead  casing  of  the  underground  feeders,  the  maintenance  of  which, 
and  of  the  track  bonding,  was  excessive. 

3.  Single-phase  feeders  from  three-phase  generators,   with   a  lower 
investment  in  feeders  for  suburban  lines  and  branches  of  steam  railroads. 

4.  Elimination  of  the  rotary-converter  substations. 

5.  Single-phase  motors,  without  commutators,  for  railways. 

The  writer  conducted  many  experiments  on  a  single-phase  system  in  1898. 
He  was  then  electrical  engineer  for  the  Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  Company,  which 
operated  250  miles  of  electric  road  in  and  between  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul.  The 
power  system  then  used  was  the  best.  Alternating  three-phase  current,  at  13,200 
volts,  was  transmitted  from  an  8000-h.p.  central  station  to  four  substations,  each 
containing  from  one  to  three  600-k.w.  rotary  converters.  There  were  heavy  losses 
in  large  660- volt,  direct-current  feeders,  and  substation  maintenance  was  expensive. 
Experiments  were  made  in  Minneapolis.  Power  was  obtained  from  a  175-kw., 
10-cycle,  380- volt,  single-phase  alternator.  (A  660- volt,  direct-current,  bipolar 
Edison  railway  generator  was  used,  and  two  collector  rings  slipped  over  the  com- 
mutator, were  properly  connected  and  insulated.)  Power  was  fed  to  an  ordinary 
trolley  line.  Two  15-h.p.  Sprague,  600- volt,  series,  direct-current,  "standard" 
street  railway  motors  were  used  on  an  ordinary  street  car.  These  direct-current 
motors  were  used  on  the  single-phase,  alternating-current  circuit. 

The  results  from  these  motors  were  of  course  disappointing.  The  inductive 
effects  with  the  solid  wrot  iron  fields,  the  812  turns  of  No.  12  wire  in  series  on  the  two 
field  coils,  and  the  long  air  gaps,  so  reduced  the  input,  that  the  torque  and  the  output 
of  the  motor  were  practically  nil.  "Weight  efficiency"  was  certainly  bad.  Sparking 
and  heating  existed  at  trie  commutator,  at  any  position  of  the  brushes,  from  the 
e.  m.  f.  induced  by  the  armature  coils  short-circuited  by  the  brushes. 

Allgemeine  Elektricitats  Gesellschaft  in  1903  used  single-phase  motors  on  a 
public  road  at  Spindlersfield,  near  Berlin. 

Mr.  B.  J.  Arnold,  of  Chicago,  experimented  in  1903  with  a  single-phase,  alter- 
nating current  motor  combined  with  an  air  compressor.  A.  I.  E.  E.  proceedings, 
June,  1902,  p.  1003.  See  locomotive  drawings,  Western  Electrician,  Jan.  2,  1904; 
E.  E.,  1904,  p.  83. 

Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Company  placed  the  first  single-phase 
system  and  single-phase  railway  motor  equipment  in  commercial  service  in  December, 
1904,  on  the  Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  Traction  Company's  Interurban  line.  The 
original  82  miles  of  track  were  soon  increased  to  116  miles. 

Four  years  later  there  were  1000  miles  of  single-phase  road,  equipped  with  246 
motor  cars  and  64  electric  locomotives,  with  a  capacity  of  137,000  h.p.  in  railway 
motors.  In  Europe  there  were  approximately  900  miles  in  service  in  December, 
1908;  and  at  that  date  over  250,000  h.p.  in  single-phase  railway  motors  had  been 
sold  in  America  and  in  Europe.  This  represents  a  most  wonderful  development. 

The  installations  to  the  present  year  are  listed.  The  data  were  collected  by 
visits,  by  correspondence,  and  from  descriptive  items  in  technical  papers. 


138 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,  25-CYCLE,  SERIES-COMPENSATED 
MOTORS.     AMERICAN. 


Name  of  railway. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

A.C. 
D.C. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.  p. 

Westinghouse  : 
Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  

1904 

112 

3,300 

Yes 

25  MC 

4-100 

Westmoreland    County    Trac- 
tion, Derby  to  Latrobe,  Pa.  .  . 
San  Francisco,  Vallejo  &  Napa 
Valley,  California. 
\Varren   &  Jamestown 

1905 
1905 
1905 

7 
34 
26 

1,200 
3,300 
3  300 

No 
No 
No 

4  MC 

9  MC 
2  MC 
6  MC 

4-  50 

4-100 
2-  75 
4-  50 

Long  Island  R.  R.  : 
Sea  Cliff  Division. 
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.R. 

1905 
1906 
1908 

6 
162 

2,200 
6,600 

No 
Yes 

6  MC 
25  MC 
6  L 

2-  50 
4-100 
4-125 

Fort  Wayne  &  Springfield  
Pittsburg  &  Butler  
Erie  R  R                      

1910 
1907 
1907 
1907 

22 
39 
40 

6,600 
6,600 
11  000 

Yes 
Yes 
No 

8  L 
4  MC 
13  MC 
6  MC 

4-170 
4-   75 
4-100 
4-100 

First  steam  railroad  to  use  single- 
phase  system,  Rochester-Mt.  Morris 
Division. 

Windsor,  Essex  &  Lake  Shore  . 

New    York,     New    Haven    & 
Hartford,  New  York  Division, 

1907 

1907 
1908 

40 
100 

6,600 
11,000 

No 

Yes 
Yes 

8  MC 
1   L 
41   L 
1   L 

2-100 
4-100 
4-240 
4-315 

23  miles  of  4-track  road. 

1909 
1910 



Yes 
Yes 

4  MC 
1   L 

4-150 
2-675 

1911 

Yes 

1   L 

8-174 

Harlem  River  freight  yards.  . 

1911 

63 

No 

14   L 

4-150 

Visalia  Electric  Ry.,  California 
(15  cycles). 
Grand  Trunk  Ry.  : 
Sarnia-Port  Huron  Tunnel  .  .  . 
Hanover  &  York  Ry.,  Pa  

1908 

1908 
1908 

36 

12 
21 

3,300 

3,300 
6,600 

No 
No 

No 
Yes 

4  MC 
6  MC 
1   L 

6  L 
5  MC 

4-150 
4-  75 
4-125 

3-240 
4-  75 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  S.L.  .  .  . 
Colorado  &  Southern: 
Denver  &  Interurban  R.R..  .  . 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South 
Bend. 
Rock  Island   Southern: 
Rock  Island  to  Monmouth.  .  . 
New    York,    West    Chester    & 
Boston. 
Boston  &  Maine: 
Hoosac  Tunnel  

1908 

1908 
1908 

1910 
1911 

1911 

35 

54 
90 

52 
63 

25 

6,600 

11,000 
6,600 

11,000 
11,000 

11  000 

No 

Yes 
No 

No 

No 

No 

12  MC 

16  MC 
24  MC 
7  MC 
6  MC 
4  MC 
100  MC 

5  L 

4-100 

4-125 
4-125 
2-  75 
4-100 
4-125 
4-150 

4-315 

Total  —  20  roads       

1039 

296  MC 

86  L 

Most  of  the  installations  are  for  railroad  train  service. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       139 
SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,  25  CYCLES.     AMERICAN. 


•    Name  of  railway. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

A.C. 
D.C. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motors 
h.p. 

General  Electric  : 

Schenectady    Ry.  : 

Ballston  Division, 

1904 

16* 

2,200 

Yes 

2  MC 

4-50 

(compensated  motor). 

Illinois  Traction  Co  : 

Bloomington-Peoria.  .  .  . 

1905 

38* 

3,300 

No 

10  MC 

4-75 

Springfield-Mackinaw  .  . 

1907 

57* 

3,300 

No 

20  MC 

4-75 

Toledo  &  Chicago  Ry  

1906 

43 

3,300 

Yes 

7  MC 

4-75 

Milwaukee  Electric  Ry.  : 

Waukesha-Oconomowoc  ; 

1907 

68* 

3,300 

Yes 

15  MC 

4-75 

Burlington  &  East  Troy. 

Richmond  &  Chesapeake 

1907 

16 

6,600 

No 

4  MC 

4-125 

Bay  (repulsion  motor). 

Anderson  Traction,  S.  C. 

1907 

20 

3,300 

Yes 

3  MC 

4-75 

New  York,  New  Haven  & 

1908 

8 

11,000 

No 

2  MC 

4-125 

Hartford,    Stamford- 

4  MC 

4-125 

New  Canaan  Branch. 

Shawinigan   Ry.,    Quebec 

1908 

1 

6,600 

Yes 

1  L 

4-150 

30  and  15  cycles. 

Washington,       Baltimore 

1908 

87* 

6,600 

Yes 

22  MC 

4-125 

and  Annapolis. 

Total                             9 

354 

89  MC 

Abandoned*             .   4 

266 

68  MC 

In  service                     5 

88 

21  MC 

General  Electric  Company  used  three  sizes  of  single-phase  motors.  GE-604, 
50-h.p.;  605,  75-h.p.;  603,  125-h.p.  For  data  on  the  latter  see  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  21, 
1907,  p.  701. 

Cost  of  these  alternating-current  direct-current  motor  equipments  is  stated  to 
have  been  nearly  twice  that  of  direct-current  equipment. 

A  15-cycle,  400-h.p.  experimental  locomotive  built  in  1909  is  described  under 
electric  locomotives. 

General  Electric  single-phase  railway  equipments  have,  in  most  cases,  been 
discarded,  as  noted  below: 

Schenectady  Railway  claimed  unsatisfactory  operating  results. 

Illinois  Traction  abandoned  single-phase  equipment,  because  the  motor  operation 
was  unsatisfactory,  and  to  standardize  the  electric  power  system.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ., 
Jan.  22,  1910,  p.  142. 

Milwaukee  Electric  Railway  and  Light  Company  abandoned  the  system  in  1909. 
President  John  I.  Beggs  is  quoted: 

"  I  have  been  forced  to  this  action  very  reluctantly,  as  this  type  of  apparatus  is, 
in  my  judgment,  a  commercially  operating  necessity  thru  sparsely  settled  territory 
on  long  outlying  lines,  the  amount  of  business  on  which  does  not  justify  the  mainten- 
ance of  substations  at  frequent  intervals  with  constant  manual  attention.  The 


140          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

alternating-current  equipment  does  fairly  well  when  operated  as  single  units,  but  on 
our  lines,  during  seasons  of  heavy  traffic,  we  are  compelled  to  attach  anywhere 
from  one  to  three  large  trailers  which  our  single-phase  apparatus  had  not  the  power 
of  starting." 

"We  are  substituting  for  the  alternating-current  equipment,  the  600-1200-volt 
system,  which  reduces  very  considerably  the  objectionable  features  of  direct-current 
substations  at  such  frequent  intervals.  We  have  arranged  for  thirty  4-motor, 
125-h.p.,  direct-current  equipments  of  this  type  (on  40-ton,  53-foot  cars)  to  replace 
the  fifteen  4-motor,  75-h.p.  alternating-current  equipments  (on  41-ton,  53-foot  cars) 
operated  by  us  for  nearly  two  years  past." 

(In  other  words,  the  75-h.p.  electric  motors  were  too  small  for  the  overloads.) 
The  watt-hours  per  ton-mile  were  materially  less  for  the  alternating-current  than 
for  the  direct-current  system.     References:  E.  R.  J.,  May  1,  1909,  p.  823.     S.  R.  J., 
Aug.  3,  1907,  p.  158;  March  13,  1909,  July  16,  1910. 

Washington,  Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Railway  installed  the  single- 
phase  system  in  1908  for  its  interurban  line,  but  abandoned  it  in  1909 
for  the  1200-volt  direct-current  system.  The  road  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  receiver,  who  reported: 

"The  cause  of  the  present  condition  can  be  summed  up  by  stating  that  the 
amount  of  the  company's  present  liabilities,  for  which  it  has  not  been  able  to  issue 
securities,  is  made  up  entirely  of  the  amount  which  it  has  been  required  to  put  into 
its  construction  account,  and  the  deficit  caused  by  the  large  percentage  of  operating 
expenses  under  the  alternating-current  system." 

The  writer  investigated,  and  found  that  the  road,  which  runs  from  Washington 
to  Baltimore,  has  33.5  miles  of  double  track,  and  also  a  15-mile  single-track  branch 
from  the  middle  of  the  line  to  Annapolis.  The  road,  except  in  the  cities,  is  largely 
on  a  private  right-of-way.  It  began  electrical  operation  in  February,  1908,  as  a 
single-phase  trolley  line.  Motors  were  number  603-A,  repulsion  type,  four  125-h.p. 
units  per  car,  with  plain  rheostatic  control  on  600-volt  direct-current,  and  with 
potential  control,  two  motors  being  in  series,  on  113  to  450- volt  single-phase  circuits. 

The  Washington  terminal  was  2.75  miles  from  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  a  transfer, 
with  delays,  was  required  to  reach  the  city  via  the  local  trolley  cars,  a  handicap 
which  accounted  for  the  fact  that  the  traffic  and  earnings  fell  short  of  the  estimates. 

At  Washington,  the  trolley  runs  in  an  underground  conduit.  The  complication 
was  indeed  great,  with  the  direct-current  system,  the  alternating-current  system,  the 
overhead  trolley,  and  the  conduit  trolley.  Moreover,  the  limited  strength  of  the 
conduit  and  track  yokes  would  not  support  a  45-ton  trolley  car,  and  smaller  cars 
were  required  to  take  50-foot  radius  curves  in  Baltimore  and  Washington.  The 
large  interurban  cars  were  sold,  viz.:  23  cars,  62-foot,  66-seat,  57-ton  with  4-125-h.p., 
alternating  motors,  and  replaced  by  33  cars,  50-foot,  54-seat,  39-ton,  with  4-75-h.p., 
direct-curren  motors.  Vibration  on  the  alternating  motors  was  excessive  when  the 
load  was  heavy,  and  caused  open  circuits  in  armature  leads.  Some  bar  winding 
connections  had  to  be  riveted.  Vibration  even  destroyed  the  cast-steel  gears.  The 
alternating-current  motors  had  to  be  nursed.  Sparking  was  bad,  and  required  fre- 
quent commutator  turning.  Brush  expense  was  heavy.  Carbon  dust  in  the  motor 
case  caused  many  short  circuits  or  flash  overs.  Brush-holder  losses  and  cleaning 
entailed  heavy  maintenance  expense. 

One  of  the  above  alternating-current  equipments  was  redesigned  in  1909,  with 
new  contactor  boxes,  simplified  control,  drop-out  overload  contactors,  a  speed  limit 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       141 


relay,  and  one  transformer  in  place  of  two.     Weight  was  decreased  over  four  tons. 
These  early  troubles  were  very  interesting. 

The  company  in  1910  adopted  the  600-1200-volt  direct-current  system  for  the 
city  and  interurban  sections  of  the  line  and  cars  now  run  into  each  city.  The  7 
single-phase  transformers  formerly  used  were  sold.  Five  new  substations  contain 
sixteen  300-kw.,  600- volt  rotary  converters  connected  two  in  series,  in  pairs.  The 
saving  in  cost  of  power,  after  the  change,  was  10  per  cent,  per  car-mile  in  favor  of  the 
1200-volt  direct-current  system.  Since  the  advance  of  fares,  March  1,  1910,  net 
earnings  have  increased. 

SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,  25  CYCLES.     EUROPEAN. 


Name  of  railway. 

Name  of 
country. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Westinghouse  : 

Midland  

England.  . 

1908 

23 

6,600 

1   MC 

2-150 

Thamshavn-Lokken  .  . 

Norway  .  . 

1908 

36 

6,600 

3  L 

4-  40 

1  MC 

2-  40 

Swedish  State: 

Sweden..  . 

1905 

7 

3,300 

1  L 

2-150 

Stockholm. 

18,000 

1  L 

3-115 

18,000     . 

2  MC 

2-120 

Tergnier-Anizy  

France  .  .  . 

1909 

21 

3,300 

3  L 

2-  40 

3  MC 

2-  40 

R  o  m  a-C  i  v  i  t  a-Castel- 

Italv 

1905 

25 

6,600 

3  L 

4-  40 

lana. 

8  MC 

2-  40 

Salerene-Pompeii  

Italy  

1908 

19 

6,600 

20  MC 

2-  40 

Brembana  Valley  .... 

Italy 

1907 

19 

6,000 

5  L 

4-  75 

Siemens  —  Schuckert  : 

Midland 

England  .  . 

1908 

23 

6,600 

2  MC 

2-175 

Swedish  State  

Sweden... 

1905 

7 

18,000 

1  L 

3-110 

Rotterdam-Hague-S  .  . 

Holland.  . 

1908 

48 

10,000 

25  MC 

2-175 

Prussian  State: 

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf 

Germany  . 

1907 

17 

6,000 

14  MC 

2-125 

Oranienburg  

1909 

2 

6,000 

1  MC 

2-175 

Haute-  Vienne   

Austria.  .  . 

1910 

10,000 

35  MC 

4-  60 

St.  Polten-Mariazell  .  .  . 

Austria.  .  . 

1909 

67 

6,600 

17  L 

2-250 

Parma  Provincial  

Italy  

1909 

40 

4,000 

10  MC 

2-  75 

8  MC 

1-  60 

Roma-Civita-Castel- 

Italy  

1906 

25 

6,600 

4  L 

4-  40 

lana. 

4  MC 

2-  40 

A.   E.    G.     (Winter- 

Eichberg)  : 

Prussian  State: 

Germany  . 

1903 

3 

6,000 

2  MC 

2-100 

Spindlersfeld. 

2  MC 

2-200 

Oranienburg,  Berlin. 

Germany  . 

1906 

2 

6,000 

1  L 

3-350 

1  L 

2-350 

Blankanese-Ohlsdorf 

Germany  . 

1908 

17 

6,000 

54  MC 

3-115 

42  MC 

2-200  % 

142  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,  25  CYCLES.     EUROPEAN.— Continued. 


Name  of  railway. 

Name  of 
country. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
volts. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Swedish  State: 
Stockholm  

Sweden   . 

1905 

5 

6,500 

2  MC 

2-115 

Thamshavn-Lokken  .  . 
Albtal  Ry.  : 
Karlsruhe-Herrenalb  .  . 
Padua-Fusina  

Norway.  .  . 
Germany  . 

Italy 

1908 
1909 

1909 

36 
34 

22 

11,  .000 
8,000 

6,000 

2  MC 
4  L 
7  MC 
13  MC 

4-  80 

4-  85 
2-  85 
2-  80 

Naples-Piedimonte 

Italy 

1909 

35 

10  000 

2  L 

4-  80 

Pamplona-Sanguesa.  .  . 

Spain 

1909 

43 

6,000 

9  MC 
5  MC 

4-  80 
4-  80 

London,  Brighton  & 
South  Coast. 

England.  . 

1909 
1910 

62 

6,600 

16  MC 
30  MC 

4-115 
4-150 

Oerlikon: 

Valle-Moggia  : 
Locarno-Bignasco  .  . 
Brown-Boveri  : 

Swiss  

19Q7 

17 

5,500 

3  MC 
1   L 

4-  60 

Seethal  Railroad: 

Lucerne-  Wildegg  .  .  . 

Swiss  

1909 

33 

5,000 

10  MC 

4-100 

SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,   15  CYCLES.     EUROPEAN. 


Name  of  railway 

Name  of 
country. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Westinghouse  : 

Lyons  Tramways 

France.  .  . 

1909 

27 

6,600 

15  MC 

2-     50 

Midi,  or  Southern  

France..  . 

1910 

70 

12,000 

6L 
30  MC 

2-  800 
4-  125 

Bergmann  : 

Prussian  State: 

Magdeburg-Leipzig 
Siemens  —  Schuckert  : 

Germany 

1910 

23 

10,000 

1  L 

1-1500 

Bavarian  State: 

Murnau-Oberammer- 
gau. 
Prussian  State: 

Germany 

1905 

14 

5,500 

2L 
4MC 

2-  175 
2-  100 

Magdeburg-Leipzig  .  .  . 

Germany 

1910 

23 

10,000 

1L 
1  L 

1-  800 
1-1100 

1  L 

1-1800 

1L 

2-1250 

Baden  State: 
Weisental-Basel-Zell.. 

Germany 

1909 

37 

10,000 

10  L 
2L 

2-  525 
2-1200 

ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION        143 
SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS,  15  CYCLES.     EUROPEAN.— Continued. 


Name  of  railway. 

Name  of 
country. 

Year 
opend. 

Mile- 
age. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

Equip- 
ment. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Vienna-Baden      .    .    . 

Austria 

1905 

46 

10,000 

20  MC 

4-     60 

Waitzen-  Budapest- 
Godollo. 
Seebach-Wettingen  
Bernese-Alps  

Rhatisch  Mountain  
Swedish  State 

Austria.  . 

Swiss.  .  .  . 
Swiss.  .  .  . 

Swiss  .... 
Sweden 

1909 

1907 
1910 

1911 
1911 

36 

13 
52 

46 
93 

10,000 

15,000 
15,000 

10,000 
15,000 

4L 
11  MC 
1L 
3MC 
2L 
1L 
2  L 

4-  240 
2-  150 
6-  225 
4-  220 
2-1000 
1-  600 
1-1000 

A.E.G.     (Winter- 
Eichberg)  : 
Rjukan 

Norway 

1910 

29 

10000 

13  L 
3  L 

2-1000 
4-  125 

Prussian  State: 
Magdeburg-Leipzig. 

Bavarian  State: 
Saltzburg-Berchtes- 
gaden. 

Germany 
Germany 

1910 
1911 

23 
30 

10,000 
10,000 

2L 
1  L 
1L 
1  L 

2-  125 
1-1000 
1-  800 
2-  950 

Midi  or  Southern 

France.  . 

1909 

70 

12  000 

1  L 

2-  800 

Bernese  Alps  
Mittenwald            

Swiss..  .  . 
Austria.  . 

1909 
1910 

52 
69 

15,000 
10,000 

1  L 
6  L 

2-  800 
1-  800 

Vienna-Pressburg 

Austria 

1911 

42 

10000 

3  L 

1-  800 

Oerlikon  : 
Swiss  Federal: 
Seebach-Wettingen. 
Bernese  Alps  

Swiss.  .  .  . 
Swiss     .  . 

1905 
1909 

11 
52 

15,000 
15,000 

5  L 

1L 
1  L 

1-  600 

4-  500 
2-1000 

Prussian  State    .  . 

Germany 

1910 

19 

10000 

1  L 

1-1000 

Rhatisch  Mountain  

Swiss  .... 

1911 

48 

10,000 

1  L 

1-  600 

Brown  -Boveri  : 

Baden  State 

Germany 

1909 

33 

10  000 

3L 
2  MC 

1-  300 

Vienna-Baden  

Austria..  . 

1907 

46 

10,000 

2  L 

4-     40 

Martigny-Orsieres  

Swiss.  .  .  . 

1909 

12 

8,000 

4  MC 

4-     90 

Siemens-Schuckert  Company  has  sold  prior  to  1909,  single-phase  15-  and  25- 
cycle  railway  motors  aggregating  33, 490  h.p.;  prior  to  September,  1910,  105,000  h.p. 

Allgemeine  Elektricitats  Gesellschaft  had  sold,  prior  to  1909,  single-phase, 
15-  and  25-cycle  railway  motors  aggregating  42,480  h.p.,  and  prior  to  January,  1911, 
100,000  h.p. 

Prussian,  Swiss,  Sweden,  and  Austrian  State  Railways  changed  in  1910  from  25- 
to  15-cycles. 

Seebach-Wettingen  was  abandoned  in  1909.  Two  electric  locomotives  ran  78,000 
miles,  but  traffic  was  too  light  for  economical  electrical  operation. 


144          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
SUMMARY  OF  ALL  SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAYS. 


25-cycle. 

Manufacturer. 

Mileage. 

Locomotives. 

Motor  cars. 

Roads. 

American  

Westinghouse  . 

1003 

86 

290 

19 

American  . 

Gen.  Electric  .  . 

88 

1 

21 

5 

European 

Westinghouse 

150 

16 

35 

7 

European  .  . 

Siemens  

229 

22 

99 

8 

European 

AEG 

259 

8 

187 

9 

European  
European  
Total 

Oerlikon  
Brown  

17 
45 
1791 

1 
0 
134 

3 
10 
645 

1 
2 
51 

Net 

1676 

44 

15-cycle. 

Manufacturer. 

Mileage. 

Locomotives. 

Motor  cars. 

Roads. 

American  
European  
European  

Westinghouse  . 
Westinghouse  . 
Siemens  

36 
97 
360 

1 
6 
41 

6 
45 
38 

1 
2 

9 

European  
European 

A.E.G  
Oerlikon 

315 
119 

24 
6 

0 
0 

7 
3 

European  
European  
Total 

Brown  
Bergman  

91 
23 
1041 

2 

1 

81 

6 
0 
95 

3 
1 

26 

Net 

735 

16 

Grand  total  net 

2399 

202 

734 

60 

COMBINATIONS  OF  ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS. 

Combination,  and  mixed  systems  are  noted  briefly. 

1.  Leonard  has  designed  a  system  which  uses  single-phase  alternating- 
current  on  the  contact  line,  which  is  converted  on  the  locomotives,  by 
a  high-speed  light-weight  motor-generator  set,  to  direct  current  for  the 
motors.  The  generator  field  strength  is  varied  to  provide  ideal  control. 
The  scheme  is  used  by  important  mine  hoists,  by  battle  ships,  and  for 
rolling-mill  work.  One  locomotive  was  built  by  the  Oerlikon  Company. 
Its  disadvantage  is  in  the  weight  of  the  electrical  equipment  per  h.p.; 
while  the  advantages  claimed  are  efficiency  of  the  system  and  the  perfect 
control  of  the  speed  and  torque  of  the  motors. 

This  motor-generator  plan,  and  the  rectifier  plan,  may  be  used  when 
three-phase  60-cycle  power  must  be  used.  The  conversion  of  60-cycle 
current  to  direct  current,  on  the  locomotive,  presents  many  handicaps. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION        145 

Leonard,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1892;    St.  Ry.  Journ.,  June  7,  1902,  p.  735. 
See  description  of  Leonard-Oerlikon  locomotives,  which  follows. 

2.  Direct  current  and  single-phase  current  are  used,  as  on  the  New 
York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  between  New  York  City  and 
Stamford,  direct  current  from  the  600-volt  third-rail  for  local  and  ter- 
minal service,  and  single-phase  alternating  current  at  11,000  volts  for 
trunk-line  service  outside  of  New  York  City.     The  combination  requires 
the  use  of  alternating-current,  single-phase  commutator  motors. 

3.  Three-phase  direct-current  motors  are  used  when  both  currents  are 
supplied  for  railway  service.     The  field,  or  primary,  of  the  motor  is  then 
the  stator.     One  of  the  star-connected  three-phase  legs  or  windings  is 
rearranged  and  utilized  for  excitation  with  direct  current,  while  the  other 
two,  in  series  with   the  first,  are  utilized  as  compensation  windings  to 
assist    direct-current    commutation.     The   rotor   may   be    an    ordinary 
direct-current  armature  with  three-phase  tappings  to  3  or  4  slip  rings. 
The  field  and  armature  are  connected  in  series.     On  alternating  current 
the  brushes  must  be  lifted  from  the  commutator  and  cascade  operation 
would  not  be  practical,  except  by  placing  motors  in  series.     A  three- 
phase,  600-volt,   1000-ampere,  25-cycle,  730-r.  p.  m.  motor,  on  direct 
current,  could  be  rated  at  53  per  cent,  voltage,  full  current  and  62  per 
cent,   speed.     London-Pt.  Stanley   (Ontario)   Railway,   a  27-mile  road, 
built  in  1905,  used  a  three-phase,  direct-current  system.     St.  Ry.  Journ., 
Dec.  9,  1905,  p.  1026.     Wilson  and  Lydall,  "  Electrical  Traction,"  Vol. 
II,  p.  46. 

4.  Single -phase  current  for  variable-speed  service  from  one  of  two 
trolleys,  and  of  three-phase  current  for  1-speed  thru-passenger  and  freight 
service,  is  used.     Example:  Stansstad-Engelberg  Railway,  Switzerland. 

5.  Direct -current  at  600  or  1200  volts  from  a  third-rail;  single-phase 
current  from  one  trolley;  and  three-phase  current  from  two  trolleys,  could 
be  used  for  trains  on  the  same  section  of  track,  with  power  supplied  from 
the  same  three-phase  bus-bar  at  the  power  station;  and  from  the  same 
transmission  line  and  transformers,  which  may  feed  both  rotary  con- 
verters and  high-voltage  contact  lines. 

6.  Rectifier  plans  include  a  single-phase,  alternating-current  system, 
a  12,500-volt  overhead  line,  a  locomotive  on  which  a  special  permutator 
converts  the  power  into  direct  current  at  an  e.  m.  f.  adjustable  at  will 
between  zero  volts  and  600  volts,  and  the  use  of  power  by  ordinary 
direct-current  motors.     (The  permutator  is  a  revolving  commutator.) 

Paris,  Lyons  &  Mediterranean  Railway  is  now  trying  this  permuta- 
tor, or  rotating  commutator,  on  a  single-phase  locomotive.  See  tech- 
nical description  of  the  locomotive  which  follows  in  Chapter  IX. 

7.  Mercury  arc  rectifiers,  which  convert  single-phase  alternating  current 
to  direct  current  without  the  use  of  rotating  apparatus,  may  be  placed  at 

10 


146          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

intervals  along  the  railway  line  or  on  the  locomotive.  This  rectifier 
requires  25  or  higher  cycles.  It  may  prove  to  be  highly  desirable,  in 
electric  systems. 

8.  Steam  or  gasoline  may  be  combined  with  electric  power.     A  prime 
mover  on  the  car,  or  locomotive,  may  drive  a  generator,  which  in  turn 
may  drive  motors  connected  to  the  axles. 

The  Glasgow  steam-turbine  locomotive  has  been  described,  page  81. 

General  Electric  Company's  gasoline -electric  cars  are  used  for  light 
service  on  branch  lines.  A  gasoline  engine  is  direct-connected  to  a  very 
high-speed  direct-current,  variable-voltage  generator.  The  fields  of  the 
generator  are  energized  by  a  separate  constant  voltage  exciter,  controlled 
by  a  Tirrill  regulator.  The  generator  delivers  current  to  the  four  90-h.  p., 
600-volt  standard-geared  railway  motors  on  each  axle.  The  gasolene 
engine  runs  continually.  It  is  started  by  means  of  compressed  air. 
The  entire  control  is  by  means  of  the  Leonard  plans  of  varying  the  field 
and  voltage  of  the  generator.  The  simplest  kind  of  controller  is  used 
and  the  efficiency  of  control  is  high.  Where  the  car  can  run  on  a  600- 
volt  trolley  line  the  gasoline  engine  is  taken  out  of  service. 

9.  Storage  batteries  are  not  yet  used  for  railway  trains.     Develop- 
ments are  being  made  for  light  traffic  having  in  view  a  decrease  in  peak 
loads,  improvement  in  motor  economy  during  acceleration  by  using  volt- 
age variation  to  prevent  rheostatic  losses,  and  the  elimination  of  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  power  plant  and  all  line  and  substation  expenditures. 

The  objections  to  storage  batteries  are  the  high  first  cost;  added  dead 
weight;  chemical  deterioration;  destruction  by  shock  in  passing  over 
switch  work  and  in  small  collisions;  time  lost  in  charging  the  batteries'; 
an  efficiency  of  50  to  60  per  cent,  when  new;  maintenance  expense,  12  to 
15  per  cent,  per  annum;  and  lack  of  capacity. 

INTERCHANGEABLE  SYSTEMS. 

Interchangeable  or  universal  systems  of  electrification  have  received 
much  consideration.  It  is  physically  possible,  practical,  and  for  economy 
it  is  necessary  to  devise  a  motor  which  is  interchangeable  on  alternating- 
current  and  direct-current  systems. 

Single-phase,  series,  alternating-current,  commutator  motors  are  the 
nearest  approach  to  this  much-desired,  interchangeable  or  universal 
system,  since  they  may  be  used  on  660  to  1500  volts  direct-current 
circuits  by  placing  2  or  4  single-phase  commutator  motors  in  series; 
on  3,000  to  12;000  volts,  by  the  use  of  a  step-down  transformer  on  the  car 
or  locomotive;  on  a  single-phase  contactor  of  a  three-phase  line;  and 
on  both  15  and  25  cycles,  if  the  latter  be  necessary. 

The  ultimate  interchangeable  system  will  probably  embrace: 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       147 

1.  A  single  contact  line,  because  of  the  importance  of  simplicity  in 
railroad  switching  yards. 

2.  Voltages  between  6000  and  12,000  volts,  in  order  to  transfer  large 
blocks  of  power  with  a  minimum  contact  line  loss  and  with  a  low  first  cost 
of  equipment,  and  catenary  construction  for  safety  in  operation. 

3.  An  alternating-current,  single-phase  commutator  motor,  which  is 
interchangeable  on  direct-  and  alternating-current  circuits. 

A  commutatorless,  single-phase  induction  motor  may  be  designed  for 
practical  railroad  service.  Experiments  in  1911  so  indicate. 

The  rectifier  may  be  developed  for  heavy  service. 

Allgemeine  Elektricitats  Gesellschaft  manufacture  single-phase 
motors  of  the  repulsion  type,  which  cannot  be  used  on  direct-current 
circuits,  and  these  have  been  successful  in  England  and  Germany. 

RELATIVE  ADVANTAGES  OF  SYSTEMS. 

Summary  of  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  the  Principal  Electric  Systems  Used  for 

Electric  Railway  Trains. 

The  systems  compared,  in  short  form,  are  the  direct-current  600- 
1200-volt;  three-phase  15-25-cycle,  3000-6000-volt;  and  single-phase 
15-25  cycle,  6000-11,000-volt. 

Generating  equipment,  so  far  as  the  prime  mover  is  concerned,  is  not 
greatly  affected  by  the  electric  system. 

Direct-current  generators  are  relatively  expensive,  but  they  are  sel- 
dom used  for  heavy  railroad  work. 

Alternating-current  generators  are  cheaper,  since  they  can  be  built 
in  larger  sizes  and  for  much  higher  speeds  than  direct-current  commu- 
tator machines.  Economy  of  insulation  generally  required  the  use  of 
Y-connected  alternators,  with  an  e.  m.  f.  of  about  11,000  volts. 

Generators  for  single-phase  systems  may  be  either  single-phase  or 
three-phase.  The  former,  altho  more  common,  are  more  expensive,  since 
one  leg  or  one-third  of  the  windings  is  not  utilized.  The  higher  cost  is 
offset,  however,  by  lower  cost  of  switchboards. 

"It  is  not  much  more  expensive  to  use  three-phase  generators  for 
single-phase  distribution,  as  the  new  type  of  dampened  field  cuts  down 
the  rising  voltage  on  the  idle  phase,  making  it  possible  to  use  three-phase 
for  commercial  requirements."  Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.  12,  1909. 

Three-phase  generators  for  single -phase  systems  are  used  in  the 
following  four  ways: 

Neutral  points  of  the  three-phase  generators  are  connected  to  the  track, 
and  the  3  phases  or  legs  are  connected  to  the  3  sections  or  divisions  of 
the  trolley  contact  line.  (Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen.) 

Two  legs  of  the  three  legs  of  a  Y-connected  generator  are  used  for 


148          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

the  electric  railway;  but  the  three  legs  are  available  for  transmission 
lines  to  transformer  substation,  etc.  This  makes  an  unbalanced  system. 

Three-phase  two-phase  transformation  can  be  used. 

Two-phase  generators  may  be  used,  with  one  leg  of  each  connected 
to  the  track,  and  each  leg  connected  to  insulated  sections  of  the  line. 

Power  transmission  is  not  practical  with  direct  current  for  heavy 
traffic  over  distances  greater  than  about  5  miles. 

The  limitation  is  in  high-voltage  commutation,  but  if  this  limitation 
did  not  exist  the  minimum  pressure  to  be  adopted  for  ordinary  railroad- 
train  service  would  be  6000  volts. 

"  The  idea  of  transmitting  large  blocks  of  power  by  means  of  direct 
current  is  a  forced  idea,"  as  stated  by  Behrend. 

Direct-current  power  must  be  generated  as  three-phase,  high- 
potential,  alternating  current,  and  transmitted  to  substations  where  it  is 
transformed  and  converted  to  direct  current.  About  50  per  cent,  of  the 
energy  generated  is  distributed  to  the  motor.  Single-phase,  alternating 
current  distribution  losses  run  from  5  to  15  per  cent.,  where  three-phase 
distribution  losses  run  from  10  to  20  per  cent.,  generally  speaking. 

The  practicability  of  an  electric  power  system  depends  upon  its 
ability  to  transmit,  collect,  and  utilize  large  blocks  of  power  in  an  efficient 
manner.  The  transmission  and  distribution  of-  the  energy  outweigh  all 
other  electrical  items  in  electric  traction  for  heavy  individual  train  loads 
widely  scattered  on  a  railway  division. 

Economy  of  copper  is  higher  for  equal  .weight  of  overhead  copper 
with  single-phase  distribution  than  with  polyphase  arrangements. 
Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1908.  See  Transmission  and  Contact  Lines. 

Motor  control  losses  in  direct-current  and  three-phase  motors  during 
acceleration  are  large.  The  efficiency  of  control  of  'single-phase  motors 
is  high,  as  will  be  detailed  later. 

Motor  efficiency  when  compared  shows  that  the  losses  in  large  direct- 
current  motors  used  on  motor-car  trucks  are  about  12  per  cent.,  and  for 
single-phase  motors  are  14  per  cent.;  and  that  the  losses  in  motors  used 
on  large  locomotives  are  8  per  cent,  for  direct  current  and  three-phase 
motors  and  10  per  cent,  for  single-phase  motors.  Much  depends  upon 
the  speed,  design,  and  service. 

Weight  of  the  single-phase  motor  is  the  heaviest  because  the  magnetic 
heating  and  commutator  losses  are  the  largest;  but  the  motor  weight  is 
a  small  part  of  the  total  train  weight.  See  chapter  on  Railway  Motors. 

SUMMARY. 

Principal  advantages  of  the  direct -current  system : 

Direct-current  motors  are  standard,  well-tried,  have  good  operating 
characteristics,  and  may  be  used  on  600-  and  1200-volt  circuits. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       149 

Danger  is  not  involved  with  the  low  voltages  used. 

Storage  batteries  may  be  used  directly  to  smooth  out  the  load. 

Transformers  are  grouped  in  rotary-converter  substations,  not  on 
the  moving  motor  car  and  electric  locomotive/ 

Disadvantages  of  the  direct -current  system : 

Voltage  of  line  is  low,  and  this  causes  high  transmission,  conver- 
sion and  contact  line  losses. 

Substation  and  transformer  equipment  cost  is  high. 

Operation  and  maintenance  of  substations  are  expensive. 

Electrolysis  of  underground  structures  occurs. 

Efficiency  of  energy  transmitted  to  tra  ns  is  generally  the  lowest. 

Regeneration  of  energy  is  not  practicable. 

Principal  advantages  of  the  three-phase  system: 

Commutators  are  not  used  on  motors. 

Efficiency  of  the  motor  is  the  highest. 

Constant  speed  may  be  used  for  some  service. 

Regeneration  of  energy  is  most  practicable. 

Principal  disadvantages  of  the  three-phase  system : 

Two  overhead  trolleys  involve  danger,  particularly  around  switching 
yards  and  for  high-speed  service.  Common  overhead  catenary  con- 
struction parallel  to  the  two  trolley  wires  is  expensive. 

Low  contact-line  voltages  are  used.  In  the  three  European  railroad 
installations,  3000  volts  are  used;  and  in  America,  on  Great  Northern 
Railway,  6000  volts  are  used.  Substations  must  be  frequent,  because  of 
the  low  voltages  used  on  the  trolley  line. 

Motor  characteristics  are  not  satisfactory  in  regard  to  variable  speed, 
efficiency  during  acceleration,  drawbar  pull  with  reduced  voltages,  and 
load  factor  of  motor  and  generator  in  constant  speed  service. 

Principal  advantages  of  the  single -phase  system: 

Transmission  and  contact  line  losses  are  a  minimum. 

Transformer  and  substation  expenditures  are  reduced. 

Transformation  facilities  are  perfect. 

One  trolley  wire  is  used.  Simplicity  governs  the  weakest  element 
of  the  system — the  one  element  which  cannot  well  be  duplicate.  Sim- 
plicity and  safety  are  gained  at  switching  yards  and  terminals. 

Energy  required  from  the  power  plant  is  the  lowest. 

High  efficiency  is  obtained  during  train  acceleration  periods,  and  the 
motor  potential  can  be  varied  without  rheostatic  losses. 

Variable  speed  is  obtained  from  motors.  The  speed  is  varied  by 
changing  the  relation  of  the  secondary  and  primary  taps  at  the  trans- 
former. 

Drawbar  pull  of  motors  depends  directly  upon  the  voltage;   if  the  line 


150          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

voltage  is  low,  the  motor  voltage  may  be  raised  by  changes  at  the  step- 
down  transformer. 

Transformer  substation  load  factor  is  very  high,  because  each  sub- 
station (and  often  the  generating  station)  reaches  out  and  furnishes 
power  to  the  diversified  load  of  heavy  individual  train  units,  which  are 
widely  scattered.  (The  substation  does  not  carry  two  1000-h.  p.  trains 
in  a  10-mile  division,  but  twenty  1,000-h.  p.  trains  in  a  50-mile  division. 
The  load  is  diversified  and  becomes  uniform.  The  load  factors  of  the 
transmission  line,  transformers,  and  contact  line  are  thus  relatively  high 
and  the  cost  per  train-mile,  ton-mile,  or  passenger-mile  is  relatively  low. 
This  advantage  is  of  great  economic  value  in  railroading. 

Disadvantages  of  the  single -phase  system: 

Equipment  cost  for  all  short  roads  is  higher. 

Maintenance  cost  of  motors  is  higher. 

"  Reduced  output  of  both  generator  and  motors;  the  reduced 
efficiency;  the  impaired  regulation;  the  increased  heating  and  less 
stability  of  the  single-phase  motor  and  generator,  and  the  increased  cost 
resulting  from  the  greater  amount  of  material  required."  Behrend,  1906. 

The  single-phase  system  was  first  installed  for  train  haulage  in  1907. 

COST  OF  COMPLETE  EQUIPMENT. 

The  cost  of  the  complete  equipment  can  only  be  stated  in  general 
terms.  The  cost  varies  for  any  given  train  service.  Heavy  trains  and 
infrequent  service  always  favor  the  alternating-current  systems;  while 
light  trains  and  frequent  local  service  always  favor  the  direct-current 
system.  Multiple-unit  operation,  distance  between  stops,  and  length 
of  road  affect  the  cost  of  electrical  equipment  to  a  great  extent. 

Cost  of  the  direct -current  system  is  extremely  high  for  electric  train 
service  because  of  the  greater  investment  in  secondary  feeders,  sub- 
stations, transformers,  converters,  and  switchboards.  If,  however,  these 
could  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  a  mercury  gas  rectifier,  the  situation  would 
be  bettered. 

Cost  of  the  three-phase  system  is  low  for  light  railway  work.  In 
Italy  where  3000  volts  are  used,  a  catenary  cable  does  not  support 
the  two  trolleys  at  frequent  intervals,  as  with  the  single-phase  sys- 
tem. For  heavy,  high-speed  railroad  work,  the  cost  of  equipment 
with  3000  or  6000  volts  is  high,  because  numerous  substations  are 
necessary,  and  catenary  construction  parallel  to  the  two  trolley  wires 
is  necessary. 

Cost  of  the  single -phase  system  for  heavy  work  is  relatively  low 
because  of  the  use  of  high  voltages  and  the  simplicity  in  construction. 
In  most  cases,  the  absence  of  line  transformers  much  more  than  offsets 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       151 

the  higher  cost  of  motors  used  on  motor  cars  and  locomotives.  The 
peak  load  at  the  substation  is  relatively  low  because  the  high-voltage 
distribution  from  each  substation  reaches  many  trains  to  equalize  the 
load  and  this  decreases  the  investment  for  the  average  output  or  work. 
Cost  of  equipment  is  detailed  in  "Procedure  in  Railroad  Electrifica- 
tion." 

OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE. 

There  is  a  reasonable  difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  comparison  of  data  on  maintenance  of 
interurban  and  terminal  railways  which  use  600  and  1200  volts  with 
railroad  trains  which  require  higher  voltages.  They  are  not  comparable. 
Further,  the  depreciation  of  the  first  alternating-current  roads;  so  recently 
installed,  was  larger  than  it  will  be  in  the  future. 

Direct-current  systems  are  the  most  expensive  to  operate,  until  the 
interest  and  depreciation  charges  become  a  small  part  of  the  operating 
expense,  as  in  the  case  of  rapid  transit  service,  where  the  greater  part  of 
the  investment  is  in  multiple-unit  car  equipment. 

Three-phase  operating  and  maintenance  costs  may  or  may  not 
be  higher  than  others.  The  motors  are  simple,  and  the  overhead 
construction  is  not  much  more  expensive  to  maintain,  but  the  cost  of 
power  will  be  higher  for  constant-speed  service. 

Single-phase  maintenance  cost,  at  the  present  state  of  the  de- 
velopment, is  somewhat  higher  than  that  for  the  direct-current,  but 
eventually  there  will  be  little  difference.  Heavy  railroad  transmission 
losses  will  be  lower  than  with  other  systems,  probably  from  15  to  20  per 
cent,  lower.  The  absence  of  converter  substation  maintenance  is  an  im- 
portant matter.  In  many  cases  transformer  substations  will  be  unneces- 
sary. The  combined  savings  will  make  the  cost  of  maintenance  and 
operation  of  the  single-phase  system  4  to  8  per  cent,  lower  than  the 
direct-current  system  and  probably  lower  than  the  three-phase  system. 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  Traction  Company,  with  two  divisions  from 
Indianapolis,  one  to  Connersville,  58  miles,  and  one  to  Greensburg,  50 
miles,  and  a  total  mileage  of  116,  has  used  the  single-phase  electric  power 
system  since  December,  1904.  Fifty-ton,  55-foot  cars  with  four  100- 
h.p.  motors  are  used.  Unfortunately,  it  is  compelled  to  use  direct  cur- 
rent at  terminals,  thus  requiring  a  double-control  equipment. 

In  the  operation  of  the  power  plant  "the  alternating-current  system 
saves  under  present  conditions  about  $16,000  or  23  per  cent,  per  annum 
in  operating  expenses  over  what  would  be  the  cost  of  the  same  operation 
with  direct  current."  A.  D.  Lundy,  Consulting  Engineer,  1907. 

H.  M.  Hobart  discussed  this  subject  before  the  British  Institution  of 


152          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Mechanical  Engineers  in  July,  1910,  and  stated  as  the  result  of  his  cal- 
culations, based  on  what  purported  to  be  accurate  data,  "that  the  cost  of 
current  plus  the  interest,  on  the  investment  in  rolling  stock,  was  6  cents 
per  train-mile  higher  for  single-phase  than  for  direct  current  in  moderate 
service.  The  advantages  of  direct  current  over  single-phase  current 
were  more  apparent  the  higher  the  schedule  speed  and  the  shorter  the 
distance  between  stops." 

J.  Dalziel,  of  the  Midland  Railway,  in  the  same  discussion  stated: 
"Single-phase  in  suburban  work  must  have  very  serious  disadvantages 
to  warrant  its  being  discarded  when  its  many  advantages  for  main-line 
operation  are  admitted.  Much  of  the  trouble  with  single-phase  appa- 
ratus was  due  to  the  complication  involved  by  attempting  to  operate 
single-phase  motors  on  direct-current  sections.  With  regard  to  efficiency, 
comparative  figures  proved  that  the  single-phase  motors  on  the  Midland 
Railway  consumed  20  per  cent,  less  current  than  direct-current  motors 
on  the  Liverpool-Southport  line  when  running  at  the  same  schedule  speed." 

Midland  Railway  of  England  equipped  its  Heysham-Lancaster  Branch  with 
single-phase  equipment  in  1908.  The  traffic  is  ordinarily ('  light  and  consequently 
expensive  to  operate  by  steam;  but  there  is  a  heavy  summer  traffic  tending  to  congest 
the  main-line  trains.  Motor  cars  are  required  on  a  service  and  schedule  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  former  steam  locomotives. 

"  The  single-phase  apparatus  is  equally  as  capable  of  working  such  services  (high- 
speed, frequent  stop,  suburban-interurban)  as  direct-current  apparatus;  the  weight  of 
the  single-phase  train  is  only  a  very  small  percentage  greater  than  that  of  correspond- 
ing direct-current  trains."  Dalzeland  Sayer,  to  Inst.  of  Civil  Engineers,  Nov.,  1909. 

CONCLUSIONS  AND  OPINIONS. 

Prussian  State,  Swedish  State,  Swiss  Federal,  and  Austria-Hungary 
Railroad  Administration,  during  the  past  5  years  have  had  a  commission 
of  noted  engineers  studying  the  question  of  the  best  system.  These 
commissions  have  inspected  installations,  discussed  technical  and 
financial  data,  made  long  reports,  and  in  each  case  have  finally  decided 
that  the  10,000-volt,  15-cycle,  single-phase  system  is  best  suited  for 
traction  on  main  lines,  altho  direct-current  and  the  three-phase  system 
have  been  found  applicable  under  certain  conditions.  Attention  has 
been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  single-phase  system  complied  with  the 
desire  for  unity  of  systems  in  simplifying  international  communication. 

Italian  State  Railway  favors  the  three-phase  system.  The  chief 
engineer  of  the  electrical  department,  Mr.  Verola,  stated  in  1909: 

"The  decision  to  use  the  three-phase  system  is  not  final  and  absolute  for  our 
administration,  but  the  latter  considers  it  preferable  as  a  beginning  for  the  lines  at 
present  under  electrification.  The  possibility  of  using  single-phase  systems  in  other 
cases,  which  may  better  lend  themselves  to  it,  is  thereby  not  excluded.  In  the  case 
of  the  three  lines  (Pontedecimo  Busalla,  Bardonecchia  Modane  and  Savona-Ceva), 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       153 

the  service  is  extremely  heavy,  trains  of  440  tons  and  over  having  to  be  hauled  up  on 
long  grades  of  2.5  to  3.5  per  cent,  at  a  speed  of  45  km.  per  hour.  With  the  three- 
phase  system  it  is  possible  to  comply  with  these  conditions  by  using  two  67-ton, 
2000-h.  p.  locomotives.  The  three-phase  system  has  the  advantage  that  in  running 
downhill  the  speed  cannot  exceed  a  certain  limit,  while  recuperation  of  energy  is 
possible.  The  advantages  of  wider  speed  adjustment  in  running  and  better  efficiency 
of  the  single-phase  system  in  starting  are  not  of  importance,  since  the  grades  are  long 
and  fairly  uniform,  and  the  distance  between  stations  is  great.  Other  lines  will  be 
worked  single-phase.  One  of  these  is  the  Turin-Pinerolo-Torre-Pelice,  where  widely 
different  speeds  are  necessary,  the  maximum  being  80  km.  per  hour  for  112-ton 
passenger  trains." 

Sprague  stated  before  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers, 
November,  1909,  what  to  the  writer  appears  to  be  an  excellent  summary: 

"It  is  not  deemed  wise  first  to  decide  upon  a  system,  but  rather  to 
ascertain  the  costs  of  locomotives  (and  motor  cars)  by  various  systems 
which  could  perform  a  service  determined  as  essential  to  effective  opera- 
tion, and  then  to  collate  all  the  facts,  advantageous  and  otherwise,  affect- 
ing capital  cost  and  cost  of  operation,  after  which  the  best  system  to  meet 
the  existing  conditions  could  be  determined.  We  are  passing  thru  that 
inevitable  stage  of  development  and  elimination  essential  to  final  correct 
decisions  and  permanency  of  results.  However  critical  we  sometimes 
feel  as  to  the  inadequacy  of  any  system  in  some  particular  application, 
every  installation  is  welcomed  which  promises  to  further  the  effective  and 
economic  application  of  electricity  to  trunk-line  operation." 

Stillwell  was  more  definite,  and  his  remarks  on  systems  are  recom- 
mended for  consideration: 

"Standardize  with  respect  to  those  things  which  are  essential  to  inter- 
change of  rolling  stock,  by  (1)  careful  study  by  a  competent  commission 
of  the  broad  problem  of  railway  electrification,  (2)  selection  of  that  sys- 
tem which  present  knowledge  points  to  as  best  adapted  for  a  general 
solution,  and  (3)  concentration  of  efforts  in  perfecting  the  details  of  a 
system  selected." 

This  method  is  contrasted  with  selections  of  systems  for  a  specific 
problem  which  ignore  the  obvious  fact  that  the  horizon  of  the  present 
" zones  of  electrification"  is  sure  to  expand  in  the  near  future  and  that 
these  horizons  in  many  instances  are  certain  to  overlap  before  the  expira- 
tion of  the  proper  period  of  amortization  of  the  capital  invested  in  the 
apparatus  selected. 

Four  conclusions  on  systems  are  now  well  established. 

The  direct-current  600-  or  1200-volt  rotary-converter  substation 
system  can  best  be  used  to  distribute  and  collect  large  amounts  of  energy 
for  dense,  local  traffic.  It  is  not  an  efficient  system  for  ordinary  rail- 
way train  service. 

The  three-phase  system  will  give  good  results  when  low-speed,  heavy 


154          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

train  service  and  regeneration  of  power  on  grades  are  combined.  It  is 
not  adapted  for  motor-cars,  frequent  acceleration,  and  switching. 

The  single-phase  system  combines  simplicity,  flexibility,  economy  in 
power  transmission,  variable  speeds,  lowest  cost  for  service  with  heavy 
individual  freight  and  passenger  trains,  and  the  motors  used  can  be  run 
on  sections  equipped  for  three-phase  or  for  direct-current  operation. 

The  best  system  for  train  service  is  not  one  adapted  to  individual 
cases,  but  one  which  is  adapted  to  the  electrification  of  complete  railroads. 

The  choice  of  the  electric  railway  system  is  an  important  matter. 
The  details  and  the  application  of  the  systems  of  railway  electrification 
offered  must  be  carefully  compared  from  all  physical  and  financial 
standpoints.  The  decision  is  of  importance  because  it  affects  safety, 
capacity,  and  interchange  of  equipment;  it  commits  the  railway  to  better 
or  poorer  results  in  operation.  Standards  should  be  adopted  soon,  which 
will  decrease  the  excessive  cost  of  changing  from  steam  to  electric  opera- 
tion, and  in  order  that  the  public  may  obtain  the  benefits  of  improved 
transportation  facilities  and  service. 

LITERATURE. 

References  on  i2oo-Volt,  Direct-current  System. 
See  references  accompanying  lists  of  roads. 
Eveleth:  1200  Volts  for  Interurban  Roads,  with  cost  sheets,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan  10,  1910; 

E.  T.  W.,  July  13,  1909;  G.  E.  Review,  June,  1910. 
McLenegan:  1200- Volt  Railway  Equipment,  E.  T.  W.,  June  26,  1907. 
Hill:  Operation  of  1200- Volt  System,  G.  E.  Review,  June,  1909. 

Milwaukee  Electric  Railway:  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  3,  1907,  p.  158;  July  16,  1910,  p.  102. 
See  references  on  pages  129  and  130. 

References  on  Three-phase  System. 

Waterman:  Three-phase  Traction,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June  19,  1905. 
Steinmetz:  Polyphase  Traction,  E.  W.,  Jan.  1,  1898. 
Gibson:  Polyphase  Traction,  E.  W.,  July  21,  1900. 
Valatin:  Comparison  of  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  4,  1908. 
Davis:  Control  of  Motors,  E.  W.,  Jan.,  1898. 

Danielson:  Combinations  of  Polyphase  Motors,  Characteristics,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1902. 
De  Muralt:  Systems  of  Electrification,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1906. 

References  on  Three-phase  Railway  Installations. 

WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  "Electrical  Traction,"  Vol.  II,  particularly,  p.  110. 
BERLIN-ZOSSEN:  "Electric  Railway  Tests,"  McGraw,  1905. 
Berlin-Hamburg:  S.  R.  J.,  May  16,  1903,  p.  736;  June  7,  1902,  p.  720. 
Lugano  Street  Ry.:  S.  R.  J.,  1896,  p.  307. 

Gorner-Grat  Railway:  S.  R.  J.,  1898,  pp.  36,  166;  1899,  873;  1902,  694. 
Jungfrau:  S.  R.  J.,  1902,  p.  699. 

Stansstad-Engelberg:  E.  W.,  Feb.  18,  1899;  S.  R.  J.,  June  7,  1902,  p.  697. 
Burgdorf-Thun:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  and  Dec.,  1899,  pp.  583,  855;  June  7,  1902,  pp.  696, 
720;  S.  R.  R.,  Sept.  15,  1900;  Wilson,  B.  I.  M.  E.,  July  20,  27,  1900. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       155 

Italian  State:  Hammer,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1901;  Waterman,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905; 

Nov.,  1909;  S.  R.  J.,  1900,  p.  1137;  1901,  p.  344;  May  2,  1903,  p.  663,  788; 

Aug.  5  and  26,  1905;  April  6,  1907;  Jan.  4,  1908. 
Giovi  Line,  Italy:  Electric  Journal,  May,  1910. 
London  Tubes  or  Inner  Circle:  S.  R.  J.,  1898,  p.  139;  Dec.  7,   1901,  p.  842;  Wilson 

and  Lydall,  "  Electrical  Traction/'  Chapter  I,  p.  53. 
Miami-Erie  Canal  Road:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  7,  1903,  p.  830. 
London-St.  Stanley,  Ontario:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  9,  1905;  photos  of  motor. 
Simplon  Tunnel:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb  3  and  24,  1906;  E.  W.,  Oct.  27,  1906;  Elec.  Review, 

Nov.  13,  Dec.  4,  1909. 
Great  Northern:  Hutchinson,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909;  see  discussion  of  paper. 

References  on  Direct- current  Versus  Single -phase  System. 

Eichberg:  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  7,  1909,  p.  223. 

Sprague:  Trunk-line  Operation.     A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  21,  1907. 

Westinghouse :  Direct-current  vs.  single-phase  current  system  for  New  York  Central. 

S.  R.  J.,  and  E.  W.,  Dec.,  1905;  Railroad  Gazette,  Dec.  22,  1905,  p.  579. 
Lamme:  Single-phase  Railways,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  September,  1902;  Alternating  Current 

for  Railway  Trains,  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  March,  1906;  S.  R.  J.,  March  24,  1906. 
Potter:  Unit  Cost  of  Electric  Railways .  B.  I.  M.  E.,  July,  1910;  E.  R.  J.,  July  9,  1910. 
Davis:  Destinies  of  500- volt  d.  c.,  1200- volt  d.  c.,  and  6600- volt  a.  c.  motors,  E.  R.  J., 

Sept.  24,  1910. 

References  on  Alternating-current  Systems,  in  General. 

Dawson:  Electric  Traction  on  Trunk  Lines.     S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  7,  1906. 

Lamme:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Sept.,  1902;  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  March,  1906;  S.  R.  J.,  March  24, 

1906;  Elec.  Journal,  Feb.  and  April,  1906. 

Blanck:  Single-phase  Railways.     A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1904;  S.  R.  J.,  Mar.  12,  1904. 
Hobart:  Single-phase  Traction.     S.  R.  J.,  May  4,  1907. 
Arnold:  International  Elec.  Congress,  St.  Louis,  Sept.,  1904. 
Davis:  Alternating-  vs.  Direct-current  Systems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  March,  1907. 

References  on  Westinghouse  Single -phase  System. 

Lamme:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Sept.,  1902;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  6,  1906;  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1909. 

Renshaw:  S.  R.  J.,  March  26,  1904;  Elec.  Journal,  Dec.,  1908. 

Scott:  Amer.  St.  Ry.  Assoc.,  Sept.,  1905;  Elec.  Journal,  July,  1905. 

Lincoln:  Elec.  Age,  Feb.,  1904;  Westinghouse  Bulletin,  7020,  June,  1904. 

Westinghouse:  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1905. 

European  data  on  Traction  Systems:     L 'Industrie  Elec.,  Jan.  10,  1909. 

Electotechnische  Zeitschrift :  Proceedings  of  German  Institution  of  Electrical  Engin- 
eers, July,  August,  and  September,  1907. 

Storer:  Single-phase  Railways,  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  1,  1910. 

Darlington:  Economic  Considerations  Governing  the  Selection  of  Electric  Railway 
Apparatus,  Western  Society  of  Engineers,  Oct.,  1910;  Elec.  Journal,  Feb.,  1910. 

References  on  Electric  Generators  in  Systems. 

Waters:  Single-phase  Generator  for  Railways,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908. 
Armstrong:  Single-  versus  Three-phase  Generators,  S.  R.  J.,  June  29,  1907. 
Ayers:  Generators  and  Connections,  E.  W.,  Dec.  23,  1909,  p.  1522. 


156          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Hallberg:  Comparison  of  Alternating-current  Systems,  E.  W.,  Jan.  14,  1905,  p.  99. 

Roedder:  "Elektrische  Fernbahnen,"  p.  199. 

Editorial:  Selection  of  Generators,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  11,  1905. 

References  on  Single -phase  Railways,  Descriptive. 

See  references  and  descriptions  of  electric  locomotives,  power  plants,  motor  cars,  and 
work  done  by  prominent  roads  in  chapters  which  follow. 

Westinghouse  Installations — Best  References. 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati:  E.  W.,  Feb.  18, 1905,  pp.  335  and  510;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.,  Feb., 

May,  1905,  pp.  300  and  502. 

San  Francisco,  Vallejo  &  N.  V.:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 
Long  Island  R.R.,  Sea  Cliff  Division:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  16,  1905. 
Windsor,  Essex  &  Lake  Shore:  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.   11;  July  25,   1908;  E.  W.,  Jan.  11, 

1908.. 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis:  E.  R.  J.,  July  4,  1908;  Whitehead:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1908. 
Denver  &  Interurban  R.R.:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909;  E.  T.  W.,  Sept.  25,  1909. 
Chi.,  Lake  Shore  &  S.  Bend:  E.  R.  J.,  April  10,  1909,  for  map,  stations,  line,  cars. 
Rock  Island  Southern  R.R.:  E.  R.  J.,  July  16,  1910;  Electric  Journal,  Oct.,  1910. 

General  Electric  Installations — Best  References. 

Illinois  Traction:   E.  W.,  Mar.  25,  1905,  p.  579;  May  6,  1905,  p.  841;  Hewett,  S.  R.  J. 

April  25,  1905,  p.  565  and  812;  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  22,  1910,  p.  142. 
Toledo  &  Chicago;  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1906. 
Milwaukee  Elec.  Railway:  E.  W.,  March  10,  1906;  S.  R.  J.,  March  13,  1909,  p.  102; 

E.  R.  J.,  May  1,  1909,  p.  823;  July  16,  1910. 

Richmond  &  Chesapeake  Bay:  S.  R.  J.,  March  7,  1908;  Ry.  Age,  March  13,  1909. 
N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.:  New  Canaan  Branch,  E.  W.,  Jan.  18,  1908,  p.  139;  E.  R.  J.,  May 

15,  1909,  p.  901. 
Washington,  Baltimore  &  Annapolis:  E.  R.  J.,  Feb.  15,  1908;  Ry.  Age,  March  13, 

1908;  Motors:  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  18,  1908,  p.  82;  Cars:  Oct.  12,  1907;  Hewett,  G.  E. 

Review,  Nov.,  1910. 

References  on  Single -phase  European  Railways. 

See  references  and  descriptions  on  motor  cars,  locomotives,  and  work  done  by  promi- 
nent roads,  in  succeeding  chapters. 

Midland  Railway,  England:  E.  R.  J.,  July  4,  1908:  Elec.  Age,  Aug.,  1910. 

London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast:  E.  R.  J.,  March  6,  1909. 
DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  1909. 
Results:  London  Electrician,  Sept.  9,  1910;  B.  I.  C.  E.,  March  1911. 

Swedish  State:  See  Chapter  XV. 

Thamshavn-Lokken,  Norway:     Ry.  Age,  Sept.  2,  1910. 

Rotterdam-Hague  Scheveningen:  Ry.  Age,  July  8,  1910.     See  Chapter  XV. 

Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf :  E.  W.,  Nov.  18,  1909;  S.  R.  J.,  March  17,  1906. 

Oranienburg:  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  25,  1909.     See  Chapter  X. 

Magdeburg-Leipzig:  Elec.  Zeit.,  April  21,  1910. 

Valle  Moggia:  S.  R.  J.,  March  24,  1966. 

Murnau-Oberammergau :  S.  R.  J.,  April  1,  1905,  p.  591. 

Wiesental  Railway:  Basel-Schopfheim-Zell,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.,  11,  1909,  p.  1177. 

Rome-Castellana:  E.  R.  J.,  June  27,  1908. 

Milan  Exhibition,  Elec.  Review,  Dec.  12,  1903;  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  11,  1906. 


ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS  AVAILABLE  FOR  TRACTION       157 

References  on  Combinations  of  Systems. 
Zanzig:  Rectifiers    and    Permutators,   Description  and  action  of  the   Rouge-Fazet 

rectifier,  Elec.  Review,  Dec.  4,  1909. 

Leonard  System:  Motor-generator  Combination;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1892,  p.  566. 
Huber:  Oerlikon  Converter  Locomotive,  S.  R.  J.,  June  7,  1902,  p.  733. 
Gasoline-Electric  Trains:  E.  W.,  July  22,  1911,  p.  217. 

References  on  Relative  Cost  of  Electrification. 

Davis:  600  and  1200  volts  d.  c.,  6600  volts  single-phase,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  1907,  p.  387. 

Eveleth:  600  versus  1200  volts  for  interurbans,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  11,  1910. 

Slicter:  Cost  of  equipment  at  25  and  15  cycles,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907,  p. .131. 

Dahlander:  Swedish  State  Ry.,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906. 

Sprout:  Data  on  Costs,  a.  c.  versus  d.  c.,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

Potter:  Unit  Cost  of  Elec.  Ry.,  B.  I.  M.  E.,  July,  1910;  E.  R.  J.,  July  9,  1910. 

See  literature  on  Cost  of  Electrification  under  Procedure  in  Railroad  Electrification. 


CHAPTER  V. 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE. 

Outline. 

Introduction : 

Historical  development,   voltages,  currents,  classification   with   systems. 

Direct  or  Continuous  Current  Motors. 

Three -Phase  Alternating -Current  Motors. 

Single -Phase  Alternating -Current  Motors. 

Comparison  of  Motors. 

Rating  of  Motors : 

One-hour  and  continuous  ratings,  comparisons  based  on  ratings,  ventilation 
of  motors,  ratings  of  motors  with  forced  draft,  selection  of  requisite  capacity. 

Mechanical  and  Electrical  Data: 

Names  and  ratings,  weights,  speeds,  dimensions,  field  and  armature  data. 

Development  of  Motor  Design : 

1.  Magnet  frames.  2.  Pole  pieces.  3.  Field  coils.  4.  Air  gap.  5.  Arm- 
ature core.  6.  Armature  winding.  7.  Commutator.  8.  Brushes.  9.  Arm- 
ature speed.  10.  Bearings.  11.  Gearing.  12.  Axles.  13.  Suspension. 

Speed-Torque  Characteristics  of  Motors: 

Direct-  and  alternating-current  motors;   effect  of  voltage,  gearing,   drivers. 

Choice  of  Cycles  for  Motors,   15  Versus  25. 

Control  of  Motors. 

Literature. 


158 


CHAPTER  V. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE. 
INTRODUCTION. 

A  study  of  electric  railway  motors  embraces  types,  rating,  mechanical 
and  electrical  design,  running  characteristics,  and  control.  Commercial 
considerations  demand  capacity,  reliability,  and  low  maintenance,  for 
economy  in  transportation. 

The  electric  motor  is  but  one  link  in  the  electric  railway;  yet  it  is  of 
first  importance.  The  essential  contributing  items  are  ample  and  eco- 
nomical prime  movers,  generation  at  a  suitable  voltage,  cycle,  and  phase, 
and  a  simple  and  efficient  method  by  which  large  blocks  of  energy  may 
be  transmitted  and  transformed.  The  motor  receives  the  electric  power, 
and  simply  translates  it  into  the  requisite  drawbar  pull  and  speed. 


FIG.  27. — STANDARD  TRUCK  AND  MOTOR.     BENTLEY-KNIGHT,  1885. 

Motor  suspension  on  axle  bearings  and  on  a  truck  crossbar — nose  suspension. 

Double  reduction  gears. 

Historically  the  first  general  observation  made  regarding  motors  for 
use  on  passenger  and  freight  cars  is  that,  about  1890,  one  motor  per 
truck  was  mounted  on  the  first  double-truck  electric  cars.  About  1898, 
electric  motor  cars  had  become  heavier,  rapid  acceleration  and  high 
speeds  were  used,  and  coaches  were  hauled;  and  the  service  then  required 
the  use  of  "4-motor  equipments."  When  electric  trains  are  operated 
in  place  of  single  cars,  the  air  resistance  and  also  the  rail  friction  per  ton 
on  the  private  right-of-way  are  reduced,  and  two  motors  per  car  generally 

159 


160          ELECTRIC. TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

furnish  sufficient  capacity.  A  study  of  the  statistical  tables,  in  "  Motor- 
car Trains/'  shows  exceptions  to  this  rule,  particularly  where  heavy 
motor  cars  are  used  to  haul  heavy  coaches. 

Improvements  in  direct-current  motors  since  1900  have  been  few. 
They  include  cpmmutating  poles  and  slotting  of  mica  between  commuta- 
tor bars.  Three-phase  motors  were  well  developed  prior  to  1902,  since 
which  time  few  changes  have  been  made.  Single-phase  railway  motors 
have  been  developed  since  1904;  they  have  been  rapidly  improved,  and 
are  well  perfected.  The  commutator  troubles  on  all  motors  now  sold  are  a 
minimum,  maintenance  expense  has  become  a  small  item,  and  the 
depreciation  rate  is  remarkably  low. 

Voltages  for  direct-current  motors  were  75  volts  as  used  in  1883  by 
Field  and  Edison;  125  volts  used  in  1884  by  Daft  with  his  compound- 
wound  8-h.  p.  motor  on  the  Baltimore  Union  Passenger  Railway;  and  450 
volts  used  in  1888  by  Sprague  for  two  7-h.p.  motors  per  car  at  Richmond, 
Va.  The  standard  voltage  for  direct-current  street  railway  motors  is 
now  550.  Voltages  of  600  to  660  volts  are  used  for  heavy  railway-train 
service  and  voltages  of  1200  volts  w,ith  two  600-volt  motors  connected 
in  series  are  used  by  14  interurban  American  railways. 

Three-phase  motors  in  Europe  since  1902  have  used  3000  volts  on  the 
trolley  and  on  the  motors.  This  limit  will  not  be  greatly  increased 
because  of  the  difficulty  of  insulating  motor  windings;  and  because 
complicated  terminal  and  switching  yards  with  two  overhead  trolleys 
involve  danger.  In  America,  the  Cascade  Tunnel  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway  uses  three-phase,  6000-volt  contact  lines,  but  the  controllers 
and  motors  use  500  volts. 

Series-alternating  motors  use  250  to  350  volts,  and  repulsion  types 
use  from  250  to  800  volts,  or  even  higher  on  field  windings.  The  high 
voltage  on  the  contact  line,  3000,  6000,  or  11,000  volts,  is  reduced  by 
transformers  on  the  car  or  locomotive. 

The  cycles  used  on  American  alternating-current  railways  are  25, 
while  both  15  and  25  cycles  are  used  in  Europe,  as  previously  detailed. 

Classification  of  railway  motors  for  electric  trains  is  usually  made 
with  reference  to  the  several  electric  systems.  Equipment  generally 
includes  prime  movers,  three-phase  generators,  transformers  to  raise  the 
generator  voltage,  if  it  is  necessary  for  the  power  transmission,  trans- 
formers to  reduce  the  voltage  at  substations  to  either  3000,  6000,  or 
11,000  volts  for  the  three-phase  or  single-phase  trolley  contact  lines,  or 
to  about  410  volts  for  rotary  converters  which  change  the  energy  to 
direct  current,  ordinarily  at  660  volts,  for  the  contact  line.  With  an 
interchangeable  single-phase  motor,  a  railway  may  use  direct  current 
for  short-distance,  rapid-transit,  or  terminal  service  from  a  third-rail 
contact;  or  single-phase  current  for  infrequent,  heavy,  and  concentrated 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    161 

long-distance  freight  and  passenger  traffic  from  one  high-voltage  trolley 
of  a  single-phase  or  three-phase  line. 

DIRECT -CURRENT  MOTORS. 

Direct-current,  600-volt  motors  are  well  established.  These  motors 
are  series  wound,  have  commutating  poles,  and  are  enclosed  in  a  steel 
frame. 

The  potential  between  the  contact  line  and  the  track  rail,  550  to  660 
volts,  is  used  by  motors  on  about  95  per  cent,  of  the  36,000  miles  of 
American  electric  railways.  The  potential  is  1200  volts  on  about  550 
miles  of  American  interurban  railways,  and,  while  the  motors  are 
insulated  for  1200  volts,  they  run  two  in  series  on  the  1200-volt  line, 
except  in  the  case  of  1200-volt,  75-h.  p.,  G.E.-205  motors  used  by  the 
Central  California  Traction  Company,  in  which  the  number  of  commu- 
tator bars  is  approximately  double,  the  creepage  distances  on  the  com- 
mutator and  brush  holders  is  double  that  of  standard  600-volt  motors, 
and  the  field  is  wound  with  double  insulation  on  the  wire. 

The  1200  volts  are  used  -.outside  of  large  cities  and  600  volts  within 
the  city  limits.  The  1200-volt  motor  is  now  advocated  for  heavier  work, 
in  competition  with  the  alternating-current  motor. 

Series  motors  of  both  direct-current  and  alternating-current  types 
have  been  quite  universally  adopted,  because  series  motors  have  great 
magnetic  pull,  or  tractive  effort,  for  starting  trains  or  for  running  up 
grades.  The  tractive  effort  of  the  series  motor  varies  approximately 
inversely  as  the  speed,  and  thus  the  load  on  the  motor  and  on  the  line  is 
somewhat  more  uniform  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  tractive  effort  and 
speed  were  each  maintained.  Power  is  proportional  to  the  product  of 
the  tractive  effort  and  the  speed. 

Advantages  of  direct -current  series  motors  : 

Speed-torque  characteristics  enable  them  to  automatically  protect 
themselves  from  electric  heating,  which  varies  as  the  square  of  the  current 
input.  Since  the  speed  is  not  maintained  with  the  tractive  effort,  the 
motor  is  of  smaller  size,  weight,  and  cost,  for  a  given  or  average  amount 
of  work. 

Safety  is  obtained  with  the  low  trolley  voltage  used. 

They  are  standardized  and  have  been  adopted  for  city  service. 

Two  600-volt  motors  may  be  used  in  series  on  1200-volt  lines. 

Compared  with  single-phase  motors,  commutation  is  better,  efficiency 
is  higher,  armatures  are  smaller,  speed  is  lower,  weight  is  less,  cost  is  less, 
and  maintenance  expense  is  lower. 

Disadvantages  of  direct -current  series  motors : 

Cost  of  the  complete  system  is  highest  because  of  the  trans- 
11 


162          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  28. — ALLIS-CHALMERS  501  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTOR. 

Fifty-h.  p.  on  600  volts;  42-h.  p.  on  500  volts,  direct  current.     Interpoles  are  shown  in  the  open 

field  frame. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    163 


FIG.  29. — ALLIS  CHALMERS  501  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTOR. 
View  is  from  suspension  side,  and  with  closed  field  frame. 


FIG.  30. — BUFFALO  AND  LOCKPORT  RAILWAY  MOTOR  FOR  1898  LOCOMOTIVE. 
Cover  removed.      Capacity  160  horse  power. 


164          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

formations,   600-volt   converter  substations,  extra  labor  required,  and 
expensive  local  distributing  feeders  for  railroad-train  service. 

Insulation  of  1200  volts  in  motors  and  controllers  increases  the  size, 
weight,  and  cost.  Flashing  from  commutator  to  brush  holders  and  to 
nearby  frames,  increases  the  operating  expense  and  liability  of 
trouble. 

THREE-PHASE  MOTORS. 

Three-phase  motors  are  now  established  for  a  limited  use.  They  are 
known  as  constant-speed  motors  to  distinguish  them  from  series  or 
variable-speed  motors;  yet  the  speed  of  three-phase  motors  can  be 
varied  in  several  ways,  as  will  be  detailed  under  Control  of  Motors.  The 
acceleration  of  three-phase  motors  is  at  a  full  rate  up  to  full  speed,  and 
this  characteristic  calls  for  high-power  peaks  on  the  motor,  the  line,  and 
the  power  plant. 

The  speed  of  rotation  depends  upon  the  frequency  of  the  cycles  of  the 
generator,  which  is  practically  constant.  When  the  motor  is  rotating  at 
maximum  speed,  it  is  at  synchronous  speed.  The  speed  slows  down 
2  to  5  per  cent,  on  full  load.  When  resistance  is  inserted  in  the  rotor 
circuit  of  three-phase  motors,  there  is  a  negative  "slip,"  or  difference 
between  the  rate  of  rotation  of  the  rotor  and  of  the  power  generator. 
When  the  rotor  is  forced  above  speed,  in  down-grade  running,  there  is  a 
positive  "slip,"  and  energy  can  be  regenerated  and  returned  to  the 
source  of  supply. 

Three-phase  motors  are  not  used  for  frequent  stops  or  rapid  transit 
service,  or  for  switching,  because  either  the  efficiency  or  the  drawbar  pull 
is  poor  during  the  acceleration  period.  Their  use  is  limited,  funda- 
mentally, to  long-distance  running.  For  installations  on  railroads,  see 
"Electric  Systems,"  Chapter  IV. 

The  stator  of  the  motor  consists  of  a  steel  casting  which  holds  a  lam- 
inated magnetic  ring.  Electrically,  the  stator  is  the  primary  of  a  trans- 
former, while  the  rotor  or  armature  is  the  secondary.  Alternating  three- 
phase  current  is  supplied  from  the  power  plant  to  the  primary  winding, 
and  three-phase  current  is  induced  in  the  rotor  or  secondary.  The  inter- 
action produces  the  torque  and  drawbar  pull.  The  rotor  may  have 
collector  rings,  in  order  that  resistance  may  be  inserted  to  limit  the  induced 
current,  and  to  increase  the  torque;  or  the  rotor  may  be  of  high  resistance 
but  of  the  short-circuited,  "squirrel-cage"  type. 

Three-phase  motors  have  no  commutators,  and  would  be  ideal  for 
railroad  work  if  they  could  be  used  with  a  single-phase  high-voltage 
contact  line,  but  when  so  operated  they  lose  their  best  characteristics. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    165 

L.  C.  de  Muralt,  publisher  of  a  monthly  leaflet  (Electric  Trunk  Line 
Age)  which  advocates  the  three-phase  system,  announced  in  May,  1909, 
that  there  had  been  designed  and  operated  in  practical  service,  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  a  good  three-phase  motor  for  electric  railway 
purposes  which  ran  successfully  on  single-phase  circuits.  If  this  were 
true,  an  important  development  might  be  expected,  because  it  would 
place  the  three-phase  induction  motor  on  a  different  basis. 

A  three-phase  motor,  operating  single -phase,  with  two  of  its  terminals 
connected  to  the  single-phase  mains,  runs  as  a  single-phase  induction 
motor.  The  third  terminal  must  be  connected  to  a  phase-displacing 
device  to  get  the  necessary  cross  magnetization  for  producing  torque  by 
its  action  upon  the  induced  secondary  energy  currents.  The  torque  of  the 
three-phase  induction  motor  on  a  single-phase  circuit  is  zero  in  starting, 
or  the  motor  will  not  start.  Resistance  may  be  inserted  in  the  secondary, 
as  in  three-phase  motors,  to  increase  the  torque.  When  well  above  half- 
speed,  torque  will  be  delivered  until  the  motor  is  overloaded,  after  which 
it  will  die  down. 

MCALLISTER:  "Alternating-current  Motors,"  3rd  Ed.,  p.  58. 

Garlecon:  Polyphase  Motors  run  Single-phase,  Electric  Journal,  Aug.,  1905. 

Advantages  of  three-phase  motors : 

1.  Electrical  efficiency  of  three-phase  motors  is  high.     An  efficiency 
of  .91  is  obtained,  where  .90  is  common  with  direct-current,  and  .87  with 
single-phase  motors.     The  energy  lost — 9,   10,   13  per  cent. — must  be 
radiated.     The  reasons  for  the  higher  efficiency  are: 

a.  Laminated  fields  and  cores  which  are  used  are  not  saturated,  air 
gaps  are  very  short,  and  the  iron  losses  are  low. 

b.  Commutator  losses  are  absent. 

c.  Maximum  efficiency  of  radiation  is  possible. 

Losses  in  three-phase  motors  are  produced  chiefly  in  the  distributed 
stationary  windings  in  the  shell  of  the  motor,  and  the  heat  reaches  the 
outside  or  radiating  surface  easily  and  quickly,  particularly  so  with 
overloads.  Losses  in  direct-current  and  single-phase  alternating-current 
motors  are  chiefly  in  the  rotating  element,  and  the  heat  must  pass 
thru  the  field  or  external  structure  to  reach  the  external  radiating  sur- 
face. The  windings  of  three-phase  and  single-phase  motors  are  more 
evenly  distributed  than  the  windings  of  direct-current  motors. 

2.  Energy  required  for  the  three-phase  system  is  low;  but  the  motor 
losses  are  generally  overbalanced  by  the  high  line  losses,  making  the 
power  required  about  the  same  as  for  the  single-phase  system,  as  is  shown 
by  an  example  which  follows. 


166  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

POWER  REQUIRED  WITH  DIFFERENT  ELECTRIC  SYSTEMS. 


Motor  or  system. 

3-phase. 

1-phase. 

Direct. 

Weight  of  cars  in  train,  in  tons  

1000 

1000 

1000 

Weight  of  locomotive,  in  tons       .... 

96  to  93 

131 

100 

Total  weight  of  train,  in  tons 

1093 

1131 

1100 

Speed  of  train,  in  m.p.h  

37.5 

37.5 

37  5 

Efficiency  of  electric  motors,  per  cent  
Power  required  from  contact  line 

91 
1200 

87 
1300 

90 
1222 

Voltage  on  contact  line  

3500 

11000 

1200 

Efficiency  of  contact  line,  per  cent  
Efficiency  of  transformers,  per  cent 

85  to  88 
96 

95 
96 

85 
86 

Horse  power  required  from  power  plant  

1421 

1427 

1672 

Relative  power  required  per  train              

100 

100 

117 

The  example  is  fair  for  a  common  1000-ton  freight  train  at  37.5 
m.  p.  h.,  or  a  500-ton  passenger  train  at  65  m.  p.  h.,  the  train  resistance 
being  10  pounds  per  ton.  The  constants  will  vary  with  the  amount  of 
money  expended  for  transformers  and  feeders.  On  short  routes  and 
light  trains,  the  showing  of  the  1200-volt  direct-current  system  is 
improved. 

3.  Energy  can  be  restored  to  the  electric  line  during  braking. 

4.  Safety  is  gained  by  means  of  electric  braking  during  regeneration 
of  energy.     Wrecks  which  are  now  caused  by  excessive  wear  of  brake 
shoes,  breakage  of  brake  rigging,  and  overheated  wheel  tires  in  heavy 
trains  on  the  long  down-grades,  can  be  prevented. 

5.  Weight  efficiency  of  three-phase  motors  themselves  is  high.     The 
lighter  motor  reduces  the  weight  of  supporting  frames,  the  dead  load 
hauled,  the  cost  of  motors,  and  the  cost  of  track  maintenance.     Some 
three-phase  locomotives  for  freight  haulage  require  ballast. 

6-.  Maximum  torque  may  be  obtained,  from  the  start  to  the  full  speed, 
which  is  a  physical  advantage  in  train  acceleration.  This  is  offset  by 
the  greater  cost  of  power,  and  the  greater  losses  in  control  and  in  the 
motors,  during  acceleration. 

Objectionable  characteristics  of  three-phase  motors : 

1.  One-speed  characteristics  are  a  limitation.     For  some  situations 
both  unification  of  speed  and  a  fixed  maximum  speed  may  be  advan- 
tageous, but  not  under  present  methods  in  railroading.     A  distinct  loss 
is  evident  when  the  " velocity  head"  cannot  be  utilized.     The  speed  of 
three-phase  motors  cannot  be  varied  economically.     See  Motor  Control. 

2.  Heavy  loads  are  imposed  by  the  constant-speed  motor  character- 
istics, and  these  increase  the  cost,  the  size,  and  the  weight  of  the  motor 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    167 


per  average  h.  p.  developed.  The  power  required  for  constant  speed  on 
the  up-grade  increases  rapidly  and  this  requires  a  relatively  high  1-  hour 
or  continuous  capacity  in  three-phase  motors.  See  diagram  below. 


PoVer|at  bonsta'nt  Speed-  Wted| 300Q 


2000 


Horse 
Power 


Profile 
%  Grade 


Miles 


FIG.  31. — DIAGRAM  OF  HORSE  POWER  FROM  MOTORS  ON  CONSTANT  AND  ON  VARIABLE  SPEED  WHEN- 
WORKING  ON  DIFFERENT  GRADES. 

The  total  train  weights  are  equal,  1000  tons.  The  average  speed,  25  m.  p.  h.; 
and  the  running  time  are  the  same.  The  average  horse  power  of  the  locomotive 
motors  must  therefore  be  equal.  The  comparison  noted  in  the  diagram  is  fair. 
Constant-speed  locomotive  motors  are  heavier  and  of  greater  rated  capacity  than 
variable-speed  locomotive  motors. 

3.  Air  gaps  which  are  used,  1/8  to  1/16  inch,  require  long  bearings 
or  frequent  renewals,  in  all  heavy  work.     With  the  gears  or  cranks,  and 
often  collector  rings  on  the  shaft,  sufficient  length  for  bearings  is  not 
available.     A  short  air  gap  clogs  with  dust  and  prevents  ventilation. 

4.  Two  overhead  wires  are  required  with  a  three-phase  motor.     This 
increases  the  line  cost,  complication,  maintenance  expense,  and  danger. 

5.  In  design,  a  15-cycle,  2-,  4-,  6-  or  8-pole,  three-phase  motor  runs 
at  a  speed  of  900,  450, 300  or  225  r.  p.  m.,  whereas  a  series,  single-phase, 
or  direct-current  motor  can  run  at  higher  variable  speeds,  for  service  in  a 
rolling  country,  and  may  thus  be  lighter  and  cheaper. 

Mr.  N.  W.  Storer,  in  making  calculations  for  motors  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  the 
New  Haven  Railroad  service,  found  that  to  accelerate  the  loads,  and  to  give  the 
maximum  speed  of  65  m.  p.  h.  now  provided  by  the  1000-h.  p.,  single-phase  locomo- 
tives, a  1500-h.  p.  three-phase  locomotive  would  have  been  required. 


168          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

6.  Efficiency  of  three-phase  motors  during  the  starting  period  is  low, 
and  this  is  a  drawback  in  railroading  where  trains  are  constantly  starting 
and  stopping,  and  where  the  motors  are  working  at  their  full  speed  and 
efficiency  for  a  small  fraction  of  the  total  time.     The  rheostatic  losses 
in  the  rotor  circuits  are  such  that  the  average  efficiency  of  the  power 
from  start  to  full  speed  is  below  50  per  cent,  in  practice. 

Efficiency  is  reduced  at  loaded  running  speeds  by  the  stray  fields 
from  primary  and  secondary  circuits,  and  also  by  the  iron  loss  in  the 
secondary,  in  which  the  frequency  of  alternations  is  about  6  times  the 
frequency  of  the  supply.  The  iron  loss  is  proportional  to  the  1.5th 
power  of  the  maximum  induction  and  to  the  frequency.  Considering 
both  the  primary  and  secondary,  the  iron  loss  of  the  motor  when  loaded  is 
three  times  its  iron  loss  when  running  light.  Wilson  and  Lydall,  II,  22. 

7.  Torque  or  drawbar  pull  of  three-phase  motors  varies  as  the  square 
of  the  voltage  impressed  upon  the  motor,  while  the  torque  of  series 
motors  is  quite  independent  of  the  voltage  impressed  upon  the  motor, 

The  contact  line  voltage,  3000  to  6000  volts,  which  must  be  used  with 
the  three-phase  system  is  relatively  low,  and  the  line  must  be  designed 
with  many  substations  and  sufficient  copper  to  prevent  low  voltage. 
Three-phase  induction  motors  on  low  line  voltage  fall  out,  or  die 
down,  or  do  not  start  when  overloads  occur  in  freight  service. 

A  20  per  cent,  line  loss  results  in  a  36  per  cent,  loss  in  drawbar  pull. 
The  maximum  voltage  is  necessary  for  efficient  and  ample  drawbar  pull, 
and  a  lower  voltage  is  desirable  for  running,  or  exactly  the  opposite  of 
what  is  furnished  under  normal  conditions. 

Torque  or  turning  effort  of  three-phase  induction  motors  requires  a 
given  amount  of  powder  to  develop  it,  regardless  of  the  speed  at  which 
the  motor  is  running.  At  full  speed  most  of  the  electrical  power  applied 
to  the  motor  appears  as  mechanical  output;  but,  at  fractional  speeds,  the 
same  electrical  power  applied  delivers  mechanical  power  in  proportion  to 
the  speed,  the  balance  being  wasted  in  heat. 

The  starting  torque  of  three-phase  motors,  with  starting  resistance 
in  the  rotor,  for  a  given  current,  is  the  same  as  the  running  torque; 
while  the  starting  torque  of  a  short-circuited  or  squirrel-cage  rotor  is  far 
less  than  the  running  torque  for  the  same  current. 

8.  Motor-car  train  operation  involves  difficulties  because: 
Diameter  of  three-phase  motors  is  large,  and  thus  the  wheel  diameter 

and  height  of  the  car  body  are  increased. 

Length  of  axle  is  not  sufficient  for  twin  motors,  used  with  two-speed 
cascade  operation. 

The  load  on  each  motor  varies  with  the  diameter  of  its  set  of  drivers. 
About  4  per  cent,  difference,  or  1.6  inches  for  42-inch  drivers,  makes  100 
per  cent,  variation  in  work  done  by  a  motor.  Danger  from  overloads  of 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    169 

the  individual  motors  in  the  train  is  thus  increased  as  the  drivers  wear, 
or  are  changed;  not  so  with  series-wound  alternating-  and  direct-current 
motors. 

SINGLE-PHASE  MOTORS. 

Single-phase  alternating-current  motors  for  the  haulage  of  trains  are 
a  recent  development.  The  first  installation  for  railroad  trains  was  made 
in  1907.  See  "Electric  Systems." 

Single-phase  motors  are  best  adapted  for  railroads,  where  the  amount 
of  power  required  is  large  and  concentrated  in  trains,  and  where  the  dis- 
tances are  long.  The  largest  users  of  such  motors  are: 

New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad;  Erie  Railroad, 
Rochester  Division;  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  Port  Huron-Sarnia Tunnel; 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend  Railway;  Rock  Island  Southern 
Railroad;  Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad;  London,  Brighton  & 
South  Coast  Railway;  Swedish  State  Railway;  Southern  Railway, 
France;  Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen,  Holland;  Prussian,  Bavarian, 
Baden  State  Railways;  St.  Polten-Mariazell  Railroad,  Austria;  Bernese- 
Alps  Railway,  Switzerland. 

Types  of  single -phase  motors  are  two : 

Series  motors,  with  a  commutator,  for  use  on  either  single-phase  or 
direct-current  circuits,  a  direct-current  motor  adapted  for  alternating- 
current  working.  The  main  current  or  part  of  it  usually  -flows  thru 
both  the  field  and  the  armature. 

Repulsion  motors,  with  a  commutator,  for  use  exclusively  on  single- 
phase  or  one  leg  of  three-phase  circuits.  This  motor  is  built  by  General 
Electric  Company  in  America  and  by  Allgemeine  Elektricitats  Gesell- 
schaft  in  Europe.  Repulsion  motor  armature  e.  m.  f.  and  current  are 
produced  by  electromagnetic  induction,  as  in  the  rotor  of  the  three-phase 
motor.  The  conductors  on  the  armature  form  the  secondary  of  the 
transformer,  and  the  primary  is  wound  on  the  motor  fields. 

Repulsion  motors  are  used  advantageously  where  the  railroad  ter- 
minal is  not  handicapped  by  direct  current. 

Commutatorless  single-phase  motors  which  might  reduce  the  main- 
tenanc,-  expense,  weight,  complication,  and  valuable  space  now  needed  for 
commutators,  may  yet  be  developed  for  electric  traction. 

Sub-types  of  single-phase  railway  motors  are  legion. 

In  the  diagram  of  connections,  the  field  circuits,  the  compensating  circuits,  and 
the  armature,  circuits  are  shown.  The  primary  and  secondary  circuits  and  the  vari- 
ous taps  at  the  transformer  are  not  shown. 

(A)  Series  motor,  with  simplest  and  poorest  connections. 

(B)  Series  motor,  with  reverse  series  compensating  winding,  often  called  a  con- 
ductively  compensated  series  motor. 

(C)  Series  motor,   of  the  inductively  compensated  type;  that  is,  with  short- 
circuited  auxiliary  field  winding. 


170 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


(D)  Series  motor,  inductively  compensated  with  secondary  compensation. 

(E)  Induction  motor,  simplest  connections  (Elihu  Thomson).     Brushes  are  given 
an  angular  lead  and  armature  is  short-circuited. 


H 


FIG.  32. — SIMPLEST  TYPE  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAY  MOTOIIH. 


(F)  Induction  motor,  plain,  with  short-circuited  armature. 

(G)  Induction  motor,  with  secondary  excitation. 
(H)  Induction  motor,  series  type. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    171 

References  on  Connections. 

New  Haven  direct-current-alternating-current  Locomotives,  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  24,  1907 

p.  280;  Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911. 

Alexanderson  motor:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1908;  E.  W.,  Jan.  18,  1908,  p.  145;  as  used 
on  N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H.  motor  cars,  E.  R.  J.,  May  5,  1909,  p.  900. 

(B)  Erie  Railroad,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  661. 

(C)  Rock  Island  Southern  Ry.,  Electric  Journal,  Oct.,  1910,  p.  790. 

(H)  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast,  in  Dawson's  "Electric  Traction  for  Railways," 
pp.  139  and  161.     Allgemeine  Elektricitats  Gesell.,  E.  W.,  July  21, 1910,  p.  146. 


FIG.  33. — DIAGRAM    OF    CONNECTIONS    FOR    BERNE-LOTSCHBERG-SIMPLON    SINGLE-PHASE    A.  E.  (} 

LOCOMOTIVE  MOTORS. 
Transformer  voltage  15,000.     Motor  voltage  420. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ALL  SINGLE-PHASE  MOTORS. 

Laminated  magnetic  fields  are  used,  the  laminated  steel  ring  core 
being  held  by  an  independent  steel  enclosing  case. 

Field  windings  are  distributed  in  slots,  in  the  entire  inner  circum- 
ference of  the  field  core,  and  there  are  no  salient  poles. 

Armature  windings  or  coils  are  made  up  and  connected  to  the  com- 
mutator in  the  same  way  as  in  direct-current  motors.  Resistance  leads 
are  placed  between  the  coils  and  commutator  of  series  motors  to  reduce 
the  short-circuit  currents  induced  in  the  coils  by  the  transformer  action 
of  the  main  field,  particularly  when  the  motor  is  starting.  This  resistance 
is  not  always  used  with  repulsion  motors. 

Sparking  exists  at  the  commutator  brushes  largely  because  the  rever- 
sals of  current  occur  at  the  top  of  the  current  wave,  which  is  about  40 
per  cent,  higher  than  the  mean  effective  value. 

Compensation  or  auxiliary  series  windings  in  the  slots  in  the  pole 


172  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  34. — DETAILS  OF  CONNECTIONS  FOR  ALLGEMEINE  ELEKTRICITATS-GESELLSCHAFT  SINGLE-PHASE 

REPULSION-TYPE  MOTORS. 


Sttp 

SwKchn 

1 

1 

9 

10 

II  12 

1 

2 

.9 

10 

H  2 

2 

| 

2 

,1 

9 

10 

ii  & 

1 

2 

3 

4 

9 

10 

1112 

3 

2 

3 

4 

5 

9 

10 

II  2 

4 

3 

4 

5 

6 

9 

10 

II  I 

5 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

10 

II  2 

6 

5 

6 

7 

§ 

9 

10 

II  2 

FIG.  35. 


FIG.  36. — DETAILS  OF  CONNECTIONS  FOR  WESTINGHOUSE  SINGLE-PHASE,  SERIES-COMPENSATED  TYPE 

LOCOMOTIVE  MOTORS. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    173 


•I 


FIG.  37. — VISALIA  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTOR. 
Single-phase,  15-cycle,   125-h.  p.,  Westinghouse  motor.     Two  views. 


174 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


faces  are  required  to  oppose  the  inductive  elements  and  thereby  maintain 
the  power-factor  of  the  motor. 

Air  gaps  are  short  and  fields  are  weak,  to  reduce  the  self  induction. 
Air  gaps  are  much  longer  than  those  on  three-phase  motors. 

Transformers  are  necessary  to  reduce  the  trolley  voltage,  ordinarily 
11,000  volts,  to  from  250  to  800  for  the  motor.  Much  higher  voltages 
could  be  used  for  the  fields  alone. 

Potential  control  is  used,  and  the  motor  terminals  are  shifted  from 
tap  to  tap  of  the  step-down  transformer. 


FIG.  38. — GRAND  TRUNK  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTOR. 
Single-phase,  25-cycle,  240-h.  p.,  geared,  nose  and  axle  mounted.     Driver  diameter  62  inches. 

Repulsion  motors  generally  have  these  added  features : 

Brushes  are  placed  180  electrical  degrees  apart  and  short-circuited 
upon  themselves.  Brushes  are  given  a  location  about  15  degrees  from 
the  line  of  polarization  of  the  primary  magnetism.  Two  pairs  of  brushes 
are  often  used,  placed  at  90  degrees  from  each  other,  and  one  pair  is  short- 
circuited  on  itself;  and  may  be  varied  in  position,  in  motor  control. 

Open  stator  slots  are  used  in  place  of  closed  slots. 

Power  factor  is  higher  and  may  approach  unity. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    175 


Air  gaps  are  longer  than  those  in  series  motors. 
Voltages  used  across  the  motor  are  higher. 
Number  of  poles  is  reduced  and  speed  is  lower. 
Weight  and  space  efficiency  are  sometimes  improved. 

COMMERCIAL  SINGLE -PHASE  MOTORS. 

Commercial  motors  used  by  single-phase  railways  are  noted: 
Compensated-series  motors  of  the  Westinghouse  Company. 
Compensated-repulsion  motors  used  by  the  General  Electric  Company 


FlG.    39. WlNTER-ElCHBERG    SiNGLE-PHASE    RAILWAY    MOTOR. 

Showing  main  magnetizing  coils  and  commutating  coils  in  stator. 

prior  to  1907.     The  motor  has  a  short-circuited  armature  and  an  extra 
set  of  brushes  for  compensation,  and  to  obtain  a  high  power-factor. 

Series-repulsion  motors  of  the  General  Electric  Company,  the  Alex- 
anderson  motor  of  1907,  which  embodied  many  of  the  features  of  the 
repulsion  motor  and  of  the  compensated-series  motor.  In  presenting 


176  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

"A  Single-phase  Railway  Motor/'  to  the  A.  I.  E.  E.,  January,  1908,  Mr. 
Alexanderson  stated:  "In  the  series-repulsion  motor,  the  problem  of 
commutation  has  been  solved";  and  Mr.  Steinmetz  in  comment  stated: 

"It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  second  and  last  serious  problem  of  the  alter- 
nating-current motor  which  still  remained — the  problem  of  commutation — has  been 
solved  by  the  work  recorded.  The  alternating-current,  single-phase  motor  is  in  prac- 
tically as  good  shape  as  the  direct-current  motor,  and  the  second  period  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  alternating-current  motor  is  concluded."  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1908,  p.  38. 


FIG.  40. — WINTER-EICHBERG  (A.  E.  G.)  25-cYCLE,  SINGLE-PHASE,  120-n.  p  RAILWAY  MOTOR  ARMATURE. 
Showing  ventilating  duct,  core  and  commutator. 

Winter-Eichberg  Motor,  briefly,  has  two  sets  of  brushes  on  the  armature,  one  of 
which  sets  is  short-circuited  on  itself,  and  carries  the  equivalent  of  the  working 
current,  while  the  other  carries  the  magnetizing  or  exciting  current  which  is  supplied 
to  the  armature  winding  instead  of  the  field.  The  arrangement  is  such  as  to  give 
about  the  same  effect  as  a  connotating  pole  or  commutating  field.  When  starting, 
the  field  flux  is  decreased  and  the  armature  ampere-turns  increased.  On  the 
Blankanese  Ohlsdorf  Railway:  "Motors  have  a  1-hour  output  of  200  h.  p.  at  500 
r.  p.  m.  The  continuous  rating  is  100  h.  p. ;  the  weight  including  gear  case,  7260 
pounds ;  the  gear  ratio,  3.05.  The  single-phase  stator  winding  has  6  poles.  The  work- 
ing winding  is  in  series  with  an  interpole  winding,  and  each  of  the  poles  consists  of  3 
coils.  Every  second  pole  has  a  commutating  coil.  For  low  speeds  the  commutating 
coils  are  in  series  with  the  working  coils.  For  high  speeds  the  commutating  coils 
receive  energy  at  a  certain  pressure  from  taps  on  the  exciter  transformer.  The  air- 
gap  is  3  mm.,  yet  the  power  factor  remains  almost  unity.  The  rotor  winding  is  a 
normal  direct-current  winding.  There  are  8  brush  holders,  6  of  which  are  short- 
circuited  on  themselves  and  2  are  used  for  exciter  brushes." 

Deri  single-phase  motors  of  Brown,  Boveri  &  Company  are  also  of  the  repulsion 
type.  The  rotor  is  similar  to  the  armature  of  a  direct-current  motor.  The  brushes 
short-circuit  the  armature  and  are  so  arranged  mechanically  that  the  brush  axis  may 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    177 

be  set  at  various  angles  with  the  axis  of  the  stator  field.  Two  sets  of  brushes  are  used, 
one  being  fixed  in  the  polar  axis  of  the  stator,  and  the  other  so  adjustable  as  to  make 
different  angles  with  the  fixed  brushes.  The  movable  brushes  are  not  short-circuited 
on  each  other,  but  each  is  short-circuited  on  its  corresponding  fixed  brush.  If  their 
angular  distance  is  180  degrees,  the  armature  winding  acts  as  the  short-circuited 
secondary  of  a  transformer  and  no  torque  is  exerted.  As  the  angular  distance  between 
the  fixed  and  movable  brush  is  varied  from  no  degrees  to  180  degrees,  a  torque  is 
exerted;  and  if  the  armature  is  allowed  to  run,  the  current  decreases  and  the  power 
factor  increases.  The  effect  of  shifting  the  brushes  is  analogous  to  changing  the 
impressed  voltage  on  direct-current  series  motor. 


FIG.  41. — WINTER-EICHBERG   (A.  E.  G.),  25-CTCLE,  REPULSION  TYPE,  750-voi/rs,  120-H.  P.,  SINGLE- 
PHASE  RAILWAY  MOTOR. 
Used  on   Blankanese-Hamburg-Ohlsdorf  and  on  London,    Brighton  and  South  Coast. 

The  stator  of  the  motor  is  fed  from  the  line,  and  even  for  small  motors  a  pressure 
of  3000  volts  may  be  used  on  the  field.  The  rotor  is  entirely  independent  of  the  line 
and  has  no  connection  whatever  with  the  stator  circuit.  Torque,  direction  of  rotation, 
and  speed  of  the  motor  are  regulated  by  means  of  the  movable  set  of  brushes.  Vari- 
ation of  speed  is  attained  by  changing  the  potential  of  the  supply  current  to  the  field. 
The  windings  are  simply  reduced  to  two.  The  commutator  is  only  half  as  wide  as 
on  compensated-series  motors  of  equal  capacity,  and  with  the  same  number  of  poles. 
References:  Electrotechnischer  Anzeiger,  Jan.  2,  1910;  Dr.  Gisbert  Kapp  to  Inst.  of 
Elec.  Engineers,  Nov.  11,  1909;  E.  W.,  July  8,  1911,  p.  104. 

Advantages  of  single -phase  commutator  motors  : 

1.  Cost  of  equipment  and  of  electric  systems  are  reduced. 

2.  Cost  of  operation  of  the  electric  system  is  reduced. 

3.  Potential  control  is  more  economical  than  rheostatic,  or  concat- 
enation, or  series-parallel  control;  it  is  of  a  decidedly  superior  type;  it  is 

12 


178          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

uniform  and  does  not  subject  the  train  to  jerks,  caused  by  changing  the 
combinations  of  motors  or  the  poles  of  motors. 

4.  An    interchangeable    series    motor    can    be    provided   for   either 
alternating-  or  direct-current  circuits,  for  long  distance  or  for  city  service 
or  for  use  on  three-phase  circuits.     (Increase  in  weight  and  the  complica- 
tion of  the  control  for  interchangeable  circuits  must  be  considered.) 

5.  Power  required  for  single-phase  motor  trains  is  usually  less  than 
with  direct-current  motor  trains.     Dawson  has  shown  this  with  various 
average  speeds  from  20  miles  per  hour  to  28  miles  per  hour.     He  assumed 
for  the  500-volt  direct-current  trains  a  weight  of  147.3  tons,  and  for 
corresponding    6000-volt    alternating-current   trains,    162.6    tons.     The 
equipment  used  in  the  trains  was  eight  G.E.-66  direct-current  motors 
and  eight  W.E.-51  single-phase  motors.     Each  train  then  had  1000-h.  p. 
capacity.     The  load  on  each  train  was  16  tons  and  the  distance  3/4  mile. 
The  energy  consumption  per  train-mile  for  the  alternating-current  train 
was  always  less  than  that  of  the  direct-current  train  when  the  speed  was 
above  the  average  of  20  miles  per  hour. 

Disadvantages  of  single -phase  commutator  motors  : 

1.  Heating  of  motors  is  greater. 

2.  Weight  per  horse  power  is  high. 

3.  Torque  is  pulsating  and  is  lower. 

4.  Power  factor  is  not  unity. 

5.  Cost  of  motor  is  higher. 

6.  Cost  of  motor  maintenance  is  higher. 

References. 

PARSHALL   AND    HOBART:  "  Electric   Railway   Engineering." 

DAWSON:    "Electric   Traction   on   Railways,"    Chapters   on   single-phase  motors. 

MCLAREN,  in  Electric  Journal,  August,  1907. 

Some  of  these  disadvantages  are  now  discussed  briefly. 

1.  Heating  is  greater  with  single-phase  motors  than  with  direct- 
current  motors  on  account  of  the  following  four  reasons: 

Magnetic  losses  are  larger,  because  there  are  well-saturated  magnetic 
circuits  in  the  armature  of  the  motor. 

Commutation  losses  are  larger  with  single-phase  than  with  direct- 
current  motors,  because  the  current  is  commutated  at  the  peak  of  the 
current  wave,  which  is  40  per  cent,  higher  than  the  average  current  shown 
by  an  ammeter.  Commutator  difficulties  are  overcome  in  several  ways: 

(a)  Commutation  coils  are  used  to  induce  a  counter  voltage  of  suitable  phase 
and  strength  and  to  destroy  the  armature  reaction. 

(b)  Resistance  or  preventive  leads  are  placed  between  armature  windings  and 
commutator  bars,  to  limit  the  current  between  any  two  sets  of  coils  when  the  carbon 
brush  short-circuits  the  coils.     (Brushes  must  be  set  to  avoid  short-circuiting.) 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    179 

(c)  Low  voltages  are  used  across  the  armature  to  reduce  the  voltage  per  com- 
mutator bar. 

(d)  Diameter  or  length  of  the  commutator  is  increased  for  the  proportionately 
greater  current  per  bar. 

Current  losses  are  larger  because  the  power  factor  is  not  unity.  The  I  R  heat 
losses  in  the  copper  windings  are  thus  greater. 

Efficiency  is  lower  than  in  other  motors  because  of  these  larger  magnetic,  com- 
mutator, and  current  losses. 

Forced  ventilation  of  alternating-current  railway  motors  has  been  adopted;  and 
it  is  so  effective  that  heating  is  not  a  limiting  feature. 

2.  Weight  of  single-phase  motors  per  h.  p.  is  higher  because  heating- 
is  greater,  and  lower  voltages  and  larger  commutators  must  be  used. 
Efficiency  is  lower  and  dimensions  are  larger. 

Weight  of  single-phase  motors  of  200  to  800  h.p.  varies  with  the  ratio 
of  gear  reduction  and  the  peripheral  speed  used  in  design,  but  it  is  clear 
that  the  weight,  with  or  without  forced  draft,  is  40  to  85  per  cent,  heavier 
than  comparable  direct-current  motors,  and  this  forms  a  serious  handicap. 

Midland  Railway  of  England  uses  single-phase  motors  which  are 
about  one-third  heavier  than  the  corresponding  direct-current  motors; 
but  when  the  whole  train  is  taken  into  consideration,  the  additional 
weight  amounts  to  from  12  to  3  per  cent.,  depending  on  the  cars  per 
train.  This  difference  would  be  reduced  if  the  rolling  stock  were  made 
for  thru  running.  Deely,  in  London  Electrician,  July  30,  1909. 

3.  Starting  torque  of  single-phase  motors  is  lower  than  with  direct- 
current  motors.     (Starting  torque  of  three-phase  motors  is  much  lower 
than  that  of  direct-current  motors,  but  for  entirely  different  reasons.) 
Starting  torque  depends  upon  the  current;   therefore,  to    increase  the 
starting  torque  it  is  usual  to  use  a  low  voltage  for  the  armature,  com- 
mutator, and  motor. 

"  Drawbar  pull  per  pound  of  motor  weight  of  the  single-phase  alternating- 
current  motor  must  necessarily  be  lower  than  that  of  the  direct-current  motor, 
because  in  the  alternating-current  motor  the  magnetic  field  pulsates  between  zero  and 
a  maximum.  The  same  motor,  when  energized  by  direct  current,  with  the  same 
maximum  magnetic  flux,  would  give  41  per  cent,  more  output."  (Steinmetz.) 

Starting  torque  is  ample  in  existing  designs,  as  shown  by  the  records 
of  the  New  Haven  passenger  and  freight  locomotives,  the  motors  of 
which  are  frequently  called  upon  to  exert  twice  their  hour  rating  torque 
in  starting,  which  is  more  than  is  expected  of  direct-current  motors  of 
equal  size;  and  by  the  Grand  Trunk  locomotives  which  start  1000-ton 
trains  on  a  2  per  cent,  grade  without  taking  the  slack  out  of  the  train. 
The  heavy  currents  used  have  in  no  way  affected  the  preventive  leads. 
The  method  used  by  the  General  Electric  and  Westinghouse  Companies 
to  dampen  out  the  pulsating  torque  or  vibration  will  be  discussed  under 
" Drawbar  Pull  of  Electric  Locomotives"  in  the  first  part  of  VII. 


180 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Where  the  vibration  is  not  dampened,  a  decided  handicap  exists, 
particularly  on  overloads,  in  small  15-cycle  motors.  Springs  in  the 
pinion  or  gear  seem  to  be  mechanically  impractical;  but  where  dampen- 
ing springs  are  used,  on  locomotives  and  large  motor  cars,  or  where  the 
motors  are  spring  mounted,  the  vibration  presents  few  difficulties. 

COMPARISON  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  AND  DIRECT  CURRENT  MOTORS. 
Sprague,  " Electric  Trunk  Line  Operation,"  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907. 


Items. 


Magnet  frame .... 

Field  coils 

Strains 

Polar  clearance. .  . 
Poles  and  brushes. 

Magnetic  flux 

Armature 

Gearing 

Mean  torque 


Armature  coils  . . . 

Gearing 

Electric  braking.  . 

Capacity 

Continuous  rating 


Direct  current. 


Integral 

Freely  ventilated 

Strains  of  one  character 

Large  for  ample  bearings 

Two  to  four 

High  saturation  and  torque. . 
Moderate  sized,  slow  speed.  . 
Low  reduction,  large  pitch.  . 
Maximum  torque  of  a  con- 
tinuous character. 

Direct  to  commutator 

None,  due  to  low  speed 

Reliable 

Unity,  per  pound  of  weight .  . 
53%  of  one-hour  rating 


Alternating  current. 


Laminated  and  less  rigid. 
Imbedded  in  field  magnet. 
Rapidly  variable;  alternating. 
One-third  of  direct  current. 
Four  to  twelve. 
Weak  field,  low  torque. 
Large  diameter,  high  speed. 
High  reduction,  weak  pitch. 
Half  of  maximum,  and  variable 
without  special  devices. 
Resistances  between  coils. 
Gearing  generally  required. 
Not  reliable. 

One  half,  for  same  weight. 
35%  of  one-hour  rating. 


Steinmetz,  referring  to  the  single-phase  motor,  says: 

"A  single-phase  commutator  motor  with  a  good  power  factor  must  have  few 
field  turns,  many  armature  turns,  a  weak  field  with  a  strong  armature.  The  armature 
reaction  and  self  induction  must  be  neutralized  by  a  compensated  winding;  a  coil 
surrounding  the  armature  as  close  as  possible  and  energized  either  by  the  main  current 
in  series  and  in  opposite  direction  to  the  armature  current  or  closed  upon  itself  and 
energized  by  its  secondary  induced  current,  — the  conductively  compensated,  and  the 
inductively  compensated. 

"This  means  that  the  alternating-current  motor  has  to  be  designed  with  8  to  12 
poles,  where  the  direct-current  motor  would  have  4  to  6  poles.  It  means  that  the 
alternating-current  motor  has  to  be  supplied  with  a  very  large  commutator  to  receive 
the  current  at  200  volts,  while  the  direct-current  motor  commutates  much  smaller 
currents  at  600  volts.  So  weight  and  size  must  be  sacrificed  to  get  reasonable  com- 
mutation." A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1908,  p.  36.  • 

Steinmetz,   referring  to  single-phase   motors  in  a  discussion  on  the 
New  Haven  electrification  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec,  11,  1908,  p.  1683,  states: 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    181 

"It  is  especially  gratifying  to  see  the  statements  which  have  been  made  by 
unbiased  engineers,  based  upon  theoretical  considerations,  have  now  been  verified  by 
practical  experience,  and  that  heavy  railroad  work  can  be  handled  by  single-phase 
alternating-current  motors,  tho  obviously  not  with  the  same  high  drawbar  pull  per 
ton  of  locomotive  weight,  and  possibly,  at  least  for  the  present,  not  with  quite  the 
same  reliability  of  service. 

"This  I  believe  establishes  the  single-phase  alternating-current  motor  as  one  of 
the  pieces  of  apparatus  by  which  the  future  electrification  of  our  country's  railway 
systems  will  be  accomplished." 

The  force  of  the  comparison  by  Mr.  Sprague  has  already  been  lost, 
following  great  improvements  in  design  since  1906.  The  handicap  in 
railroad-train  service  of  a  heavier  motor  weight  and  higher  maintenance 
has  been  overbalanced  by  the  elimination  of  expensive  feeders  and 
rotary  converter  substations  with  attendants. 

High  cost  of  electrical  equipment  had  to  be  reduced  before  heavy 
concentrated  loads  could  be  handled  in  long-distance  railroad  work.  The 
single-phase  series  and  repulsion  types  of  motor  were  necessary  in  the 
development  of  the  art.  It  was  fruitless  to  try  to  block  the  way;  but  it 
was  wise  to  state  the  handicaps  which  then  existed,  and  to  present  the 
worst  side  of  the  single-phase  commutator  motor. 


COMPARISONS  OF  MOTORS. 

Railway  motors  are  compared  in  a  pertinent  and  relevant  way  when 
placed  on  the  following  basis: 

Weight  per  h.p.  at  a  given  peripheral  speed. 

Weight  of  transformers  and  of  all  auxiliary  apparatus. 

Weight  of  complete  motor  equipment  for  a  given  train  weight. 

Dimensions;  motor  clearance  for  a  given  driving  wheel. 

Peripheral  speed  of  armature  for  a  given  train  speed. 

Air  gap;  bearing  lengths  and  area;  weight  on  bearings. 

Power  factor  at  all  loads. 

Design,  size,  and  guarantee  on  commutator  and  brushes. 

Time  during  which  150  per  cent,  of  full-load  torque  can  be  sustained 
(a)  with  motors  locked,  (b)  at  low  speeds,  in  starting  a  freight  train. 

Operation — heating,  sparking,  vibration,  efficiency. 

Performance — speed-torque-current  relation. 

Control  scheme  to  obtain  variable  speed  and  uniform  acceleration; 
efficiency  of  control,  if  in  rapid  transit  service. 

Cost  of  the  equipment  for  the  electric  system — the  motors,  trans- 
formers, contact  line,  and  rotary  converter  substations. 

Cost  of  the  power  service  per  ton-mile  or  per  seat-mile,  based  on  the 
stops  per  mile,  cars  per  train,  schedule,  etc. 


182  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

RATING  OF  MOTORS. 

Railway  motor  rating  has  for  its  basis  the  mechanical  h.p.  output 
which  the  motor  will  deliver  for  1  hour,  with  a  rise  in  temperature  above 
the  surrounding  air  not  exceeding  90°  C.  at  the  commutator  and  75°  C. 
at  any  other  point  of  the  motor.  This  1-hour  rating  indicates  the 
maximum  output  which  the  motor  should  be  called  upon  to  develop 
during  acceleration. 

A.  I.  E.  E.  standardization  rules  call  for  rating  by  tests,  with  natural 
ventilation,  in  a  room  having  a  temperature  of  25°  C.,  with  the  motor 
covers  removed,  and  at  the  rated  voltage  and  cycles.  The  h.p.  is 
measured  at  the  drivers,  and  gear  and  bearing  losses  are  part  of  the  motor 
losses.  Factory  tests  are  made  on  typical  runs  under  cars  or  locomotives. 
Tests  have  now  been  made  under  all  conditions  of  railway  service. 
Service  conditions  are  calculated  and  the  heat  developed  in  the  motor, 
and  the  conduction  and  convection  of  this  heat  thru  the  frames,  for  a 
series  of  typical  runs,  can  be  estimated  closely.  The  heat  losses  are  those 
caused  by  the  current  in  the  field,  armature,  and  brush  contacts,  the 
friction  of  air,  brush,  and  bearings,  and  the  magnetic  losses  in  the  iron. 
The  root-mean-square  of  the  heat  units  which  are  lost  in  a  given  time  or 
run  must  be  balanced  by  the  radiation  from  the  frames. 

The  capacity  required  in  a  motor  is  measured  by  the  load  which  it 
will  carry  continuously,  at  a  fixed  voltage,  with  a  rise  in  temperature 
within  safe  limits.  The  motor  is  then  suitable  for  any  service  in  which 
the  square  root  of  the  mean  square  current  at  any  equivalent  voltage 
are  less  than  this  continuous  capacity.  The  instantaneous  loads  must 
also  be  within  the  commutating  limits.  This  capacity  is  determined  by 
a  shop  test,  made  with  covers  open,  in  which  the  rise  in  resistance  of  the 
motor  windings  at  the  end  of  a  1  hour  run  will  not  exceed  40  per  cent. 
The  rise  in  temperature  of  any  part  except  the  commutator  will  not  exceed 
75°  C.,  by  thermometer.  Owing  to  the  improved  ventilation  which  is 
obtained  on  a  moving  locomotive  or  car,  the  rise  in  temperature 
of  the  windings  at  the  end  of  a  1-hour  run  will  not  exceed  about 
75°  C.,  as  determined  by  increase  in  resistance,  or  about  55°  C.  by 
thermometer. 

Comparisons  based  on  the  one -hour  rating  are  misleading  until  the 
following  matters  are  considered: 

a.  Weight  affects  rating.     A  heavy  motor  has  a  large  thermal  storage 
capacity,  and  requires  more  heat  units  to  raise  its  metal  to  a  given  tem- 
perature in  an  hour  than  a  light-weight  motor  of  the  some  rating.     The 
continuous  capacity  of  the  lighter  motor  under  forced  draft  will  be  the 
greater. 

b.  Covers  are  to  be  off/  by  the  Institute  rules,  but  in  service  covers 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    183 

are  either  solid  or  full  of  large  holes.     The  1-hour  capacity  is  about  20 
per  cent,  less  with  covers  on  than  with  covers  off. 

c.  Temperature  measurements  with  a  thermometer  on  the  core  sur- 
faces of  the  motor  show  a  lower  temperature  than  that  determined  by 
the  rise  in  resistance.     The  latter  gives  an  accurate  average  of  internal 
and  surface  temperature. 

d.  Speed-torque     characteristics    may    confuse    the    ratings.     For 
example,  series  motors  are  rated  at  less  than  one-half  their  maximum 
speed,  while  three-phase  motors    are   rated  at  their  maximum  speed. 
Thus  the  1-hour  h.p.  rating  of  direct-current  and  single-phase  appears 
at  a  great  disadvantage  in  such  comparisons.     The  New  Haven  geared 
freight  locomotive  (071)  has  a  continuous  capacity  of   over  1120  h.p., 
corresponding  to  a  tractive  effort  of  12,000  pounds,  and  a  speed  of  38 
m.  p.  h.,  yet   the   maximum   tractive  effort  in  starting  is  over  50,000 
pounds.     A  three-phase,  two-speed  locomotive  having  this  maximum 
tractive  effort   and   this   maximum   speed   might  be  called  a  2500-h.p. 
locomotive,  and  yet  it  would,  not  have  greater  service  capacity  than  the 
single-phase  locomotive. 

e.  Voltage  affects  rating.     For  example,  the  G.E.-205  direct-current 
motor  is  rated  90  h.p.  on  500  volts,  100  h.p.  on  600  volts,  and  only  75 
h.p.  on  1200  volts,  more  insulation  being  required  for  the  latter  voltage. 
Again,  the  G.E.-69  motor  is  rated  200  h.p.  on  500  volts,  240  h.p.  on  600 
volts,  and  260  h.p.  on  660  volts. 

Continuous  capacity  of  railway  motors  is  recognized  by  the  American 
Institute  in  the  following: 

"The  continuous  capacity  of  the  motor  is  given  in  terms  of  the 
amperes  which  it  will  carry  when  run  on  a  testing  stand — with  covers  on 
or  off,  as  specified — at  different  voltages,  say,  40,  60,  80,  and  100  per  cent, 
of  the  rated  voltage,  with  a  temperature  rise  not  exceeding  90°  at 
the  commutator  and  75°  at  any  other  part,  provided  the  resistance 
of  no  electric  circuit  in  the  motor  increases  more  than  40  per  cent." 

The  author  recommends  that  specifications  allow  the  use  of  a  definite 
quantity  of  forced  air,  at  a  specified  air  pressure,  for  cooling;  and  further 
that  the  run  be  at  full  rated  voltage,  since  in  practice  it  is  found  that 
runs  on  lower  voltages,  either  alternating  or  direct,  are  decidedly  mislead- 
ing, and,  in  alternating-current  practice,  are  generally  valueless. 

Ventilation  of  motors  raises  the  capacity  because  the  permissible 
output  is  limited  by  the  maximum  temperature  rise.  In  the  S.  K.  C. 
type  of  motor,  designed  by  Dodd,  natural  ventilation  was  obtained  by 
leaving  both  ends  of  the  armature  open  for  the  entrance  of  air,  and  there 
were  ducts  thru  the  frame  of  the  motor,  which  registered  with  the 
ducts  in  the  armature  perpendicular  to  the  shaft.  As  a  result  of  un- 
usually good  ventilation,  the  10-hour  rating  of  this  motor  was  about 


184          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

50  per  cent,  of  its  1-hour  rating,  with  the  same  heating,  as  compared 
with  a  10-hour  rating  of  but  35  per  cent,  of  the  1-hour  rating  for  small 
railway  motors. 

Artificial  circulation  of  air,  by  forced  draft  from  a  fan  located  either 
on  the  armature  shaft  or  external  to  the  motor,  is  used  to  drive  out  the 
heat.  Artificial  ventilation,  however,  does  not  increase  the  rating  more 
than  10  per  cent,  during  the  first  hour's  run,  but  it  is  of  great  value  during 
the  subsequent  hours  of  continued  service. 

Ventilation  by  means  of  fans  in  each  motor,  on  the  armature  shaft,  is 
not  satisfactory  for  series  motors,  because  as  the  load  increases  the  speed 
and  amount  of  air  cooling  is  greatly  decreased.  Ventilation  of  railroad 


FIG.  42. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  MOTOR  EQUIPMENT  AND  FORCED  DRAFT  FAN. 

Used  on  motor-car  trucks  in  New  York-Long  Island  service.     Axle  centers  8  1/2  feet.     Entire 

axle  enclosed.     Motors,  direct-current,  215-h.  p.  each. 

motors  and  transformers  is  therefore  performed  by  independent  motor- 
driven  centrifugal  blowers.  These  furnish  air  to  the  motors,  at  low 
pressure  and  velocity,  thru  a  flexible  conduit  made  of  wire  reinforced 
canvas.  Clean  air  from  points  below  the  roof  is  used. 

Ventilation  by  forced  draft  is  effective  for  cooling,  not  only  while 
the  motor  is  on  the  heavy  or  up-grade  service,  but  while  the  motor  is 
running  without  current  on  the  down  grade,  or  is  standing  or  waiting  to 
take  another  load  in  regular  service  or  up  the  grade. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  motors  on  cars  for  service  on  the  New  York  Division  use 
forced  draft  obtained  by  means  of  a  blower  outfit,  consisting  of  a  l^h.p.,  2,250  r.  p.m. 
motor,  to  the  shaft  of  which  at  each  end,  a  blower  fan  9  inches  in  diameter 
and  3  inches  wide  is  attached.  Each  of  these  fans  is  capable  of  forcing  between 
400  and  500  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  thru  the  motor,  to  which  it  is  flexibly  con- 
nected. The  motor  is  mounted  on  the  truck  below  the  bolster.  The  installation  is  of 
particular  interest  as  being  the  first  where  forced  ventilation  has  been  used  for  car 
motors  on  such  a  large  scale.  The  1-hour  rating  of  the  motor  is  215  h.p.  but  this 
is  raised  by  means  of  forced  ventilation  to  about  250  h.p. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    185 


RATING  OF  LARGE  ELECTRIC  MOTORS  COMPARED. 


Name   of   railroad 
company. 

Current 
volts 
cycles. 

Ventila- 
tion. 

Continu- 
ous h.p. 
rating. 

1-hour 
h.p. 
rating. 

Ratio  of 
continuous 
to  1-hour  h.p. 

New  York  Central       .  .  . 

DC 

Natural  .  . 

1200 

2200 

.55 

600V 

1166 

2200 

53 

Michigan.  Central  
Baltimore  &  Ohio   1910 

\    DC 
/  600V 

Natural  .  . 

475 

1100 

.43 

Pennsylvania                .  . 

DC 

Natural  .  . 

1600 

2500 

64 

650V 

1200 

2060 

58 

Valtellina               

3-P 

Natural  .  . 

1500 

15-C 

Giovi 

3-P 

Forced 

1150 

1980 

58 

15-C 

t 
Simplon 

3-P 

Natural 

1700 

16-C 

Great  Northern 

3-P 

Natural  . 

1000 

1700 

59 

New  Haven  :  Passenger  . 
Freight  
Freight.  .  .  . 
Grand  Trunk 

25-C 

1-P 
25-C 

1-P 

Forced  .  .  . 

Forced  .  .  . 
Forced  .  .  . 
Forced  .  .  . 
Forced    .  . 

1500 

800 
1120 
1130 
570 

1900 

960 
1260 
1350 
720 

.79 

.83 
.89 
.84 
79 

Spokane:  1906  Freight.  . 
1908  Freight.  . 
Pennsylvania,  1907 

25-C 
1-P 
25-C 
1-P 

Forced  .  .  . 
Forced  .  .  . 
Forced 

385 
560 
620 

500 
680 
940 

.77 
.83 
66 

Southern  Ry.,  France.  .  . 
Baden  State,  Weisental.  . 
A.  E.  G 

15-C 
1-P 
15-C 
1-P 
15-C 
1-P 

Forced  .  .  . 
Forced  .  .  . 
Forced 

1200 
780 
1000 

1600 
1050 
1400 

.75 
.74 
71 

25-C 

New  York  Central  is  estimated  by  Hutchinson  and  by  Sprague. 

Pennsylvania  normal  field  conditions  are  distinguished  from  full  field. 

Alternating-current  direct-current  motors  are  here  rated  on  alternating  current. 

Giovi  locomotive  motors  are  rated  by  resistance  measurements. 

Forced  draft  requires  closed  motor  frames. 

The  table  was  compiled  with  care,  yet  in  some  cases  the  aqcuracy  is  questioned. 

A.  I.  E.  E.  1-hour  rating  is  not  in  general  use  for  large  600-volt  direct-current, 
closed  locomotive  motors,  nor  for  alternating  single-phase  and  three-phase  motors; 
and  the  rating  is  often  on  forced  draft,  which  is  5  to  16  per  cent,  higher. 


186 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RATINGS  OF  LARGE  RAILWAY  MOTORS  WITH  FORCED  DRAFT. 
Comparison:  Temperature  of  air  25°  C;  of  motor  100°  C.;  A.  I.  E.  E.  rules. 


Motor. 

Direct. 

Alternating. 

1-hour  rating   natural  draft 

100 

100 

1-hour  rating,  forced  draft  
Continuous  rating,  natural  draft                     .    . 

105  to  110 
44  to    64 

105  to  118 

50  to    58 

Continuous  rating  forced  draft 

70  to    83 

73  to    88 

The  data  are  approximate,  yet  they  are  valuable  for  comparison. 
Results  are  affected  by  the  shape,  size,  and  system,  as  is  shown  later. 

The  ratio  of  ratings  of  alternating-current  motors  with  and  without 
forced  draft  is  not  greatly  affected  by  the  size,  but  for  direct-current 
motors  the  ratio  depends  largely  on  the  mechanical  design  of  the  frame. 

The  increase  in  the  continuous  rating  by  the  use  of  forced  draft  is 
about  55  per  cent.  This  great  increase  indicates  clearly  that  in  the 
future  all  large  railway  motors,  including  direct-current  motors,  will  use 
forced  draft  because  of  the  lower  cost  and  weight,  and  safety  of  insulation. 

All  railway  motors  for  train  service  should  be  given  a  continuous 
rating  on  forced  draft.  That  is  the  real  basis  for  comparison. 

Single-phase  motors  are  rated  on  their  output  with  alternating 
current,  but  when  they  are  designed  for  interchangeable  work,  both 
alternating-current  and  direct-current  rating  are  given. 

The  ratio  of  300-volt  direct-current  to  235-volt  alternating-current 
rating  or  output  is  about  1.50  on  an  average. 

Ratings  are  often  compared  by  commercial  engineers  as  follows: 
Eighty  per  cent,  of  the  1-hour  A.  I.  E.  E.  rating  gives  the  continuous 
rating  with  forced  draft. 

Direct-current  street  car  motors,  with  natural  draft,  have  a  continu- 
ous rating  of  33  to  43  per  cent,  of  the  1-hour  rating. 

Ratings  based  on  a  continuous  load  or  tractive  effort  are  preferable 
for  electric  locomotives  which  make  long  runs. 

Selection  of  the  requisite  motor  capacity  involves  a  careful  study  or 
comparison  of  the  following: 

Service:  single  car  or  train;  city  street  or  right-of-way;  express  or 
local;  freight  or  passenger;  city,  suburban,  interurban,  or  railroad;  stops 
per  mile;  time  of  stops. 

Routes,  distances,  grades,  curves. 

Weights  of  motor  cars,  locomotives,  coaches,  and  freight  cars. 

Speed  schedule,  and  layovers. 

Equipment:  motors  per  train,  gearing,  drives. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    187 

The  capacity  required  of  motors  for  a  given  service  cannot  be  con- 
sidered in  this  work.     Authorities  to  be  recommended: 

PARSHALL  AND  HOB  ART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  Chapter  IV. 
DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  for  Railways,"  Chapter  IV. 
WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  "Electrical  Traction,"  Chapter  XVIII. 
Carter:  Predeterminations  in  Railway  Work,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1903. 
Renshaw:  Railway  Motors  in  Service,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1903. 
Armstrong:  High-Speed  Railway  Problems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1903. 
Armstrong:  Heating  of  Motors  (valuable  curves),  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 
Hutchinson:  Temperature  Rise  of  Railway  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Oct.,  1903. 
See  "Power  Required  for  Trains"  and  Literature  which  follow. 


MECHANICAL  AND  ELECTRICAL  DATA. 

NAMES  AND  RATING  OF  MOTORS. 

Years  1885  to  1895. 
Direct-current,  500- volt,  Standard-gage  Street  Railway  Motors. 


Name  of 
manufacturer. 

Motor 
number. 

1-hour 
h.p. 

Year 
built. 

Location,  type,  or  detail  of 
construction. 

Daft        

1 

8 

1885 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Sprague 

5 

7 

1888 

Richmond,  Va. 

6 

15 

1890 

Many  cities. 

Thomson-  Houston 

F-30 

15 

1889 

Double-reduction  gear. 

SRG  30 

15 

1890 

Single-reduction  gear. 

SRG  50 

25 

1891 

Single-reduction  gear. 

WP  30 

15 

1891 

S.R.G.  and  well  enclosed. 

WTP  50 

25 

1892 

S.R.G.  and  well  enclosed. 

Wenstrom  

4-pole 

15 

1890 

Slotted  armature  core. 

Short-  Walker  

3 

15-25 

1890 

Gearless. 

4 

30 

1895 

Geared. 

10 

50 

Geared. 

15 

80-100 

1890 

Brooklyn  Elevated. 

Years  1890  to  1900. 


Westinghouse  .... 

1 

15 

1890 

Double-reduction  geared. 

3 

20 

1891 

Open-  type;  series-connected; 

machine-wound  coils;  4-pole. 

12-A 

25 

1893 

Open  type,  cast  iron. 

38 

38 

1895 

Open  type,  cast  iron. 

38-B 

40 

1899 

Laminated  poles. 

49 

35 

1897 

50-B 

150 

56 

60 

69 

30 

Steel  frames.    Replaced  3  and  12. 

68 

38 

76 

75 

188 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


NAMES  AND  RATING  OF  MOTORS.— Continued. 
Years  1890  to  1900. 


Name  of 
manufacturer. 

Motor 
number. 

1-hour 
h.p. 

Year 
buiit. 

Location,  type,  or  detail  of 
construction. 

Westinghouse  .... 

83 

110 

92 

35 

93 

50 

101 

40 

121 

85 

General  Electric  .  . 

800 
1000 

27 
35 

1892 
1894 

Enclosed  4-pole  motor. 

1200 

38 

1893 

2000 
51 
52 

55 
57 

125 

80 

27 

160 
52 

1893 
1896 
1896 

1896 
1897 

Intramural  Ry.,  Chicago. 
Four-pole.    Replaced  by  G.E.  73. 
Ventilating  ducts  in  armature, 
core.     Replaced  G.E.  800. 
Nantasket  Beach,  near  Boston; 
Buffalo  &  Lockport,  New  York; 
Akron,   Bedford  &  Cleveland. 

58     . 

37 

64 

60 

67 
68 

38 
175 

1899 

Replaced  G.E.  1000. 

78 

35 

DIRECT-CURRENT,  600- VOLT,  COMMUTATING-POLE  RAILWAY  MOTORS, 

1911. 


Horse  power. 

General  Electric. 

Westinghouse. 

Allis. 

50 
60 

202-213-216-219 

307-312-319-B 
306-316 

501 

70 

210-218 

305-310 

75 

214 

90 

304-317 

100 

205 

303 



110 

303-A 

125 

206 

140 

302 

160 

207-211 

175 

301-B 

225 

208-212 

300-B-308 

240 

69 

275 

209 

1000 

315 



The  100  h.p.  G.E.-205  motors  are  rated  75  h.p.,  and  the  160  h.p.  G.  E.-207 
motors  are  rated  125  h.p.,  when  used  two  in  series  on  1200  volts. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    189 
STANDARD  THREE-PHASE  RAILWAY  MOTORS.    Year  1911. 


1-hr. 
h.p. 

General 
Electric 

Westinghouse 
Electric. 

Ganz 
Electric. 

Brown 
Boveri. 

150 
225 
250 
425 
550 
600 
850 
990 
1200 
1500 

Burgdorf  Thun. 

Valtellina 

Valtellina  (m.c.) 

Grreat  Northern 

Simplon. 

Valt.pl  linn. 

Simplon. 

Giovi 

Valtellina 

Valtflllina 

Voltage  is  3000,  except  Great  Northern,  which 
SINGLE-PHASE  25-  AND  15-CYCLE 

is  500. 
RAILWAY  MOTORS. 

1-hr, 
h.p. 

No.  of       General  Electric, 
cycles.              Used  by 

Westinghouse  Electric 
Used  by 

Siemens  Brothers.!      A.  E.G.,  Berlin. 
Used  by                       Used  by 

50 
75 

100 
115 

125 

150 
170 

200 
225 
240 

315 

400 
675 

75 
90 
100 
125 
150 
175 
200 
220 
460 
525 
800 
1000 

1200 

25 
25 

25 
25 

25 

25 
25 

25 
25 
25 

25 

25 
25 

15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 
15 

15 

604.   Ballston  
605.  Toledo  &  Chi. 
Illinois  Traction 

Long  Island  .(  
135.  Ft.     Wayne     & 
Springfield. 
132.  Windsor;    Erie; 
Rock  Island. 
;  Swedish  State  

148.   Spokane    &    In- 
land;  Chicago,  L.S. 
&  S.B. 
156.  New  Haven  m.c. 
Swedish  State. 
151.  Spokane  

Thamshavn  .... 

Swedish  State.  . 
Hamburg-Alt.  .  . 
Midland 

Italian  State. 
Prussian  State,  etc. 

151.  Hamburg- 
Altoona. 
London,  B.  &  S.C. 

London,  B.  &  S.C. 
Prussian  State. 

603.  Milwaukee; 
Annapolis; 
New  Canaan. 
609.  Illinois  Trac- 
tion. 

Oranienburg.  .  .  . 
Rotterdam. 

Grand  Trunk  

New    Haven  passen- 
ger locomotive. 
403.  New  Haven, 
freight    locomotive. 

Experimental  

Oranienburg. 
Norway. 

New  Haven,  freight.  . 
Visalia    m    c 

135 

................. 

132.   Visalia,  locoma. 

Oberammergau  . 
French  Southern 

Oberammergau  . 

French    Southern  m.c. 

Bernese-  Alps  .  .  . 

144.  Pennsylvania  R.R. 
French  Southern  

Wiesental  

French  Southern. 
Bernese-Alps. 
Prussian  State. 

Bernese-  Alps.  .  . 
Swedish  State.  .  . 
Wiesental 

General  Electric  motors  were  withdrawn  in  1909. 

The  list  of  users,  given  under  "Electric  System,"  is  more  complete. 


190 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


WEIGHT  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  500-.  AND  600- VOLT  RAILWAY  MOTORS. 

1911. 

General  Electric. 


Motor 
No. 

Rated 
h.p. 
1-hour. 

Wt. 

of 
arm. 

Wt. 

of 
motor. 

Wt.   of  4- 
motor 
equipment. 

Notes  on  motor,  or  on  use  by 
railroads. 

54 

67 

25 

40 

395 
600 

1830 
2400 

8500 

Weight  of  all  motors  listed  includes 
gear  and  gear  case   box-type  motors 

57 

50 

704 

2975 

14140 

and  multiple-unit.  M.  control. 

98 

50 

677 

3275 

15870 

87 

60 

768 

3510 

16710 

74 

65 

845 

3535 

17190 

73 

66 

55 
76 

75 
125 

160 
160 

1175 
1327 

1550 
1526 

4137 
4375 

5415 
5152 

19250 
21250 

27050 
26000 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago. 
/  Buffalo  &  Lockport; 
\  St.  Louis  &  Belleville. 

68 
65-B 
69-B 

65 
70 

175 

200 
240 

250 
360 

2000 
1800 

2840 
9500 

5302 
12975 
6230 

8855 

48000 
35400 
30700 

35700 
51900 

/  Boston    Elevated; 
^  Central  London,  gearless. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio,  1903  geared. 
(  Metropolitan  District; 
\  Interboro  Rapid  Transit. 
Paris-Orleans,  geared. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio,  1895  gearless. 

84 
202-13 

550 
50 

7640 
600 

12400 
2600 

67700 

1284G 
14060 

New  York  Central  gearless;  weight  of 
armature  without  axles  and  drivers. 
Motors  above  No.  200  are  interpole. 

216—19 

50 

662 

2887 

15425 

218 

70 

3200 

15680 

210 

70 

805 

3440 

16252 

204 

75 

3080 

18000 

214 
205 

75 
100 

894 
1052 

3820 
3950 

19200 
20600 

Motor  205,  rated  75-h.p.  on  1200  volts. 

206 

125 

4250 

23738 

207-11 

160 

4740 

31520 

208 

925 

6380 

30700 

212 

225 

6230 

209 

275 

3000 

11600 

46400 

/  Michigan  Central,  locomotive,  1910. 
|  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  locomotive,  1910. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    191 


WEIGHT  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  500-  AND  600- VOLT  RAILWAY  MOTORS, 

1911. 

Westinghouse. 


12-  A 
12-  A 
69 
92-A 
49 

500 
500 
500 
500 
500 

25 
30 
30 
35 
35 

360 
345 
385 
475 

2205 
2270 
1950 
2265 
1925 

10,250 
10,250 
9,100 
10,700 

525 
700 
553 
530 
550 

68-C 
101-A 
38-  B 
39 

500 
500 
500 
500 

40 
40 
40 
50 

505 

585 
524 

2270 
2730 
2350 
2900 

10,700 
12,500 
12,150 
14,200 

565 
520 
500 

89 

500 

50 

650 

2900 

14,200 

101-D 

500 

55 

585 

2730 

12,500 

56 
93-A 
305 
305 

500 
500 
500 
600 

55 
55 
63 
75 

720 

778 

3000 
3490 
3550 
3550 

14,600 
15,000 
16,280 
16,280 

468 
495 
600 

112-B 

76 
85 
121-A 
70 

500 
500 
500 
550 
550 

75 

75 
75 
85 
115 

825 
860 
995 
1220 

3400 
3480 
4500 
4300 
4800 

16,000 
19,000 
21,640 
19,400 

630 
495 
495 
620 

119 
133 

550 
550 

125 
150 

1340 

4600 
5500 

21,080 

640 

114  \ 
134  / 

86 

550 
550 

180 
200 

1525 

5300 
5900  

26,800 

625 

113 
103 
315 

550 
600 
600 

200 
300 
1000 

1980 
5300 
10950 

6700 
11500 
45000 

40,000 
Two  motor. 

610 
Penn.  R.  R. 

R.  P.  M.  =  M.  P.  H.  X  gear  ratio  X  336  -5-  driver  diameter. 


192 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


WEIGHT  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  RAILWAY  MOTORS,  1910. 
Allis-Chalmers. 


Motor 

Rated 

1-hr. 

R.P.M.  at 

Wt.  of 

Wt.  of  motor 

Wt.  of 

No. 

voltage 

h.p. 

rating. 

armature. 

and  gears. 

4-motor 
equipment. 

501 

600 

50 

2720 

12,560 

301 

500 

40 

550 

2630 

12,300 

R-35 

500 

40 

523 

660 

2490 

12,200 

R-50 

500 

55 

575 

760 

2870 

14,100 

R-75 

500 

75 

510 

1140 

3770 

18,500 

Siemens  Brothers. 


54-S 

500 

35 

545 

400 

1840 

92-L 

500 

52 

475 

640 

2870 



92-L 

750 

56 

520 

640 

2870 

72 

500 

58 

490 

540 

2325 

17-30 

750 

58 

800 

665 

3175 



92-S 

750 

75 

710 

735 

3540 

150 

900 

130 

700 

5500 

WEIGHT  OF  THREE-PHASE  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTORS. 


1-hr, 
h.p. 

Motors 
used. 

Wt.   per 
motor. 

Speed 
R.P.M. 

Wt.  of  all 
elec.  equip. 

Manufac- 
turer. 

Railroad 
installation. 

150 

4 

11  000 

128 

Ganz   . 

Valtellina   1902 

150 

4 

8,800 

300 

Browri  .  .  . 

Burgdorf. 

225 

4 

11,000 

300 



Ganz  

Valtell  ina  (motorcars  )  . 

425 

4 

14,950 

358 

73,200 

G.E  

Great  Northern. 

550 

2 

25,000 

224 

65,000 

Brown  .  .  . 

Simplon,  1907. 

600 

2 

27,800 

224 

66,000 

Ganz  

Valtellina,  1904. 

850 

2 

27,520 

270 

78,000 

Brown  .  .  . 

Simplon,  1909. 

990 

2 

27,000 

224 

60,000 

Westing  .  . 

Giovi. 

1200 
1500 

'} 



224 

54,000 

Ganz  

Valtellina,  1906. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    193 

WEIGHT  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAY  MOTORS. 
Westinghouse,  25  Cycles. 


Motor 
No. 

1-hr, 
h.p. 

Wt.  of 

1  armature. 

Wt.  of 
motor 
and  gears. 

Wt.  of 
4-motor 
equipmenl 

Installation  for 
railroads. 

135 
132 

148 
133 
156 

151 
137 
130 
403 

AC 

DC 

Long  Island:  Sea  Cliff  Div. 
i  Bergamo-  Brembana. 
(  Baltimore  &  Annapolis. 
\  Rock  Island  Southern. 
Chi.  Lake  Shore  &  S.  Bend. 
Spokane  &  Inland  loco. 
New  Haven  motor-car. 
New  Haven  Switcher. 
Spokane  &  Inland  loco. 
Grand  Trunk  locomotive. 
New  Haven  passenger. 
!  New  Haven  geared  freight. 
New  Haven  crank-type, 
two  motors,  freight. 

50 
75 

100 

125 
'  135 
150 
150 
170 
225 
240 
315 
675 

4500 

156 

0 
94 

0 
150 
0 
360 

1865              5000 
...    .                    6100 

2705 
1500 

6025 
7950 
13830 
10420 
15660 
16710 
19770 
41600 

41,200 
55,405 

3570 
5095 
5850 

47,557 
3  motors. 
66,840 
79,000 
83,200 

Westinghouse,  15  Cycles. 

135-A        90   
132           125   
156        !   150   
144          460   
800   .... 

4500 
5300 
2250              7468 
9350            19500 

31,000 
35,650 
54,100 

Visalia  locomotive. 
Weight  with  quill. 
Pennsylvania  R.R.  gearless. 
French     Southern,    2-motor 
freight  locomotive. 

59,200 

WEIGHT  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  RAILWAY  MOTORS. 
General  Electric,.  25  Cycles. 

Motor 
No. 

1-hr, 
h.p. 

Wt.  of 
armature. 

Wt.  of 
motor 
and  gears. 

Wt.  of 
4-motor 
equipment- 

Installation  for  railways. 

604 
605 
603 

609 

50 
75 
125 

125 
150 

1200 
2000 

4500 
5000 
7000 

6000 
8200 



Schenectady-Ballston. 
Toledo  &  Chicago. 
Milwaukee;  Annapolis; 
New  Canaan. 
New  Haven,  motor-car. 
Illinois  Traction. 

Weight  of  New  Haven  4-motor,  No.  156,  25-cycle  equipment  without  direct-cur- 
rent control  equipment  is  47,250  pounds. 
13 


194 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


WESTINGHOUSE  MOTORS.     ELECTRICAL  DATA. 
Direct-current,  500-600  Volts. 


Motor 

No. 

1-hr, 
h.p. 

Arm. 
diam. 

Bore  of 
poles. 

Field 
coil 
turns. 

Size  of  wire 
or  strap. 

Field 
Res., 
ohms. 

Arma- 
ture 
slots. 

Coils 
per 
slot. 

Armature 
turns;  sized 
wire  or  bar. 

Arm. 
Res. 
ohms. 

92-A 

35 

13 

13  3/8 

125         5/16x1/2 

.340 

41 

3 

3  turns  10 

.340 

101-B 

40 

14 

14  3/8 

110    .!   5/16x5/8 

.296 

37 

3 

3  turns    9 

.290 

93-A 

55 

15 

15  3/8 

78      !   3/64x1    1/4 

.166 

45 

3 

3  turns  10 

.148 

112-B 

75 

15 

15  3/8 

60 

1/16x1   1/4 

.094 

45 

5 

2  3/64x1/2 

.090 

121-A 

90 

17 

17  3/8 

49 

1/16x1/4 

.087 

41 

5 

1   3/64x5/8 

.070 

119 

125 

17 

17  7/16 

42 

3/32x1   3/8 

.051 

37 

5 

1    1/16x5/8 

.050 

114 

160 

17.5 

18 

40 

7/64x1   3/4 

.035 

33 

5 

1   1/10x1/2 

.037 

113 

200 

19 

19   1/2 

36 

1/8x2 

.025 

31 

5 

1    1/8x1/2            .030 

Commutator  data. 

Armature  bearings  at 

No. 

Diam.      Length. 

Bars. 

Brush- 
es. 

section. 

Commutator.            Pinion. 

at  pinion. 

92-A 

9               3  5/8 

123 

2 

1/2x1   1/2      !   3          x7   1/2        3          x6   1/2         2  3/4 

93-A 

10   1/4       4   11/16 

135 

2 

1/2x2 

3  3/4x8  7/16 

3   1/2x7                 3  3/8 

112 

12   1/2       5   1/2 

225 

2 

1/2x2 

3  3/4x8  7/16 

3   1/2x7                 3  3/8 

121 

14   1/2       6 

205 

3 

1/2x1   3/4 

4          xs   1/2 

3  3/4x7                 3  3/4 

119 

14   1/2       6  23/32 

185 

3 

1/2x2 

4          xlO 

3  3/4x7                 3  3/4 

114 

14  1/2       6  3/4 

165 

4 

5/8x2 

4   1/2x10 

3  3/4x7  1/4        4  1/8 

113 

16  3/4      9   11/16 

155 

4 

5/8x2  1/4 

4  3/4x10 

4         x7            :     4  3/8 

Length  of  commutator  is  from  end  to  lug.     Two  brushes  are  used  per  holder. 
Wedges  are  used  to  hold  armature  coils  of  25-  to  75-h.  p.  motors,  and  bands  on 
larger  motors,  with  4  to  5  bands  on  the  core,  and  one  band  at  each  end  of  coils. 
Several  modifications  exist  for  each  motor. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  RAILWAY  MOTOR  DESIGN. 

In  general,  railway  motor  design  must  embrace  machinery  which 
furnishes  the  greatest  possible  output  at  the  least  expense  in  first  cost 
and  in  performance.  This  involves  the  best  materials,  the  highest 
practical  speeds,  and  the  best  arrangement  of  the  materials  in  the  design. 
Steel  with  very  high  permeability,  100,000  lines  per  square  inch,  in  both 
solid  and  sheet  form  is  utilized.  Mica  and  asbestos  are  the  insulating 
materials  having  the  greatest  heat-resisting  qualities.  High  speeds  are 
economical  when  expensive  constructive  features  are  reduced.  Weight 
may  be  decreased  by  more  efficient  materials,  interpole  motors,  artificial 
cooling,  and  lower  cycles.  When  weight  of  motors  used  in  rapid  transit 
service  is  over-reduced,  mechanical  and  electrical  excellence  are  sacrificed. 

Some  of  the  details  of  development  follow: 

1.  Magnet  frames  of  direct-current   motors  were   originally  bipolar, 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    195 

and  of  cast  iron.  Sprague  motor  frames  were  of  good  wrought  iron. 
Enclosed  Thomson-Houston  waterproof  motors  of  1891,  and  the  G.E.- 
800  motor  of  1892,  and  all  modern  motors  have  used  cast  steel  frames 
largely  because  the  improved  magnetic  qualities  of  steel  allowed  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  weight  and  space.  Some  of  these  had  consequent  poles,  but 
they  were  soon  abandoned  for  the  standard,  4-pole  motor,  which  was 
introduced  in  the  Westinghouse  No.  3  open  motor  of  1891. 

Field  frames  of  direct-current  motors  are  divided  as  follows:  Small 
motors,  30-  to  80-h.p.,  have  the  cast  steel  frames  divided  horizontally, 
and  the  center  lines  of  the  4  poles  are  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 
horizontal;  and  larger  motors  either  have  their  frames  split,  at  an  angle  of 
45  degrees,  and  2  poles  set  horizontally  and  2  vertically,  or  a  box  type  frame 
is  used  which  is  not  split.  Small  motors  are  opened  by  swinging  the  lower 
half  downward,  to  the  repair  pit,  on  hinges  which  are  placed  on  the  side 
opposite  the  axle.  Armature  bearings  are  bolted  to  the  upper  or  to 
the  lower  field.  Large  motors  are  inspected  by  running  the  truck  out 
from  under  the  locomotive  or  car.  If  the  field  is  divided,  the  upper  half 
is  opened  to  get  at  the  fields  and  armature.  Box  type  or  solid  fields 
require  that  the  motor  be  removed  entirely  from  the  truck  and  the  arma- 
ture to  be  taken  out  at  one  end.  Some  motor  frames,  G.E.  70  and  74  of 
1904,  are  split  horizontally,  well  above  the  center  line,  to  get  a  small 
upper  frame,  for  facilitating  quick  repair  work. 

Box  type  frames  were  introduced  about  1898.  They  have  a  single 
magnetic  casting  of  soft  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  cube  with  well  rounded 
corners.  Maximum  capacity,  minimum  space,  rigidity  of  frame,  and 
perfect  alignment  of  brush-holders  and  bearings  are  obtained.  Housings 
for  the  bearings  are  bolted  against  well-fitted  cylindrical  heads  on  the 
field  frames.  Armature,  field  coils,  and  pole  pieces  are  removed  thru 
the  end  of  the  frame.  The  armature  is  taken  out  by  removing  one  frame 
head  and  then  lifting  and  sliding  the  armature  horizontally  thru  the 
opening;  or  the  motor  is  set  on  end  and  the  armature  lifted  vertically; 
or,  again,  the  motor  is  put  in  a  lathe,  the  armature  is  supported  on  its 
center  line,  and  the  motor  frame  rolled  parallel  to  the  shaft. 

Magnet  frames  of  alternating-current  motors  consist  of  an  outer  steel 
casing  forming  a  structural  frame  for  the  motor.  The  frame  encloses 
a  cylindrical  field  ring  or  stator  built  up  of  thin  annular  laminations, 
insulated  from  each  other  by  j  apan  or  enamel ,  and  securely  bolted  together. 

Single-phase  and  three-phase  fields  of  50-  to  150-h.p.  motors  are  made 
in  one  piece,  and  cannot  be  divided  like  those  of  direct-current  motors. 
Armatures  are  taken  out  as  in  box  type  frames. 

Gearless  motor  fields  and  frames  are  split  horizontally  and  are  removed 
in  halves,  the  field  windings  being  disconnected  for  that  purpose.  New 
York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  motor  frames  for  gearless  passenger 


196 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


locomotive  are  split,  but  the  geared  and  the  crank  type  freight  loco- 
motive motor  frames  are  solid.     The  frames  of  the  motors  for  the  freight 


locomotive  are  built  up  of  steel  plates  and  structural  angles.     The  motor 
is  stiff,  and  light  in  weight,  and  the  field  laminations  are  well  exposed. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    197 

Enclosure  of  the  entire  motor  has  finally  been  effected,  at  first  by 
protecting  it  with  canvas  or  galvanized  iron,  and  then  by  the  use  of  most 
of  the  magnet  frame,  in  the  " waterproof  motor"  of  1891.  Finally  the 
frame  entirely  enclosed  the  motor.  The  covers  over  the  commutators 
of  small  motors  are  closed,  while  the  covers  of  large  motors  and  also  the 
upper  frames  often  have  many  half-inch  holes.  See  Ventilation. 

The  axle  is  enclosed  on  the  Pennsylvania  motor  cars  to  keep  out  dust. 

Forced  draft  has  been  adopted  to  keep  out  the  dust,  to  ventilate,  and 
to  cool  large  motors.  Examples:  210-h.p.,  direct-current  types  for  Long 
Island  Railroad;  275-h.p.,  direct-current  types  for  Michigan  Central 
Railroad;  240-h.p.  single-phase  types,  for  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford  Railroad;  325-h.p.,  three-phase  types,  for  Great  Northern 
Railway.  Motors  located  up  in  the  locomotive  are  not  enclosed. 

2.  Poles  of  direct -current  motors  were  originally  of  cast  or  wrought  iron 
or  steel,  but  are  now  of  laminated  steel  with  magnetically  saturated  faces, 
bolted  on  the  cast-steel  field  frame.  This  plan  was  introduced  in  the 
Westinghouse-38  motor  of  1899. 

Commutating  poles  were  developed  about  1907.  A  small  auxiliary 
interpole  or  commutating  pole  placed  between  the  main  poles,  holds  the 
neutral  point  and  thus  reduces  the  sparking.  Non-commutating  pole 
motors  cannot  be  relied  on  for  more  than  50  to  75  per  cent,  overload,  to 
make  up  lost  time  or  to  accelerate  on  heavy  grades,  while  commutating 
pole  motors  will  take  care  of  from  150  to  200  per  cent,  overload  for 
emergency  intervals  without  destructive  sparking.  Commutating  pole 
motors,  without  other  changes,  allow  the  use  of  about  50  per  cent, 
greater  voltage  per  bar;  but  the  proportion  of  copper  to  steel  is  increased. 

Poles  of  alternating-current  motors  are  enclosed  by  a  cylindrical  steel 
ring.  They  are  built  of  thin,  annular  laminations  held  by  bolts  which 
run  parallel  to  the  shaft.  The  interior  portions  of  the  punchings  are 
shaped  to  form  four  or  more  poles,  which  are  slotted  for  the  reception  of 
the  field  windings.  They  are  often  split  between  the  middle  of  two  field 
coils  (not  between  adjacent  coils),  and  only  a  single  connector  of  the 
compensation  windings  is  disturbed.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Aug.  28,  1907,  p.  281 . 

There  are  no  inner  projecting  poles  in  single-phase  motors.  There 
are  no  fixed  poles  in  three-phase  motors,  since  the  field  revolves  or  pro- 
gresses electrically. 

Sparking  at  commutators  is  the  cause  of  most  all  motor  trouble.  It 
disintegrates  brushes,  burns  copper,  and  increases  the  brush  friction.  The 
copper  and  carbon  dust  works  into  windings,  brush  holders,  and  insula- 
tion, and  causes  flash-overs  and  breakdown  of  insulation.  With  good 
commutation,  soft  high-grade  carbon  brushes  are  used,  brush  tension  and 
vibration  are  greatly  reduced,  and  a  high  glaze,  which  prevents  commuta- 
tor wear  and  increases  the  life  of  the  brushes  and  commutator,  is  formed. 


198          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

3.  Field  coils  with  both  shunt  and  series  windings  were  found  in  the 
first   direct-current   railway  motors.     Series   motors   of    1885,  built  by 
Field,   and   the   1888    Sprague   motors    had   2    fields   and  6  field  coils 
which,  in  starting  a  car,  were  first  connected  in  series,  partly  for  use  as 
resistance,  and  then  in  multiple  groups.     Thomson-Houston  motors  used 
field  loops  by  means  of  which  the  turns  per  coil  were  varied.     Magnets 
were  horseshoe-shaped  and  had  two  coils  until  about   1891.      Railway 
motor  field  coils  were  simplified  about  1890  by  a  change   to   a  plain 
series  winding  on  brass  spools.     The  cotton-covered,  wire-wound  coils 
were  changed  to  mica-  and  asbestos-covered  copper  straps. 

The  modern  coil  is  of  the  mummified  type;  and  it  is  heavily  wrapped 
and  made  complete  without  any  outside  metallic  retaining  spool,  except 
for  some  locomotive  motors.  The  coil  is  placed  in  a  vacuum  which 
exhausts  the  moisture  and  air,  after  which  the  insulating  compound, 
which  is  forced  in,  penetrates  every  part  of  the  coil.  High  temperatures 
and  a  long  time  are  required  for  this  treatment.  The  coil  then  resists  the 
action  of  water  and  air  to  which  it  is  exposed,  yet  radiates  the  heat.  It 
is  compact,  and  vibration  and  chafing  of  wires  are  prevented,  yet  it  will 
not  warp  when  heated  repeatedly  by  overloads.  Outside  protection 
against  mechanical  injury  is  obtained  by  wrapping  tape,  or  cotton  web- 
bing thoroly  filled  with  japan.  The  coil  is  clamped  to  the  frame  by 
heavy,  flat  spring  hangers  after  the  pole  pieces  are  bolted  in  the  motor. 

Field  coils  of  three-phase  motors  are  similar  to  those  of  generators 
and  are  insulated  with  tape  and  mica,  and  are  mummified.  The  coils 
are  of  the  distributed  type.  See  specifications  of  Giovi  locomotives. 

Field  coils  of  single-phase  motors  are  distributed  windings,  carried  in 
slots  in  the  pole  faces.  The  field  windings  are  in  two  independent  sec- 
tions, the  main  field  for  energizing  and  producing  the  effective  magnetic 
field  and  the  other,  an  auxiliary,  or  compensating  winding,  which  simply 
balances  the  armature  reaction  on  the  field.  In  other  words,  the  com- 
pensating windings  counteract  the  armature  inductance,  and  improves 
the  commutation  by  compensating  the  armature  reaction;  and  the  field 
distortion  is  thereby  reduced.  The  coils  of  the  main  exciting  windings 
are  connected  in  parallel  to  reduce  the  self  induction.  Many  methods 
of  winding  are  used  in  the  repulsion  and  series  type  of  single-phase  motors. 

4.  Air  gap  length,  between  the  armature   and   stator,  are  grouped. 
Direct-current  designs  use  6/32  inch  for  75-h.p.;  7/32  inch  for  125-h.p.; 
8/32  inch  for  160-  to  225-h.p.;  6/32  inch  for  275-h.p.  Michigan  Central 
locomotive  motors;  8/32  inch  for  550-h.p.  New  York  Central  and  9/32  for 
1250-h.p.  Pennsylvania  locomotive  motors. 

Single-phase  motor  designs  use  about  4/32  inch  for  the  240-h.p. 
New  Haven  passenger  locomotive  motors;  3/32  inch  for  390-h.p. 
Weisental  locomotive  motor;  and  for  G.  E.-603,  125-h.p.  motors. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    199 

Three-phase  motor  designs  use  smaller  air  gaps.  Valtellina  200-  to 
600-h.p.  motors  use  1.5  mm.,  Simplon  Tunnel  450-h.p.  motors  1.5  mm., 
while  Great  Northern  Railway  425-h.p.  motors  use  1  /8  inch  or  3.2  mm. 

Air  gaps  for  comparable  motors  are: 

Direct-current,    1/4  inch  or  .250  inch. 

Single-phase,       1/8  inch  or  .125  inch. 

Three-phase,       2.1  mm.  or  .083  inch. 

The  proportion  is  as  1000  to  500  to  333. 

In  the  15-cycle  motor,  a  considerably  larger  air  gap  can  be  used  than 
on  the  25-cycle,  without  reducing  the  power  factor  below  desirable  limits. 

5.  Armatures  of  small  motors  were  at  first  of  large  diameter.     The 
armature  of  the  Short  35-h.p.  gearless  motors  of  1890  were  heavy,  rigid, 
and  inaccessible,  and  of  large  diameter — about  36  inches.     The  famous 
"W.P.,"  25-h.p.  single-reduction  geared  motor  of  1891  had  a  diameter 
of  19  1/4  inches;  and  the  flywheel  effect,  in  starting  and  stopping,  of  such 
armatures  was  a  bad  feature.     Cores  were  soon  reduced  in  diameter 
and  increased  in  length  to  permit  rapid  acceleration  and  retardation. 
The  clearance  between  frame  and  roadbed  was  thereby  increased.     Ven- 
tilation of  armature  cores  by  means  of  radial  slots  did  not  receive  suffi- 
cient consideration  until  the  Walker  motor  No.  4  was  developed  in  1895 
and  the  G.  E.-52  motor  in   1896.      See  Ventilation,  under  "Rating  of 
Motors."     See  "Armature  Speed,"  in  section  9,  which  follows. 

Armature  cores  of  direct-current,  single-phase  and  three-phase 
motors  are  made  up  of  soft  laminations,  often  insulated  with  japan. 
They  are  generally  mounted  by  fitting  and  carefully  forcing  the  laminated 
core  and  commutator  shell  on  a  one-piece,  cast-steel  spider.  The  shaft 
is  then  independent,  and  is  forced  on  under  a  pressure  of  30  to  70  tons 
and  keyed  to  the  spider.  Armatures  frequently  take  up  most  of  the 
space  between  the  drivers.  Armature  core  dimensions  are  given  in  the 
next  table. 

6.  Armature  windings  of  the  first  railway  motors  had  hand-wound 
surface  coils.     These  have  been  superseded  by  machine-wound  coils  with 
straight-out  barrel  winding  imbedded  between  teeth  of  a  slotted  arma- 
ture; and  they  are  formed  and  insulated  before  being  placed  in  the  core. 

Wire-wound  armatures  of  50-  to  90-h.p.  motors  have  three  or  two 
turns  per  coil  and  usually  three  coils  per  slot.  Bar-  or  strap-wound  coils 
are  used  on  large  motors,  and  have  one  or  two  coils  in  the  same  slot 
assembled  and  insulated  together.  The  insulated  wire  or  strap  is  vacuum- 
impregnated,  treated  with  insulating  compound,  tapped,  and  sealed. 

Armature  windings  of  single-phase  motors  are  generally  series-drum 
windings  with  three  coils  per  slot,  as  in  direct-current  motors.  The  one 
turn  used  per  commutator  segment  reduces  the  inductive  effect  and  the 
sparking.  Great  care  is  taken  to  secure  extreme  rigidity. 


200  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Strap-wound  coils  of  large  armatures  are  generally  divided  at  the  rear. 

Binding  is  required  to  hold  the  coils  in  place,  No.  14  to  17  B.  &  S. 
gage,  tinned,  steel  wires  being  used,  the  number  and  width  depending 
upon  the  size  and  speed  of  the  armature. 

Insulations  used  for  motor  windings  are  doubled  cotton,  tape,  paper, 
asbestos,  linseed  oil,  varnishes,  and  particularly  mica.  All  of  the  insula- 
tions except  asbestos  and  mica  become  brittle  and  char  at  100°  C.  The 
highest  temperature  on  factory  tests,  which  is  safe,  is  about  100°  C. 
Under  service  conditions,  with  the  better  ventilation,  coils  run  cooler. 

7.  Commutators  were  originally  of  small  diameter  and  poorly  insu- 
lated, but  are  now  long,  of  large  diameter,  and  have  ample  stock. 

Commutator  bars  are  generally  of  hard-drawn  copper,  built  up  on  a 
cast-steel  sleeve,  with  a  steel  cone  ring  and  nut  for  small  motors,  and  a 
number  of  tap  bolts  between  two  V-rings  on  larger  motors.  The  wearing 
depth  is  from  7/8  to  1  inch.  The  coil  leads  are  soldered  into  the  bars. 

Commutators  for  single-phase  motors  conform  to  direct-current  prac- 
tice, but  are  larger  and  wider.  Connections  between  the  armature  wind- 
ings and  the  commutator  bars  sometimes  require  resistance  leads  to  reduce 
the  short-circuit  current.  These  leads  are  insulated  like  the  main  arma- 
ture winding,  and  are  placed  in  slots  beneath  the  armature  winding  proper. 
They  are  a  source  of  danger  when  the  motor  is  overloaded  for  long  periods, 
yet  good  results  are  being  obtained.  Commutators  on  New  Haven 
locomotives  run  100,000  locomotive  miles  before  being  turned. 

Slotting  the  hard  mica  between  commutator  bars  is  a  recent  develop- 
ment, to  increase  the  life  of  the  commutator  and  the  brush.  Slotting 
to  a  depth  of  1/16  of  an  inch  by  simple  automatic  tools  increases  the  life 
of  old  motors  about  800  per  cent.,  and  of  new  motors  300  per  cent. 

8.  Brushes  were  originally  of  copper  set  at  an  angle  with  the  com- 
mutator.    Van    Depoele    introduced    carbon    brushes    in    1884.     Good 
carbon  was  used  as  early  as  1889. 

Sparking  at  brushes  is  no  longer  destructive.  The  relation  of  the 
field  magnetism  to  that  of  the  armature  is  understood;  and  the  use  of  the 
commutating  pole  in  direct-current  motors  and  of  compensating  coils  in 
single-phase  motors  keep  the  neutral  point  absolutely  at  the  brush  con- 
tact. The  commutating-pole  motor  has  doubled  the  life  of  brushes.  For 
data  on  life  and  wear,  consult  Elec.1  Ry.  Journ.,  June  19,  1909,  p.  1108. 
The  life  of  carbon  brushes  averages  15,000  car-miles  for  direct  current, 
and  8000  for  single-phase  motors.  New  Haven  locomotive  brushes 
have  a  life  of  about  32,000  locomotive  miles. 

Armatures  are  so  connected  in  standard  four-pole  direct-current 
motors  that  one  pair  of  brushes  holders  suffice,  where  two  pairs  are  re- 
quired in  single-phase  motors.  The  field  is  often  reversed  to  change  the 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    201 

direction  of  motion,  and  to  keep  the  positive  lead  connected  to  the  same 
brush.  The  Deri  induction  brushes  are  shifted  mechanically. 

Brush-holder  design  has  been  well  perfected  by  the  use  of  rigid 
supports,  by  longer  creepage  distances  to  prevent  flashing  thru  carbon 
dust,  by  the  use  of  mica  tubes  for  internal  insulation  and  of  porcelain 
rings  for  external  protection,  and  by  the  use  of  light  but  uniform  brush 
pressure  over  the  working  range  of  wear. 

Brushes  suitable  for  one  motor  are  not  satisfactory  for  another. 
Manufacturers  offer  a  complete  range  of  brushes  for  each  motor,  and  have 
collected  the  data  required  on  brush  holders,  brush  sizes,  current  density, 
hardness,  abrasive  qualities,  commutator  speed,  and  the  commutation  or 
other  peculiarities  of  each  motor. 

9.  Armature  speed  with  the  first  motors  was  high.  It  has  been 
reduced  by  modifying  the  magnet  frames,  increasing  the  number  of  poles, 
and  lengthening  the  armature  core.  The  tabular  data  on  speeds  given 
below  are  of  interest  in  design,  particularly  those  on  the  comparative 
peripheral  speed  of  armatures  in  feet  per  minute. 

SPEED  OF  ARMATURES  OF  RAILWAY  MOTORS. 


Name  of 
railway. 

Motor 
h.p. 

Car 
m.p.h. 

Gear 
ratio. 

Motor 
r.p.m. 

Driver 
diam. 

Arm. 
diam. 

Core 
width. 

Periphera 
speed  arm. 

Early  electric  

15 

20 

12.00 

2447 

33 

12.0" 

10.0" 

7690 

Modern  electric.  . 

25 

30 

4.00 

1221 

33 

15.0 

12.0 

4800 

Interurban 

75 

50 

3.50 

1780 

33 

15.0 

16.0 

2225 

Interstate 

125 

60 

3.00 

1680 

36 

17.0 

7480 

New  York  Central 

240 

50 

1.88 

877 

36 

New  York  Central 

550 

60 

Direct 

458 

44 

29.0 

19.0 

3470 

N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H. 

150 

50 

3.30 

1320 

42 

N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H. 

240 

60 

Direct 

320 

63 

39.5 

18.0 

3310 

N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H. 

315 

35 

2.32 

187 

63 

39.5 

13.0 

1935 

N.  Y.  N.  H.  &H. 

675 

35 

Crank 

206 

57 

76.0 

13.0 

4100 

Pennsylvania..  .  . 

1250 

60 

Crank 

280 

72 

56.0 

23.0 

4100 

Michigan  Central. 

275 

35 

4.37 

1070 

48 

25.0 

11.5 

7005 

Grand  Trunk..  .  . 

240 

35 

5.31 

1007 

62 

30.0 

14.75 

7910 

Great  Northern.. 

475 

15 

4.26 

358 

60 

35.75 

16.25 

3374 

Valtellina  

1500 

40 

Crank 

225 

59 

68.0 

4000 

Simplon  1907  

550 

43 

Crank 

238 

61 

Simplon  1909  

850 

43 

Crank 

320 

49 

43.3 

3250 

Giovi  1909  

990 

28 

Crank 

224 

42 

Paris-Orleans..  .  . 

250 

60 

2.23 

917 

49 

23.5 

12.00 

5650 

B.  &  O.,  1895.  .  . 

270 

26 

Direct 

146 

60 

B.  &  O.,  1903    .  . 

20.0 

35 

4  26 

1195 

42 

B.  &  O.  1910  .  .  . 

275 

35 

3.25 

750 

50 

25.0 

11.50 

4888 

Bernese  Alps  .... 

1000 

26 

3.25 

530 

53 

47.0 

6500 

Weisental  

390 

46 

Crank 

337 

47 

59.0 



5200 

202  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Armature  speeds  of  three-phase  railway  motors  do  not  exceed  the 
fixed  synchronous  speed  for  which  the  motors  are  designed. 

Armature  speeds  of  single-phase  railway  motors  generally  run  10  per 
cent,  higher  than  that  of  the  direct-current  motors. 

R.  P.  M.  =M.  P.  H.  x  gear  ratio  x  336 -^  driver  diameter  in  inches. 

The  feature  which  limits  the  speed  of  trains  is  generally  the  armature, 
not  the  track. 

Peripheral  speeds  of  armatures,  geared  to  or  mounted  on  driver 
axles,  are  generally  less  than  the  linear  train  speed  in  feet  per  minute. 

10.  Bearings  have  been  improved  by  changes  in  the  material,  dimen- 
sions, and  in  the  method  of  lubrication. 

In  Westing-house  practice,  for  60-h.p.  motors,  solid  bushings  of  cast 
iron  are  used  for  armature  bearings,  and  split  malleable  iron  bushings, 
lined  with  babbit  metal,  for  axles.  Large  motors  have  solid  phosphor 
bronze  shells  for  armatures  and  split  shells  for  axles,  and  1/10  inch  of 
babbit  soldered  to  the  bronze.  All  bearings  are  lubricated  by  oil- 
saturated  wool  waste  as  in  M.  C.  B.  boxes  in  steam  railroad  practice. 

In  General  Electric  practice  solid  brass  sleeves,  with  a  thin  lining  of 
babbit  metal,  are  used.  In  case  the  babbit  is  melted  by  overheating, 
the  armature  does  not  rub  on  the  poles.  The  axle  bearings  are  split. 
All  brasses  are  cut  away  so  that  the  oily  wool  waste  comes  into  contact 
with  large  surfaces. 

Armature  bearings  are  generally  restricted  by  the  available  space. 
After  the  armature  core  and  winding  have  been  provided  for,  and  the 
commutator  or  collector  has  been  added,  little  room  may  be  left  on  the 
shaft  for  bearings;  and  it  has  been  customary,  since  1897,  to  place  the 
bearings  under  the  armature  windings  and  also  under  the  commutator. 
These  restrictions  do  not  apply  where  the  motor  is  mounted  above  the 
drivers,  and  the  shaft  may  extend  clear  across  the  locomotive. 

Grease  was  the  lubricant  in  the  early  days.  The  change  to  oil 
reduced  the  cost  of  inspection  and  maintenance,  doubled  the  life  of 
bearings,  and  decreased  the  danger  of  armatures  rubbing  on  the  poles. 

Data  on  bearings  of  single-phase  quill-mounted  motors  are  given  in 
Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  12,  1908,  p.  1558. 

Seats  of  armature  bearings  in  the  field  frame  are  often  bored  1/16 
inch  above  the  pole  center  to  allow  for  long  wear. 

Three-phase  motors  have  very  small  air  gaps,  1/8  to  1/16  inch  and 
in  heavy  service,  long  bearings  or  frequent  renewals  are  required. 

11.  Gearing  from  1888  to  1891  was  double-reduction,  and  entailed 
high  maintenance  expense.     In  the  early  Sprague  roads  the  small  motors 
ran  at  a  normal  speed  of  1300  to   1500  r.  p.  m.     Four-pole  motors,  in- 
troduced by  Wenstrom,  Short,  and  Westinghouse  about   1890,  allowed 
single-reduction    gearing.      The    ratio    of    gearing    was    soon    changed, 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    203 

from  about  12  to  1,  to  4  to  1.  Pinions  of  rawhide,  sheet  steel,  bronze, 
etc.,  have  been  replaced  by  forged  steel.  The  gears  are  now  enclosed  in 
gear  cases.  Spur  gearing  has  won  out  in  the  competition  with  bevel 
gearing,  worm  gearing,  hydraulically  connected  gearing,  belts,  wire  rope, 
links,  chains,  etc. 

Gears  are  used  at  each  end  of  the  armature  shaft  on  the  freight  loco- 
motives of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  Michigan  Central,  Great  Northern, 
New  Haven,  Bernese-Alps,  and  other  railroads. 

Gearless  motors  are  used  on  the  passenger  locomotives  of  the  New 
York  Central,  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  New  Haven,  etc.,  the  motor  being 
mounted  on  the  axle  or  on  a  quill  surrounding  the  axle. 

Gear  diametrical  pitch  is  3  teeth  per  inch  for  35-  to  75-h.p.  motors, 
2.5  for  90  to  250-h.  p.  motors,  and  13/4  for  315-h.p.  freight  locomotive 
motors  on  the  New  Haven.  The  face  is  5  to  5  1/4  inches  wide. 

Gears  may  be  in  one  piece  or  split,  and  of  cast  steel  \vhich  may  be 
bolted,  keyed,  pressed,  or  shrunk  on  either  the  axle  or  an  extension  of 
the  wheel  hub.  Split  gears  with  4  bolts  are  used  on  motors  up  to  75  h.  p. 

Gears  for  heavy  railway  motors  consist  of  a  forged  steel  rim  mounted 
on  a  cast  steel  center.  The  rim  may  thus  be  replaced  when  worn  out. 

Pinions  are  now  used  which  have  great  strength  and  uniformity  of 
metal  without  sacrificing  toughness.  The  steel  is  reheated  after  being 
machined,  to  gain  in  wearing  qualities.  A  cast-steel  gear  ordinarily 
outlasts  three  soft  pinions,  but  with  improved  types  the  pinion  lasts  as 
long  as  the  gear.  A  great  saving  is  thereby  made  in  the  cost  of  renewals. 

Railway  motors  have  notoriously  noisy  gearing,  which  is  a  disturber 
of  the  peace,  and  ordinarily  is  a  nuisance.  The  vibration  and  noise 
indicate  wasted  energy.  The  noise  comes  from  rapidly  repeated  blows 
of  teeth,  which  cause  friction  and  rapid  wear.  Gearing  in  which  the 
teeth  are  not  parallel  to  the  shaft,  e.  g.,  helical  gears  which  have  sliding 
contact,  should  again  be  tried  out.  Some  improvement  is  needed. 

Gearing  is  not  used  advantageously  for  motors,  above  2300-h.p.  size 
for  high-speed  passenger  locomotives  in  heavy  service.  Even  when 
lubricated  with  oil  under  pressure,  the  teeth  of  spur  gears  are  not  able 
to  withstand  the  shock  and  wear.  The  bearings  wear  and  soon  change 
the  gear  teeth  diameters  and  alignment. 

12.  Motor  axles  of  open-hearth  steel,  with  80,000-pound  tensile 
strength,  20  per  cent,  elongation,  and  25  per  cent,  reduction  in  area,  have 
been  standardized  as  follows: 


204  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

SUMMARY  OF  AXLE  AND  GEAR  DATA. 


Journal 
size. 

Motor 
fit. 

Gear 
fit. 

Wheel 
fit. 

Distance 
bet.  hubs. 

Center  of 
journals. 

Maxi- 
mum wt. 

Horse 
power. 

Length  of 
gear  seat. 

Diameter 
gear  hub. 

3  3/4x7 

4  1/2 

5   1/2 

5    7-16 

48 

75 

15,000 

45-45 

6  1/8 

8 

4  1/4x8 

5 

6 

5  15-16 

48 

75 

19,000 

45-65 

6  1/4 

8 

4  1/4x8 

51/2 

6 

5  15-16 

48 

75 

22,000 

65-100 

6  1/8 

8 

5         x9 

6 

7 

6  15-16 

50 

76 

27,000 

100-150 

6  1/8 

9   1/2 

5        x9 

6  1/2 

7 

6  15-16 

50 

76 

31,000 

150-200 

6  1/8 

9   1/2 

5  1/2x10 

7 

8 

715-16 

50 

77 

38,000 

200-250 

6  1/8 

10   1/2 

8        x!3 

1615-16 

55 

82 

70,000 

315- 



13 

13.  Suspension  of  motors  was  provided  in  the  first  motors  by  mount- 
ing them  on  the  car  floor  and  connecting  them  to  the  axles  by  belts,  wire 
rope,  or  sprocket  chains  and  often  thru  a  friction  clutch.  A  direct  drive 


1 


FIG.  44. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  RAILROAD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTORS,  1906. 
Motor  is  quill  mounted  on  axle  and  spring  mounted  in  drivers. 

between  motors  and  axles  by  means  of  gearing,  and  also  by  means  of 
crank  rods,  was  soon  developed.     An  outline  is  presented: 

a.  Nose  suspension  began  with  the  Bentley-Knight  motors  of  1884.     One  end 
of  the  motor  and  half  of  the  weight  were  supported  directly  on  the  axle  bearings,  and 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    205 

the  opposite  or  armature  end  rested  on  a  cross  bar,  supported  by  the  side  frames 
of  the  truck;  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  provide  parallelism  between  the  armature  shaft 
and  the  axle;  i.e.,  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  the  gear  pitch  circles  was  fixed. 
Nose  suspension  is  the  simplest  and  it  has  superseded  all  others. 

b.  Cradle  suspension  was  used  in  the  Westinghouse  motors  of  1890.     The  entire 
motor  was  placed  on  levers  or  horizontal  bars  at  each  side  of  the  motor,  and  all  of  the 
motor  weight  was  transmitted  to  the  axle  and  frame  indirectly  thru  springs.     Two 
motors  per  truck  were  used,  and  one  motor  balanced  the  other.     Each  motor  formed 
a  lever  fulcrumed  at  the  axle.     This  scheme  became  obsolete  due  to  the  higher  first 
cost  and  the  inaccessibility  for  repairs. 

c.  Side -bar  suspension  used  on  the  General  Electric  No.  800,   1200,  and  2000 
motors  of  1893  removed  the  dead  weight  of  the  motor  from  the  axle.     The  side  bars, 


FIG.  45. — GIBBS  CRADLE  MOTOR  SUSPENSION. 
As  used  on   Metropolitan   Railway,   London. 

resting  entirely  on  springs,  carried  the  motor.  One  lug  on  either  side  was  so  placed 
that  the  suspension  was  thru  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  motors.  There  was  no 
weight  resting  on  the  axle  boxes.  In  addition  to  the  elimination  of  pounding,  the 
alignment  used  was  advertised  by  the  General  Electric  Company  as  preventing  the 
wear  of  the  boxes  and  of  the  gears. 

d.  Yoke  suspension  was  a  modification  in  which  the  weight  of  the  motor  was 
largely  suspended  from  points  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  armature  shaft,  or  practic- 
ally the  center  of  the  weight  of  the  motor.     The  motor  was  virtually  balanced. 
General  Electric  bulletin  4113,  of  July  28,   1902,  stated:  "The  yoke  suspension  is 
especially  recommended,  as  with  this  suspension  the  weight  of  the  motor  is  carried  on 
springs  placed  on  the  side  frames  of  the  car  track,"  and  because  the  hammer  blow  of 
the  track  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

e.  Walker  spring  suspension  of  1895,  while  not  in  use,  deserves  a  description. 
The  motor,  M,  is  suspended  entirely  on  springs  at  S  and  T.     Side  bars,  Y,  are  jour- 
naled  on  the  axle,  A,  and  at  the  armature  shaft;  and  they  are  not  connected  to  the 
motor  frame,  and  simply  keep  the  pinion  and  gear  in  mesh.     The  nose  bar,  C,  sup- 
ports half  of  the  motor  weight,  thru  springs  located  on  the  truck  cross  bar.      Bearings 
ran  longer,  the  hammering  of  the  track  was  less,  the  strains  and  shock  on  the  pinion 


206 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


and  gears  were  decreased,  the  crystallization  of  wires  and  insulation  was  eased,  and 
the  total  maintenance  expense  was  decreased. 

Nose  suspension  is  an  unsatisfactory  plan,  because,  with  one  end  of 
the  motor  mounted  rigidly  on  the  two  axle  bearings,  and  the  other  end 
or  nose  on  the  cross  bar,  there  will  always  be  heavy,  non-spring-borne 
weights  from  axles,  drivers,  and  bearings.  The  entire  weight  of  the  motor 
should  be  mounted  on  suspension  springs,  which  can  be  placed  at  the 
center  of  gravity,  or,  better,  at  the  center  of  rotation  of  the  motor.  A 
special  helical  spring  could  be  inserted  between  that  part  of  the  motor 
casting  surrounding  the  axle  and  the  axle  bearings — the  C.  J.  Field 


FIG.  46. — DIAGRAM  OF  WALKER  METHOD  OF  MOTOR  SUSPENSION. 

scheme,  used  in  1885.  If  such  suspension  springs  were  used,  to  ease  and 
attenuate  the  shocks  or  track  pounding,  the  present  excessive  cost  of 
maintenance  and  renewals  at  track  crossings,  switchwork,  and  curves, 
and  of  the  motors  themselves  would  be  greatly  decreased.  Track  main- 
tenance cost  is  not  higher  with  electric  than  with  steam  power,  at  least 
this  is  not  often  admitted;  but  that  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  special 
work  on  electric  roads  is  excessive  has  been  definitely  proved. 

Suspension  of  motors  for  gearless  locomotives  involves  a  field  frame 
independent  of  the  truck  frame,  or  a  part  thereof,  but,  in  either  case, 
-spring-suspended.  The  armature  of  gearless  locomotive  motors  at  first 
was  placed  on  the  driver  axle.  Its  dead  weight,  combined  with  a  low 
center  of  gravity,  was  soon  found  to  destroy  the  crossings,  switches, 
curves,  and  badly  aligned  track. 

In  1891,  the  City  and  South  London  Railway  placed  gearless  arma- 
tures directly  on  the  locomotive  axle,  but  the  plan  proved  to  be  a  failure. 
In  1895,  Baltimore  &  Ohio  gearless  locomotives  used  quill-mounted 
armatures  which  were  flexibly  connected  to  the  driver  axle.  The  field 
frame  was  spring-suspended.  The  improvement  was  at  once  noted. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    207 


FIG.  47. — BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  RAILROAD  QUILL-MOUNTED  MOTOR  ARMATURE  ON  1895  LOCOMOTIVE. 


FIG.  48. — BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  RAILROAD  MOTOR  FIELD   AND   ARMATURE   ON   1895  LOCOMOTIVES. 


208 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


New  York  Central  gearless  locomotive  followed,  10  years  later. 
Motor  armatures  weighing  7640  pounds  each  are  mounted  directly  on 
the  axle,  and  the  total  dead  weight,  about  13,000  pounds  per  axle,  is 
practically  the  same  as  on  an  ordinary  steam  locomotive;  and,  tho  there 
are  no  unbalanced  weights  or  forces,  track  maintenance  expense  is  high. 
The  weight  of  the  motor  frame  itself  rests  on,  and  forms  part  of,  the 
locomotive  truck  frame,  and  is  spring-mounted. 


FIG.  49. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  MOTOR,  1910. 

Direct-current,  650-volt,  1250-h.  p.  on  157-ton  locomotives.     The  frame  is  well  braced,  and  the 

cranks  are  counter-balanced. 


Quill  suspension  of  armature  involves  the  mounting  of  the  armature 
on  a  hollow  motor  axle  which  encircles  the  driving  axle,  the  inner  shaft 
being  held  concentric  with  the  outer  shaft  by  means  of  spiral  springs. 
See  technical  description  of  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  New  Haven,  and  Valtel- 
lina  locomotives,  and  New  Haven  motor  cars  which  follow. 

Berlin-Zossen  motor  cars,  in  the  high-speed  tests  of  1903,  used  four 
three-phase,  6-pole,  435-volt  induction  motors  of  250-h.  p.  each.  Siemens 
and  Halske  motors,  for  an  85-ton  car,  were  mounted  rigidly  upon  the 
driving  axles;  while  A.  E.  G.  motors,  under  a  99-ton  car,  were  mounted 
on  a  hollow  shaft,  and  spring-supported  from  the  driving  wheels.  The 
latter  plan  greatly  reduced  the  track  destruction. 


[ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    209 


Crank  rod  locomotive  motor  suspension  involves  motors  with  cranks  on 
the  armature  shaft,  which  transmit  the  power  to  the  drivers,  or  to  a  jack 
shaft  and  then  to  the  drivers.  The  motor  is  mounted  high  on  the  loco- 
motive frames,  and  is  spring-mounted.  Mechanical  connections  of 
locomotive  motors  will  be  treated  under  "  Electric  Locomotive  Design," 
and  under  "Technical  Descriptions  of  Locomotives." 


FIG.  50. — VALTELLINA  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTOR  ON  ITALIAN  STATE  RAILWAY,  1906. 

Three-phase,  3000-volt,  15-cycle,  1200-h.  p.,  3-speed.     Length  of  body  51  inches,  length  of  shaft 

101  inches,  diameter  of  body  74  inches,  diameter  of  collector  rings  12  inches. 

14.  Trucks  on  which  motors,  cars,  and  locomotives  are  mounted 
could  advantageously  form  the  subject  of  a  book.  Technical  descrip- 
tions of  trucks  for  the  principal  electric  locomotives  will  be  given. 
Catalogs  of  trucks  are  valuable  for  data.  See  references  on  trucks. 

SPEED-TORQUE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MOTORS. 

Characteristic  curves  of  a  motor  are  those  which  show  the  relation 
of  power  to  the  speed  and  torque.     Speed-torque  curves  are  plotted  by 
using  the  kilowat,ts,  or  amperes  at  a  fixed  voltage  as  a  base,  and  the 
14 


210          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

corresponding  speed  and  torque  in  the  vertical  scale.  For  comparative 
purposes,  and  to  note  the  general  form  of  all  curves,  the  abscissae  and 
ordinates  should  be  plotted  in  per  cent,  of  rated  power,  speed,  and  torque. 

One  set  of  such  curves  is  needed  for  direct-current  motors,  one  for 
three-phase,  one  for  single-phase  series,  and  one  for  single-phase  repulsion 
motors.  Other  curves  are  used  to  analyze  the  relation  of  power  to  speed 
and  torque  with  variable  voltage  to  the  motor,  or  variable  resistance  in 
the  rotor  circuit;  and  also  for  different  cycles,  number  of  poles,  windings, 
turns  on  fields  and  armature,  magnetic  circuits,  air  gaps,  gear  ratio, 
position  of  brushes,  etc.  Still  other  curves  may  be  used  to  show  the 
power,  speed,  and  torque  characteristics  with  two  or  more  motors 
grouped  in  series-parallel  or  in  concatenated  relation;  and  with  resistance 
or  inductance  in  all  or  part  of  the  field  or  rotor  circuits.  Other  curves  and 
combinations  will  be  suggested  for  special  cases. 

Torque  of  direct -current  motors  is  proportional  to  the  number  of 
lines  of  force  threading  the  armature;  the  number  of  turns  or  conductors 
on  the  armature;  the  current  in  the  armature.  It  is  independent  of  the 
motor  voltage.  The  lever  arm  extends  thru  the  crank,  gear,  and  drivers. 

Torque  of  single-phase  motors  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
impressed  voltage,  approximately;  and  the  ratio  of  the  reactance  of  the 
rotor  winding  at  standstill  to  its  resistance,  approximately,  and  in 
practice  this  ratio  varies  from  6  to  25. 

Torque  of  three-phase  motors  varies  directly  as  the  square  of  the  im- 
pressed motor  voltage;  for  the  flux  density  of  the  magnetizing  field  is  rel- 
atively small,  and  the  iron  is  much  under-saturated,  in  order  to  reduce  the 
iron  loss  and  magnetic  leakage.  The  starting  torque  is  less  than  the 
maximum,  and  thus  it  is  common  to  increase  the  voltage  across  the 
stator  terminals  in  starting  and  to  reduce  it  in  running  by  a  change  at 
starting  from  delta  to  star  connection,  which  changes  the  voltage  in  the 
ratio  of  1.00  to  1.73;  or  to  reduce  it  by  means  of  a  booster  transformer, 
or  by  variable  taps  on  the  transformers.  The  torque  is  proportional  to 
the  magnetization,  M;  to  the  slip,  S;  to  the  resistance  of  the  rotor,  R; 
and  inversely  proportional  to  the  total  impedance  of  the  motor. 

The  maximum  torque  in  running,  and  the  current  corresponding 
thereto,  are  not  changed  by  the  resistance  in  the  motor  armature.  The 
resistance  decreases  the  speed  at  which  the  maximum  torque  is  reached. 
The  pull-out  torque  of  slow-speed  three-phase  railway  motors  is  usually 
made  from  250  per  cent,  to  325  per  cent,  times  the  continuous  torque. 
It  is  usually  extremely  hard  to  obtain  over  300  per  cent,  for  railway 
motors,  altho  400  per  cent,  is  obtained  for  high-speed  stationary  motors. 

STEINMETZ:  "Alternating  Current  Phenomenon,"  1st  Ed.,  pp.  220-225. 

DAWSON:  " Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  p.  115. 

MCALLISTER:  "Alternating  -current  Motor,"  3d  Ed.,  Commutator  Motors,  p.  201. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    211 

Speed  of  direct-current  motors  varies  almost  directly  with  the  voltage 
applied  to  the  armature.  The  speed  curve  or  the  counter  electromotive 
force  curve  is  the  reciprocal  of  the  magnetization  curve.  The  limits  on 
the  ordihates  of  the  speed  curves  are  set  first  by  no  saturation  of  the 
magnetic  circuit,  in  which  case  the  product  of  the  speed  and  the  current 
is  constant,  or  at  one-half  the  normal  current  the  speed  would  be  twice 
the  normal  speed;  and  second,  by  a  magnetic  field  well-saturated,  in 
which  case  the  ordinates,  which  vary  inversely  as  the  magnetization 
curve,  are  nearly  parallel  to  the  abscissa. 

Speed  curves  of  single-phase  alternating-current  motors  are  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  continuous-current  motor  curves.  With  an  alternating- 
current  motor  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  magnetic  circuit  well  below  the 
saturation  point  of  the  steel  in  order  to  reduce  the  magnetic  losses. 

Speed  curves  of  three-phase  motors  are  practically  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  abscissa,  the  variation  from  no  load  to  full  load  being  less  than 
five  per  cent. 

Voltage  affects  the  speed,  but  not  the  torque  characteristics  of  direct- 
current  motors;  but  in  single-phase  motors,  voltage  affects  the  speed  and 
torque  as  just  detailed;  and  voltage  affects  the  motor  capacity  as  noted 
under  " Rating  of  Motors." 

Voltage  affects  the  torque,  but  not  the  speed,  of  three-phase  induction 
motors,  and  it  affects  other  characteristics  as  follows: 

Case  "A,"  voltage  10  per  cent,  above  normal: 

a.  Magnetizing  current  increases  directly  as  the  square  of  the  voltage. 

b.  Iron  loss  increased  18  per  cent.,  since  the  induction  in  the  iron,  which  varies 
with  the  voltage,  is  10  per  cent,  greater. 

c.  Copper  loss  in  primary  is  smaller  because  the  current  required  per  h.  p.  is 
smaller;  copper  loss  in  secondary  is  only  86  per  cent,  because  of  the  smaller  slip,  which 
for  the  same  h.  p.  and  apparent  efficiency  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  voltage. 

d.  Efficiency  increases  slightly,  because  of  smaller  losses. 

e.  Power  factor  is  reduced  2  per -cent. 

f.  Torque  in  starting  and  also  the  pull-out  or  maximum  torque  are  21  per  cent, 
greater,  on  account  of  the  reduced  leakage. 

Case  "  B,"  voltage  10  per  cent,  below  normal: 

a.  Iron  loss  is  reduced  15  per  cent,  by  the  lower  flux  density. 

b.  Copper  loss  in  primary  is  22  per  cent,  larger,  on  account  of  increased  current; 
copper  loss  in  secondary  is  20  per  cent,  greater,  on  account  of  larger  slip. 

c.  Power  factor  is  increased  .7  per  cent,  by  the  smaller  magnetizing  current. 

d.  Starting  torque  is  about  the  same,  but  the  pull-out  torque  is  decreased  17  per 
cent  by  the  larger  leakage. 

Case  "  C, "  voltage  27  per  cent,  below  normal : 

a.  Starting  torque  and  pull-out  torque  are  about  50  per  cent,  of  normal. 

b.  Capacity  is  reduced  one-third,  because  of  the  excessive  temperature  rise  from 
the  larger  copper  losses. 


212  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Gearing  ratio  and  driver  diameter  affect  the  torque  of  the  motors. 
They  of  course  affect  the  speed  of  the  car  or  locomotive  and  the  work 
done.  See  references  on  Gearing,  page  221. 

CHOICE  OF  CYCLES. 

Engineers  favor  both  25  and  15  cycles  for  heavy  railway  services. 
The  25-cycle  system  is  in  general  use  in  America  and  in  England. 
See  "  Electric  Systems." 

Comparison  of  15-cycle  with  25-cycle  single-phase  motors  shows 
there  is  an  increase  of  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  in  the  output  of  a  given 
motor  when  a  proper  increase  is  made  in  exciting  ampere  turns.  The 
gain  for  large  railroad  motors  is  about  30  per  cent.  It  is  in  the  feature 
of  increased  induction  that  the  principal  gain  with  lower  frequency 
is  found;  and  the  increased  induction  is  obtained  with  less  short-circuiting 
of  armature  coils  and  also  with  less  exciting  voltage  in  proportion  to  the 
counter  electromotive  force,  and  consequently  with  higher  power-factor. 

The  limitation  in  the  25-cycle  motor  is  caused  largely  by  the  increase 
in  iron  necessary  to  keep  down  the  inductive  element  and  consequently 
to  secure  a  reasonable  power-factor.  Higher  efficiency,  better  commuta- 
tion, and  less  weight  are  obtained  in  15-cycle,  single-phase  motors. 

The  power-factor  of  series-compensated,  25-cycle  motors  of  75  to 
250  h.p.  is  85  to  90  per  cent.;  of  15-cycle  75- to  500-h.p.  motors  is  88  to  93. 

A  500-h.p.,  15-cycle  motor,  designed  for  equally  good  performance 
on  25-cycle,  produces  360  h.p.  at  best  rating. 

"A  comparison  of  4-motor  Westinghouse  equipments  made  up  of 
75-h.  p.  motors  at  25  cycles,  and  the  same  motors  adapted  for  15  cycles, 
giving  95-h.p.,  showed,  in  the  latter  case  the  electrical  apparatus  per  car 
to  be  5  per  cent,  heavier,  the  car  weight  to  be  1.6  per  cent,  heavier,  and 
the  h.p.  gain  to  be  26  per  cent.'7  Lamme. 

Even  with  increased  transformer  weight,  the  15^cycle  equipment,  in- 
cluding trucks  and  frames,  is  usually  lighter. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  engineers  considered  both  15  and  25  cycles 
for  their  1906  passenger  locomotive  designs.  The  motors  would  have  been  some- 
what lighter  and  the  transformers  would  have  been  somewhat  heavier  on  15  cycles. 
It  was  found  that  the  15-cycle  locomotive  had  the  advantage  of  5.2  per  cent,  in  weight 
and  about  3  per  cent,  in  cost,  and  was  slightly  better  as  to  its  efficiency  and  power 
factor.  Based  on  1911  conditions  and  experience  in  manufacture  and  design,  it  is 
fair  to  state  that  15  cycles  would  now  make  a  difference  of  10  per  cent,  in  weight  and 
8  per  cent,  in  cost.  If  the  locomotive  weight  was  30  per  cent,  of  the  train  weight,  it 
would  mean  a  saving  of  3  per  cent,  in  the  total  weight  of  the  train,  but  in  passenger 
trains  there  would  be  a  saving  of  less  than  1  per  cent.  The  25-cycle  system  was 
chosen  because  standard  apparatus  had  been  adapted  for  this  frequency  (so  far  as 
generators  and  induction  motors  were  concerned),  and  because  15-cycle  trans- 
formers might  have  cost  40  per  cent,  more  than  25-cycle  transformers. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE   213 

Results  with  25,  30,  and  60  cycles  on  the  same  three-phase  motors: 

Case  "A,"  frequency  increased  from  25  to  30  cycles. 

Starting  and  pull-out  torque  reduced  17  per  cent. 

Efficiency  and  power-factor  improved. 

Friction  and  windage  about  45  per  cent,  higher. 

Iron  loss  decreased  13  per  cent. 

Copper  loss  and  slip  the  same. 

Leakage  is  greater. 

Case  "  B,"  frequency  increased  from  25  to  60  cycles: 
Pull-out  torque  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  3.6  to  1.5. 
Starting  torque  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  2.5  to  0.5. 
Efficiency  slightly  decreased. 
Iron  loss  decreased  50  per  cent. 
Copper  loss  slightly  increased. 

Case  "C,"  frequency  reduced  from  60  to  25  cycles,  at  rated  voltage: 

Operation  is  impossible  on  account  of  the  high  induction  required  to  produce  the 
necessary  torque  for  the  same  output  and  42  per  cent,  normal  speed.  At  2.4  times 
the  normal  density  of  the  iron,  the  iron  loss  is  doubled  and  the  magnetizing  current 
will  be  nearly  as  great  as  the  energy  component.  The  resulting  current  makes  the 
copper  loss  prohibitive. 

The  torque  is  proportional  to  the  product  of  the  secondary  flux  and  the  second- 
ary current.  At  120  per  cent,  flux,  the  secondary  current  should  be  unchanged 
The  speed  varies  with  the  number  of  cycles. 

Abstracted  from  article  by  Werner,  Electric  Journal,  July,  1906. 

Disadvantages  of  25  cycles  compared  with  15  cycles: 

Cycle  change  from  60  cycles  is  decidedly  less  convenient  in  design. 
The  ratio  of  cycle  transformation  is  odd,  viz.,  12  to  5  in  place  of  4  to  1. 

Field  saturation  in  the  motor  is  30  per  cent,  lower  and  therefore  the 
counter-electromotive  force  of  the  armature,  the  power  factor,  the  output, 
and  the  torque  are  decreased  in  proportion. 

Air  gaps  must  be  smaller  to  raise  the  field  saturation  and  power  factor. 

Weight  runs  up  rapidly  on  larger  motors  (250  h.  p.  or  over)  and  is  33 
per  cent,  heavier  than  that  of  direct-current  motors;  while  it  is  only  15 
per  cent,  heavier  with  15  cycles. 

Capacity,  power  factor,  commutation  at  time  of  starting  and  on 
overloads,  are  poorer  at  25  cycles. 

Cost  for  given  results  is  higher  with  25  cycles. 

Speed  of  large  steam  turbines  must  be  higher. 

Disadvantages  of  15  cycles  compared  with  25  cycles: 

Field  ampere  turns  for  a  given  induction  are  increased. 

Transformers  are  more  expensive  and  heavier  but  this  is  offset  partly 
by  higher  power  factor  and  efficiency. 

Vibration  of  15-cycle  railway  motors  requires  special  at  leads  and 
connections,  and  often  requires  riveting  in  place  of  soldering;  and  it 
causes  crystalization  of  bars  and  wires. 


214          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Other  induction  motors  on  transmission  lines  are  more  expensive. 
These  include  shop  motors,  cycle  changers,  transformers,  converters,  etc. 

The  low  cycles  are  not   so  well  adapted  for  electric  lighting. 

Torque  pulsation  decreases  the  output,  and  this  must  be  dampened 
by  the  inertia  of  springs. 

The  use  of  15  cycles  is  advantageous  for  single-phase  series  motors. 
The  fewer  reversals  of  magnetic  flux  and  induced  e.  m.  f.  under  the 
brushes  decrease  the  sparking,  heating,  and  energy  loss  at  the  commu- 
tator. A  motor  may  be  designed,  however,  which  is  just  as  efficient  at 
25  cycles  as  at  a  lower  frequency,  the  weight  and  cost  being  the  handicap. 

Drawbar  pull  of  locomotive  motors  on  12.5  and  25  cycles  is  noted: 

Locomotive  No.  9  on  the  Westinghouse  Interworks  Railway  was  tested  with 
25  cars  back  of  the  dynamometer  car.  The  locomotive  was  started  and  after  the 
controller  was  at  full  position  the  brakes  were  applied  to  the  cars  only.  Both  acceler- 
ation and  deceleration  of  the  train  were  zero  when  the  tests  were  recorded.  The  test 
at  12.5  cycles  was  with  a  line  voltage  of  3500  and  a  motor  voltage  of  160  volts,  am- 
peres, 3000,  and  .60  power-factor.  A  drawbar  pull  of  30,000  pounds  was  obtained 
before  slipping  began.  The  test  at  25  cycles  was  with  a  line  voltage  of  6000,  and  a 
motor  voltage  of  about  160,  amperes  3100,  and  .57  power-factor.  A  drawbar  pull  of 
30,000  pounds  was  obtained.  The  indications  are  roughly  that  the  point  of  slipping 
for  12.5  cycles  is  practically  the  same  as  that  for  25  cycles.  Test  by  L.  M.  Aspinwall. 

6o-cycle  locomotives  or  motor  cars  are  not  used  on  any  railroad. 
There  have  been  several  50-  and  45-cycle  experimental  equipments 
and  street  railways;  and  40  cycles  are  used  in  the  Burgdorf-Thun  three- 
phase  interurban.  Engineering  reasons  which  prevent  the  commercial 
use  of  higher  cycle  motors  by  railroads  are  listed  below: 

Losses  in  copper  transmission  lines  are  greater. 

Losses  in  track  rail  circuits  are  greater. 

Regulation  of  inductive  and  control  circuits  is  poorer. 

Single-phase  motors  cannot  use  the  wide  range  of  cycles  which  is  possible  with 
three-phase  motors. 

Higher  cycles  compel  greatly  decreased  magnetic  induction  in  the  iron  of  motors 
by  design,  and  therefore: 

Output  and  torque  are  proportionately  increased. 

Higher  speeds  are  required  to  follow  the  higher  cycles. 

Decidedly  larger  frames  are  required  for  motors. 

Ratio  of  output  to  dimensions  is  greatly  increased. 

Drawbar  pull  per  ton  is  lower  with  higher  cycles. 

Air  gaps  are  smaller;  or  the  power  factor  is  lower. 

Price  per  h.  p.  is  higher  with  60  cycles. 

(The  last  four  reasons  govern,  in  railroad  train  service.) 

CONTROL  OF  MOTORS. 

Control  of  trains  will  be  considered  under  "Motor-Car  Trains." 
Control  of  motors  involves  the  starting  of  the  motors,  the  acceleration 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    215 

to  full  speed,  definite  time  limits,  uniformity  of  motion,  and  economy. 
The  problem  varies  with  the  class  of  service.  The  time  during  which 
power  is  applied  is  involved  in  frequent-stop  railway  service.  The  rate 
of  acceleration  desired  depends  upon  the  service  and  the  length  of  the  run. 
Uniformity  of  motion  is  desirable  in  rapid  transit,  but  it  is  necessary 
when  freight  trains  are  started,  i.  e.,  the  control  resistances  or  voltage 
variations  must  be  so  proportioned  that  the  power  is  not  applied  with 
jerks.  Economy  is  always  involved.  Magnetization  or  speed  curves  of 
the  motor  and  the  speed-torque  characteristics  are  also  involved. 

Controllers  involve  various  kinds  of  apparatus,  automatic  and  hand, 
safety  devices,  interlocks,  etc.,  all  of  which  cannot  be  considered. 

Designs  of  motors  can  be  varied  to  make  a  permanent  change  in  the 
speed  by  a  change  in  air  gap,  windings,  gear  ratio,  driver  diameter,  etc. 

Control  of  direct -current  motors  in  practice  is  carried  out  by  means  of 
voltage  variations,  brought  about  in  three  ways: 

a.  Resistance  is  connected  in  series  with  motors  or  with  groups  of 
motors.     This   resistance  is  external   and  is  made  of    cast-iron  grids. 
Liquid  resistance,  introduced  by  Field  in  1889,  is  used  by  Italian  State 
Railways. 

b.  Circuit  control  is  also  involved.     Resistances  and  motors  may  be 
grouped  and  cut  in  and  cut  out  by  opening  and  rearranging  circuits,  by 
shunting,  or  by  bridging.     The  latter  scheme  prevents  sudden  rise  in 
voltage  and  the  jerk  caused  by  opening  and  closing  circuits. 

c.  Motor   grouping,   in   which   two   or   more   motors  are  electrically 
connected  in  series,  then  in  series  and  parallel,   and  later  in  parallel 
arrangement,  by  which  each  motor  receives  25,  50,  or   100  per  cent, 
respectively  of  the  line  voltage. 

Series -parallel  motor  control  became  common  in  1891.  The  first 
British  patents  were  issued  to  Hunter,  June  7,  1882.  The  U.  S.  patents 
issued  to  Hunter,  June  26,  1888,  embraced: 

"  The  combination  of  an  electrically  propelled  vehicle  having  two  electric  motors, 
a  source  of  electric  supply,  and  switches  for  coupling  up  the  motors  in  series  or 
multiple  with  the  source  of  supply  to  vary  the  speed  or  power  of  the  motors." 

"  Series-parallel  motor  control  was  in  practical  use  on  the  Lehigh  Valley  Avenue 
Line  in  Philadelphia  in  May,  1890."  Hopkinson. 

Thomson-Houston  Electric  Company  devised  a  series-parallel  control  scheme 
ahout  1892  with  contractors  operated  mechanically  by  means  of  long  shafts.  So 
imperfect  were  the  mechanical  means  of  throwing  the  contractors  out  and  in  that  it 
was  soon  abandoned  by  the  several  roads. 

A  series-parallel  controller  was  perfected  in  1893  by  Wm.  Cooper,  F.  R.  Springer, 
and  the  author  of  this  book.  It  was  effective  and  simple,  and  one  in  which  all  parts, 
including  the  rheostat,  were  enclosed  in  one  box.  A  semicircular  Thomson-Houston 
rheostat  was  used,  with  an  8-inch  break  of  Portland  cement  insulation  across  the 
middle.  Magnetic  blowouts  were  also  used.  As  the  contact  shoe  passed  across  the 
cement  break,  the  motors  were  changed  from  series  to  parallel  by  means  of  ordinary 


216          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

switch  blades.     This  controller  was  used  from  1893  to  1899,  on  all  Minneapolis  and 
St.  Paul  cars,  and  was  discarded  because  of  its  bulky  and  out-of-date  appearance. 

The  efficiency  of  series-parallel  control,  during  the  time  the  cars  are 
accelerating,  is  about  66  per  cent.,  while  the  efficiency  of  ordinary  rheo- 
static  control  is  about  50  per  cent.  Additional  savings  arise  from  the 
higher  motor  and  line  efficiency,  and  the  motor  maintenance  is  also 
radically  reduced. 

The  accompanying  equations  show  the  efficiency  of  control  in  direct- 
current  practice. 

Plain  Resistance.     Series-parallel.    Series,  Series-parallel,  Parallel. 


I  R  is  the  drop  of  voltage  in  the  motor  and  E  is  the  line  voltage. 

d.  Field  control  is  obtained  in  two  ways: 

By  connecting  field  coils  in  series  and  in  multiple  combinations.  This 
is  the  commutating  field  scheme  used  in  the  1883  Edison  locomotive  and 
1888  Sprague  motors.  Parshall,  A.  I.  E.  E.;  April,  1892. 

By  shunting  part  of  the  field  current  to  reduce  the  field  strength. 
Large  motors  on  the  New  Haven  and  Pennsylvania  Railroad  locomotives 
use  field  control,  i.  e.,  normal  field  and  full  field.  Field  control  is  now 
utilized  with  interpole  railway  motors  to  increase  the  efficiency  by 
decreasing  rheostatic  losses  for  service  requiring  frequent  acceleration  in 
congested  districts  and  yet  to  obtain  high  speeds  for  long  runs.  With 
field  control,  direct-current  locomotive  motors  now  have  8  efficient  run- 
ning notches  instead  of  the  3. 

Control  of  three-phase  motors  is  effected  in  the  following  ways: 

Resistance  can  be  inserted  in  the  rotor  circuit  to  vary  the  torque; 
but,  like  placing  resistance  in  the  armature  circuit  of  a  shunt  motor,  this 
is  a  wasteful  plan.  The  efficiency  is  lower  than  when  resistance  is 
inserted  in  direct-current  series  motor  circuits.  The  starting  torque  of 
the  three-phase  motor  is  low,  and  the  starting  current  is  excessive  unless 
such  resistance  is  so  used.  Motors  may  be  run  above  the  synchronous 
speed,  on  the  down  grade,  by  inserting  resistance  in  the  motor,  but  this 
also  is  wasteful.  With  few  stops,  the  average  efficiency  for  the  run  may 
not  be  materially  reduced  by  inefficient  acceleration. 

Simplon  Tunnel  locomotive  motors  now  use  squirrel-cage  armature,  with  a 
resistance  about  5  times  as  high  as  for  ordinary  armatures  of  the  same  size  and  type, 
and,  while  the  motor  efficiency  is  lower  at  all  times,  the  control  is  simplified  and  is 
somewhat  automatic. 

An  efficient  induction  motor  is  substantially  a  synchronous  machine  and  operates 
normally  with  a  small  slip.  If  the  driving  wheels  are  of  unequal.  size,  due  to  unequal 
wear,  or  if  two  locomotives  with  wheels  of  different  sizes  are  coupled  together  in  a 
train,  there  will  be  an  unequal  distribution  of  the  load.  If  one  driver  is  5  per  cent. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    217 

smaller  than  another,  the  motor  connected  to  the  larger  driver  may  be  operating  at 
double  load,  while  the  motor  connected  to  the  smaller  driver  may  be  doing  no  work 
or  may  even  be  operating  as  a  generator  or  as  a  brake. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Armstrong's  patent  of  June  28,  1905,  provides  means  for  independently 
adjusting  the  torque  of  several  motors,  so  that  the  load  may  be  equally  distributed 
at  all  times,  by  inserting  independent  adjustable  resistances  in  series  with  the  secon- 
dary windings  of  each  motor. 

Giovi  locomotives  have  an  arrangement  of  this  nature,  but  the  regulation  of  the 
resistance  (see  description  on  page  345)  is  automatic.  In  either  case  the  resistance 
loss  represents  a  direct  and  unavoidable  waste. 

2.  Pole  change  is  used  to  vary  the  speed  of  three-phase  motors. 

Example:  N-S-N-S-N-S-N-S  for  8  poles. 
N  N-S  S-N  N-S  S  for  4  poles. 

This  involves  an  increase  in  the  complication  at  windings,  particularly 
so  for  motor-car  trains.  When  the  power  is  thrown  off  and  the  number  of 
poles,  and  the  transformer  voltage,  are  changed  by  the  controller,  jerky 
tractive  efforts  result,  and  this  may  break  a  train  in  two.  Simplon 
Tunnel  and  Giovi  locomotives  are  arranged  for  two  speeds.  Some  of 
the  Valtellina  and  latest  Simplon  locomotives  have  three  and  four  speeds. 
See  Hellmund:  Multi-speed,  Squirrel-cage  Induction  Motors,  E.  W.,  Oct.  13,  1910. 

Cascade  control  requires  the  use  of  two  motors  having  the  same  or  a  different  num- 
ber of  poles,  speeds,  and  electric  windings.  The  two  motors  may  be  on  one  axle  or  on  dif- 
ferent axles.  The  primary  of  the  first  motor  is  connected  to  the  line,  and  the  secondary 
or  rotor  is  connected  to  the  primary  of  the  second  motor,  thru  collector  rings,  while 
the  secondary  of  the  second  motor  is  closed  thru  adjustable  resistances.  The  syn- 
chronous speed  of  the  first  motor  is  the  frequency  of  the  supply  divided  by  the  number 
of  pairs  of  poles.  Thus,  if  the  cycles  are  25  per  second  and  the  number  of  pairs  of 
poles  is  2,  the  synchronous  speed  of  the  first  motor  is  750  r.  p.  m.  The  frequency  of 
the  supply  from  the  rotor  of  the  first  motor  to  the  stator  of  the  second  rnator  may  be 
25  or  any  other  number  of  cycles.  Assuming  that  it  is  the  same,  then,  since  the 
r.  p.  s.  of  the  first  motor  are  12.5  and  the  number  of  pairs  of  poles  of  the  second  motor 
is  2,  the  synchronous  speed  of  the  second  motor  is  6.125  r.  p.  s.,  or  375  r.  p.  m.,  while 
running  in  cascade;  and  if  the  motors  are  on  the  same  shaft  or  coupled,  the  speed  of 
both  motors  will  be  375  r.  p.  m.  When  the  motors  are  operating  in  cascade  at 
above  half-speed  on  the  down  grades,  energy  is  regenerated. 

In  practice,  the  auxiliary  motor  is  seldom  connected  to  the  line;  its  function  is  to 
use  the  energy  produced  by  the  first  motor,  and  therefore  its  capacity  is  60  to  90  per 
cent,  of  the  main  motor  because  of  the  losses  thru  the  main  motor,  and  because  the 
auxiliary  motor  is  or  may  be  out  of  action  the  greater  part  of  the  time  during  which 
the  main  motor  is  working.  Generally  one  motor  is  used  alone  and  then  the  other. 
The  capacity  of  the  locomotive  is  the  capacity  of  the  larger  motor. 

For  suburban  service  three  motors  would  be  required  to  provide  economical 
running  speeds  and  a  high  maximum  velocity  to  obtain  a  high  rate  of  acceleration. 

Cascade  control  is  often  used  with  two  motors  which  have  a  different  number  of 
poles.  The  motors  must  be  geared  to  the  same  sized  drivers.  If  the  motors  are  to 
be  used  separately,  they  may  be  unequally  geared;  but  this  plan  introduces  complica- 
tions and  is  of  little  practical  value. 

Cascade  control  is  as  efficient  as  the  direct-current  series-parallel  control,  in  watt- 


218  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

hours  per  ton-mile,  or  in  maximum  kilowatts  per  ton  during  acceleration.  The 
power-factor  is  low,  50  to  60  per  cent,  with  half-speed  cascade  operation.  The  weight 
of  the  three-phase  motor  equipment  with  the  cascade-single  or  cascade-parallel  plan 
is  45  to  60  per  cent,  heavier  than  direct-current  series-parallel  equipment. 

General  rule  for  choice  of  concatenation  or  pole  change:  Where  the 
principal  speed  is  the  high  speed,  use  concatenation  for  half  speed; 
where  the  principal  speed  is  the  low  speed,  use  the  pole-changing  plan 
for  double  speed. 

4.  Voltage  control  consists  of  employing  varying  potentials  on  the 
primary  or  the  stator  of  the  motors.  (Giovi  Locomotive.) 

A  high  voltage  is  required  in  starting  to  increase  the  drawbar  pull, 
after  which,  in  running,  the  voltage  can  advantageously  be  reduced. 
The  drawbar  pull  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  motor  voltage. 
This  control  requires  that  the  transformer  be  carried  with  the  train. 

Another  control  plan  is  to  wind  the  primary  for  delta  connection 
for  accelerating,  and  to  reconnect  it  in  star  for  running;  this  reduces  the 
voltage  applied,  in  the  ratio  of  1.73  to  1.00.  Brown,  Boveri  Company's 
Simplon  locomotive  control  embodies  a  change  from  an  8-pole,  delta-star 
connection  to  a  16-pole  star  connection,  and  incidentally  a  change  in  the 
voltage  per  pole  in  the  ratio  of  1/2  to  1/1.73,  or  as  100  to  106. 

Great  Northern  locomotives  are  controlled  by  first  starting  with  a 
Mallet  steam  locomotive;  by  varying  resistance  in  the  rotor;  by  varying 
the  voltage  to  the  stator;  and  by  using  first  two  motors  and  then  four. 

Single -phase  alternating-current  motor  control  is  obtained  by  con- 
necting the  motor  to  different  taps  on  a  transformer,  and  thus  varying 
the  voltage  across  the  motor.  The  transformer  may  have  its  primary 
winding  connected  to  the  trolley  and  to  the  earth,  and  at  the  earthed  end 
various  taps  from  the  primary  may  be  brought' out  to  give  suitable  volt- 
ages; or  taps  from  the  coils  of  an  ordinary  secondary  winding  are  con- 
nected to  the  motor.  The  circuit  connections  are  made  by  means  of 
contactors  energized  by  a  master  controller,  and  the  motor  runs  at  the 
speed  corresponding  to  the  connection  from  the  transformer,  but  without 
rheostatic  loss.  The  Deri  induction  motors  on  European  locomotives 
are  controlled  by  shifting  the  brushes,  from  the  cab,  by  means  of  shafts 
and  levers. 

Efficiency  of  control  schemes,  for  starting  trains,  averages  about  66 
per  cent,  for  series-parallel  control;  about  65  per  cent,  for  concatenated 
three-phase  control;  and  about  75  per  cent,  for  potential  control. 

Leonard's  control  scheme  embodies  a  single-phase  generating  and 
transmitting  system,  conversion  of  single-phase  current  to  direct  current 
by  a  motor-generator  on  the  locomotive,  and  means  for  varying  the  speed 
by  varying  the  voltage  applied  to  the  train  motors,  from  zero  to  maximum 
value,  without  wasteful  rheostatic  losses. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    219 

LITERATURE. 
Text-books  on  Electric  Railway  Motors. 

STEINMETZ:  "Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering."     McGraw,  1909. 

STEINMETZ:  "Alternating-current  Phenomena/'  McGraw,  1908. 

MCALLISTER:  "Alternating-current  Motors,"  McGraw,  1909. 

PUNGA:  "Single-phase  Commutator  Motors,"  Whittaker,  1906. 

GOLDSCHMIDT:  "Alternating-current  Commutator  Motors,"  Van  Nostrand,  1909 

CROCKER  AND  ARENDT:  "Electric  Motors,"  Van  Nostrand,  1909. 

WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  "Electrical  Traction,"  Arnold,   1907. 

References  on  History. 

See  several  articles  in  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  4,  1904. 

Dodd:  Evolution  of  Electric  Railway  Motor,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  26,  1903.    Development 
of  Railway  Motor  Design,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  21,  1903;  Dec.  26,  1903;  Oct.  8,  1904. 
Hutchinson:  Development  of  Railway  Motors,  Cassiers,  Aug.,  1899. 

References  on  Direct-current  Motors  for  Railway  Trains. 

HANCHETT:  "Railway  Motors,"  St.  Ry.  Pub.  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1900. 

Lundie:  The  Electric  Railway  Motor,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1900. 

Parshall:  Sprague  Motor,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  1899;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1890;  Apr.,  1892. 

Shepardson:  Electric  Railway  Motor  Tests  of  1892,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892. 

Atkinson:  Theory  of,  The  Electrician,  March  25,  1898;  Inst.  of  C.  E.,  Feb.  22,  1898. 

Anderson:  Economy,  Equipment,  and  Schedules,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  20,  K06. 

Hutchinson:  Rise  in  Temperature  and  Ry.  Motor  Capacity,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1902. 

Potter  and  Gotshall:  Discussion,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Oct.,  1903. 

Sprague:  Motor  Characteristics,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907,  p.  700. 

Potter:  Selection  for  Railway  Service,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1902. 

Renshaw:  Operation  in  Ry.  Service,  A.  I.  E.,  E.  June,  1903;  S.  R.  J.,  June  29,  1907. 

Westinghouse  Motors:  38  and  101,  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1906. 

Condict:  Interpole  Railway  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  April  21,  May  26,  1906. 

Anderson:  Commutating  Pole  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907. 

Bedell:  Commutating  Pole  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1906. 

Davis:  Interpole  Railway  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  Oct.,  1910. 

Hippie;  Auxiliary  Pole  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  May,  1906. 

References  on  Three-phase  Motors. 

Waterman:  Three-phase  Motors  on  Valtellina  Ry.,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1935. 

Danielson:  Combinations  of  Polyphase  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1902. 

De  Muralt:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907;  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  28,  1908. 

Goldschmidt:  Distribution  of  Conductor  Windings  in  Three-phase  Motors,  Effect  on 

Torque,  Elek.  Zeitschrift,  Apr.  18,  1901. 

Lamme:  Three-phase  Motors  and  Systems,  S.  R.  J.,  March  24,  1906,  p.  451. 
Specht:  Motors  for  Multispeed  Service  with  Cascade  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908. 
Hellmund:  Multispeed  Induction  Motors,  E.  W.,  Oct.  13,  1910. 

References  on  Single -phase  Motors  in  General. 

Lamme:    Single-phase   Motor,  A.   I.    E.   E.,    Sept.,    1902,    S.  R.  J.,  March  24,  1906; 
E.  W.,  Dec.  26,  1903,  p.  1043;  Single-phase  Fields,  Electric  Journal,  Sept.,  1906. 


220          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Hanchett:  Principles  of  the  Repulsion  Motor,  S.  R.  J.,  May  28,  1904. 

Steinmetz:  Single-phase  Commutator  Motors,  International  Elec.  Congress,  St.  Louis, 

Sept.,  1904;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  and  Sept.,  1904. 

Armstrong:  Alternating-current  Single-phase  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  24,  1904,  p.  1111. 
Eichberg:  Single-phase  Motors,  International  Electric  Congress,  St.  Louis,  1904. 
Dennington:  Commutation  of  Compensated  Repulsion  Motors,  E.  W.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 
McLaren:  Advantages  of  Single-phase  Motors,  Electric  Journal,  August,  1907. 
Dawson:  Single-phase  Motors,  London  Electrician,  May,  June,  and  July,  1908. 
Fynn:  Factors  Affecting  Theoretical  Design  of  Single-phase  Induction  Motors,  E.  W., 

Dec.  9,  1909,  p.  1416. 
Kapp:  Review  of  Single-phase  Motors,  British  Institute  of  Elec.  Engineers,  Nov.,  1909. 

References  on  Single -phase  Motors.    General  Electric. 

General  Electric:    Series  Compensated   Single-phase  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  27  and 

Sept.  3,  1904,  pp.  280  and  309. 
Milch:  Repulsion  Motor,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1906. 

Slichter:  Characteristics  of  Repulsion  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1904. 
Alexanderson:    Series-repulsion,   A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  10,  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  18,  1908, 

p.  82;  E.  W.,  Jan.  18,  1908,  pp.  127,  138,  144;  Got.  28,  1909,  p.  1036. 
Alexanderson:  Induction  Machines  for  Heavy  Single-phase  Motor  Service,  A.  I.  E.  E., 

June,  1911. 

Morecroft:  Single-phase  Induction  Motors,  G.  E.  Review,  May,  1910. 
See  references  on  "Electric  Systems." 

References  on  Single -phase  Motors — Westinghouse. 

Lamme:  New  Haven  Locomotive  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1908,  p.  21;  S.  R.  J.,  Aug. 

24,  1907,  April  14,  1906. 
Lamme:  Single-phase  Motors,  A.I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1908;  Jan.  29,  Sept.  14,  1904,  S.  R.  J., 

Jan.  6,  1906,  p.  22;  E.  W.,  Feb.,  1904,  p.  316  and  479. 
Patents:  Lamme,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  13,  1904,  p.  261;  Mar.  5,  1904,  p.  479. 
Newbury:  Operation  of  A.  C.  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  Feb.,  1904;  March,  1905,  Sept., 

1906,  Feb.,  1906. 

Renshaw:  Power  Factor  at  Starting  of  A.  C.  Series  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1904. 
Bright:  Test  on  Single-phase  Motor  Equipment,  Elec.  Journal,  Nov.  and  Dec.,  1905. 

References  on  Single -phase  Motors — European. 

Latour:  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  10,  1906,  p.  239. 

Finzi:  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  11,  1906,  p.  230. 

Siemens:  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  1,  1908. 

Winter-Eichberg;  A.  E.  G.,  Characteristic  Curves  and  Diagrams,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  17, 1903. 

Deri:  Kapp  to  Inst.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909;  E.  W.,  July  8,  1911,  p.  104. 

References  on  Comparisons  of  Railway  Motors. 

DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways." 
HOBART:    "Electric  Trains." 

References  on  Rating  of  Railway  Motors. 

Hutchinson:  Motor  Capacity  of  Railway  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1902. 
Storer:  Elec.  Journal,  July  and  Sept.,  1908,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1901. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE   221 

Spout:  La  Luminere  Elec.,  Sept.  5,  1908. 

Ashe:  Elec.  Review,  Oct.  14,  1906. 

Armstrong:  Study  of  Heating  of  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 

References  on  Motor  Ventilation. 

Dawson:  Serial  in  London  Electrician,  year  1907. 

PARSHALL  AND  HOBART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  Chapter  IV. 

HOBART:  "Heavy  Electrical  Engineering,"  Chapter  IV. 

Sprague:  Comparison  of  Motors  on  a  Thermal  Basis,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  21,  1907,  p.  702. 

References  on  Trucks  and  Suspension  of  Railway  Motors. 

Car  Builders'  Dictionary,  Waite:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  3rd  Ed.,  1908. 

Uebelacker:  Trucks  for  Interurban  Service,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  4,  1902. 

Heckler:  Foundation  Brake-gear  Design  for  Electric  Cars,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  30,  1907. 

Dodds:  On  Weight  Distribution  and  Suspension,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 

Gough:  Distribution  of  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  6,  1906. 

Taylor:  Brake  Rigging,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  1,  19.08. 

Heron:  Relation  of  Car  Length,  Weight,  Truck  Centers,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  8,  1908. 

Vauclain:  Electric  Motor  and  Trailer  Trucks,  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  4,  1908. 

Eaton:  Motor  Mounting,  etc.,  Electric  Journal,  Oct.,  Nov.,  Dec.,  1910. 

See  description  of  Flexible  Coupling  between  Motor  Sleeve  and  Driver  Axle,  on 

Fayet-Chamonix  Motor-cars,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  7,  1903,  p.  206. 

See  "Motor-car  Trains"  for  Cars  and  Trucks;  see  "'Descriptions  of  Locomotives." 

References  on  Mechanical  Gearing. 

Litchfield:  Gearing,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Dec.,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

Huffman:  Gearing,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  29,  1904. 

HOBART:  "Gear  Ratio,"  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  p.  82. 

Storer:  Gear  Ratios,  Elec.  Journal,  Sept.,  1908. 

Williams:  Ry.  Motors,  Gears,  and  Pinions,  E.  R.  J.,  July  2,  1910. 

Eaton:  Manufacture  of  Gears,  G.  E.  Review,  June,  1911. 

References  on  Electrical  Construction  and  Windings. 

Data  on  Motors,  Commutators,  Rheostats,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  14,  1907,  p.  1138. 
Diagrams  of  A.  E.  G.  Windings  and  Connections,  E.  W.,  July  21,  1910,  p.  146 
Windings  of  Armatures,  E.  T.  W.,  Feb.  20,  1909. 
Windings  of  Fields.  Electric  Journal,  Sept.,  1904. 
Valatins'  Data  on  Railway  Motors,  E.  W.,  Nov.  18,  1905. 
Webster:  Railway  Motor  Construction,  Elec.  Journal,  Feb.,  1906. 
Jordon:  Winding  of  Direct-current  Armatures,  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1906. 
Dodd:  Mechanical  Aids  to  Commutation,  Elec.  Journal,  May,  1906. 
Robertson:  Winding  a  Ry.  Motor  Armature,  Elec.  Journal,  June,  1904. 
Wayne:  Railway  Motor  Windings,  Elec.  Journal,  July,  1904. 
Davis:  Railway  Motor  Construction,  Elec.  Journal,  Oct.,  1910. 

References  on  Choice  of  Cycles. 

Scott,  C.  F. :  Electric  Journal,  March,  1907. 
Stillwell:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907. 


222  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Elec.  Zeit:  Data  on,  July  15,  1909. 

Armstrong:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907. 

Storer:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907;  S.  R.  J.,  June  21,  1907. 

Lamme:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  10,  1908,  p.  27;  Feb.,  1908,  p.  148,  June,  1908. 

Slichter:  Cost  of  Equipment,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907,  p.  131. 

References  on  Speed-torque  Characteristics. 

PARSHALL  AND  HOBART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  Chapter  IV. 

STEINMETZ:  "Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering,"  3rd  Ed.,  p.  287. 

Steinmetz:  Speed-torque  Characteristics  of  A.  C.  and  D.  C.  Motors  in  Railway  Work, 

A.  I.  E.  E.,  Sept.  26,  1902,  p.  31;  Sept.  14,  1904,  p.  624;  Repulsion  Motor 

Curves,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  29,  1904. 
Alexanderson :  on  G.  E.  Series  Repulsion  Motor  of  1908,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  10,  1908, 

pp.  1-42. 

Slichter:  Characteristics  of  Repulsion  Motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1904. 
Sprague:  Motor  Characteristics,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907,  p.  702. 
Dalziel:  Speed-torque  Curves:  Institution  of  Electrical  Engineers,  April,  1910. 
Reed:  Speed-torque  Curves  of  Polyphase  Motors,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.,  1906. 
Danielson:  Three-phase  Motor  Characteristic  and  Control,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1902. 
Winter-Eichberg:  A.  E.  G.,  Characteristic  Curves,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  17,  1903. 

References  on  Control  of  Railway  Motors. 

Cooper:  Motor  Control,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1109;  Elec.  Journal,  Feb.,  1906. 
Jackson:  Single-phase  Control;  Elec.  Journal,  Sept.  and  Dec.,  1905,  p.  525  and  762. 
Dodd:  Proper  Handling  of  Controllers,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.,  1897. 
Valatin:  Three-phase  Motor  Control,  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  6,  1907,  p.  576. 
Hammer:  Valtellina  Motor  Control,  S.  R.  J.,  March  16,  1901,  p.  345. 
Hellmund:  Multi-speed  Squirrel-cage  Induction  Motors,  E.  W.,  Oct.  13,  1910. 
CROCKER  AND  ARENDT:  "Electric  Motors,  Direct-current  Series  Motors,"  part  II. 
PARSHALL  AND  HOBART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  p.  75. 

References  on  Tests  of  Railway  Motors. 

Shepardson:  Electric  Railway  Motor  Tests,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892. 
Stillwell:  Tests  of  Interboro.  N.  Y.,  Subway  Motors,  S.  R.  J.,  Mar.  21,  1903. 
Bright:  Tests  on  Single-phase  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  Nov.  and  Dec.,  1905. 
Fay,  Beach,  Cooper:  Tests  of  Railway  Motors,  Elec.  Journal,  Sept.,  Dec.,  1906. 
Edwards:  Tests  of  Locomotive  Motors,  E.  R.  J.  June  10,  1911,  p.  1011. 

References  on  Specifications  for  Railway  Motors. 

Specifications  for  Motors;  A.  S.  &I.  Ry.  Assoc.,  1908,  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  22,  1906;  Oct.  14, 

1908,  p.  1013. 

Specifications  for  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Motors,  E.  R.  J.,  June  12,  1909,  p.  1073. 
Specifications  and  standardization,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  22,  1906. 


ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  MOTORS  FOR  TRAIN  SERVICE    223 


This  page  is  reserved  for  additional  references  and  notes  on  Electric 
Railway  Motors  for  Train  Service. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Definition. 

Development. 

Motor-car  Train  Service. 

Characteristics : 

Flexibility,  acceleration  rates,  high  schedule  speed,  distribution  of  weight  and 
strains,  distribution  of  motive  power,  reliability  of  service,  similarity  of  equip- 
ment, independence,  safety,  capacity. 

Economy  of  Operation : 

Maintenance  of  ways,  maintenance  of  equipment,  wages,  fuel,  and  power, 
maintenance  per  car-mile,  total  cost  per  car-mile. 

Cost  of  Motor-car  Equipments. 

Motor-car  Versus  Locomotive -hauled  Trains. 

Motor  Cars  on  Trains  Versus  Single  Motor  Cars. 

Arrangement  of  Motor  Cars  and  Coaches  in  Trains. 

Control  of  Multiple -unit  Trains  and  Locomotives. 

Technical  Descriptions  of  Motor  Cars : 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River;  Long  Island-Pennsylvania;  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford;  Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend;  Valtcllina 
Railway  of  Italy. 

Installations  on  Railways.     Tables : 

Direct-current,  three-phase,  single-phaso 

Literature. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

MOTOR-CAR   TRAINS. 

DEFINITION. 

A  motor-car  train  is  defined  as  a  group  of  mechanically  connected 
cars  equipped  with  and  propelled  by  electric  motors  under  some  or  all 
of  the  cars  of  the  train.  It  is  generally  controlled  by  an  operator, 
at  the  head  of  the  train,  on  the  multiple-unit  plan  of  secondary  control. 

THE  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  development  shows  that,  since  1885,  single-truck  motor  cars 
frequently  have  hauled  light  trailers  for-  heavy  morning  and  evening 
street-car  service.  Interurban  and  suburban  traffic  required  a  double- 
truck  car.  At  first  there  was  one  50-h.  p.  motor  on  each  truck;  but 
the  weight  on  the  drivers  was  not  sufficient,  and  the  wheels  slipped, 
causing  a  waste  of  power  and  also  of  time.  Four-motor  equipments 
were  then  adopted,  about  1898-1900.  The  limit  in  the  seating  capacity 
of  a  suburban  car  was  soon  reached,  because,  when  the  car  was  over 


FIG.  51. — METROPOLITAN  ELEVATED  RAILWAY,  CHICAGO,  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 

55  feet  long  it  could  not  be  turned  on  a  short  radius  curve  at  a  street 
intersection.  Two-car  trains,  a  motor  and  a  coach,  or  two  motor  cars, 
operated  by  one  motorman  and  one  conductor  for  heavy  traffic  was  an 
economic  development  which  soon  followed;  but  city  councils  generally 
prohibited  the  use  of  an  interurban  2-car  train  on  city  streets;  and  trains 
15  225 


226          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

•% 

of  2,  3,  and  4  cars  were  compelled  to  use  a  private  right-of-way,  within 
the  city  limits. 

Locomotive  cars,  loaded  with  passengers,  hauled  trains  at  Chicago 
for  the  Columbian  Exposition,  in  1893,  and  for  the  Metropolitan  West 
Side  Elevated  Railroad  in  1895.  The  plan  was  not  satisfactory  because 
the  locomotives  did  not  have  the  tractive  effort  which  is  required  for 
rapid  acceleration.  The  dead  weight  was  then  increased,  and  the  tractive 
effort  and  motor  capacity  were  made  sufficient  for  a  long  train,  but 
were  too  great  for  shorter  trains.  The  plan  was  neither  flexible  nor 


FIG.   52. — BOSTON  ELEVATED  RAILWAY  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 
Car  body  length,  60  feet.     Seating  capacity,  64  passengers.     Weight,  54  tons. 

economical.  The  electric  locomotive  cars  for  train  haulage  gave  way 
to  the  motor-car  train  when,  about  1898,  a  practical  control  scheme 
was  perfected. 

Economy  in  wages  and  power,  high-schedule  speed,  and  safety 
soon  required  that  cars  in  trains  be  hauled  on  a  private  right-of-way. 
Clean  rails  on  the  right-of-way,  and  the  greatly  reduced  air  resistance 
per  ton  when  cars  ran  in  trains,  decreased  the  power  required,  and  there 
was  ample  tractive  effort  and  speed  with  only  two  motors  per  car. 
Simplicity  and  maintenance  caused  the  location  of  the  two  motors  on 
one  truck.  Steam  railroads,  when  they  first  adopted  electric  power  for 
suburban  train  service,  simply  equipped  each  passenger  coach  with 
two  electric  motors  on  one  new  truck. 

MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN  SERVICE. 

Electric  locomotives  are  used  for  freight  haulage,  switching  service, 
thru  passenger  service,  and  for  passenger  terminals. 

Motor-car  passenger  trains  are  in  general  use  for  all  elevated  rail- 
ways; underground  and  tube  railways;  and  for  heavy  suburban  trains  on 
a  private  right-of-way. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


227 


FIG.  53. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD  MOTOR-CAR  AND  TRUCK. 

Truck  weight  8  tons.     "Wheel  base  7  feet.     Wheels  36  inches.     Swinging  bolster  supported  by  double 

elliptic  springs.     Truck  frame  supported  from  semi-elliptic  springs  over  the  journal  boxes  by 

spring  hangers. 


228 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motor-cars  in  local  freight  trains  are  a  recent  and  a  very  important 
commercial  development.  For  example: 

North-Eastern  Railway  of  England  uses  multiple-unit  cars  for 
freight  service.  Each  car  is  55  feet  long,  has  four  125-h.p.  motors,  and 
handles  luggage,  parcels,  and  fish.  These  cars  are  coupled  into  either 
an  electric-  or  steam-driven  train. 

Paris-Orleans  Railway  uses  heavy  motor  cars,  of  the  baggage-car 
type,  loaded  with  supplies  and  high-grade  freight,  to  haul  trains. 


FIG.  54. — HUDSON  AND  MANHATTEN  RAILROAD  MOTOR  CAR. 
Length  48  feet;  seats  44;  weight  35  tons;  builder,  Pressed  Steel  Car  Company. 

Many  American  railways  now  employ  motor-cars  in  trains  to  haul 
ordinary  freight,  baggage,  building  material,  and  ore.  Special  motor 
cars,  which  carry  theatrical  scenery,  express,  milk,  fruit,  etc.,  are  used 
in  a  train,  or  to  haul  coaches  in  local  service. 

New  York  Central  Railroad  for  its  New  York  terminal  service 
uses  47  electric  locomotives,  of  2200  h.p.  each,  while  there  are  137 
motor  cars,  of  480  h.p.  each.  These  motor  cars  haul  63  coaches.  Each 
motor  car  weighs  53  tons  and  each  coach  weighs  41  tons.  The  motor 
capacity  of  each  motor-car  train  exceeds  the  motor  capacity  of  each 
locomotive.  In  1908  the  locomotive  mileage  was  1,000,000  while  the 
motor-car  mileage  was  3,500,000.  The  importance  of  the  motor-car 
train  service  is  at  once  recognized. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

The  characteristics  of  electric  motor-car  trains  are,  in  part,  identical 
with  those  for  electric  locomotives.  In  addition,  other  characteristics 
are  those  noted  in  the  following  ten  headings: 

1.  Flexibility  is  the  most  important  feature,  as  is  shown  in  operation. 
Cars  are  quickly  added  to  or  taken  from  trains  to  suit  the  volume  of 
traffic.  Single  motor  cars  may  be  attached  for  the  inbound  trip  at  any 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  229 

terminal,  junction,  or  branch;  on  the  outbound  trip,  the  train  may  be 
split  up,  and  single  cars  detached  for  the  branch  line.  Express  or 
passenger  cars  may  even  be  cut  off,  or  put  on  the  rear  end  of  a  train, 
near  any  siding  or  station,  without  stopping  the  train,  when  each  car 
or  group  of  cars  has  its  independent  motive  power  equipment. 

This  plan  to  serve  the  station  without  delaying  the  train  by  a  stop,  now  in  prac- 
tice on  many  steam  passenger  trains  in  England,  saves  much  time,  and  also  the  energy 
required  to  stop  the  entire  train;  but  it  is  somewhat  dangerous  without  an  independ- 
ent source  of  motive  power  on  the  cars  which  are  to  be  cut  on  or  off. 

Flexibility  in  operation  reduces  the  dead  mileage.  It  allows  that 
concentration  of  car  movement  so  often  desired.  Changes  are  made 
with  dispatch.  Motor  cars  or  trains  may  be  added  to  or  taken  from  the 
schedule;  yet  both  the  speed  and  economy  are  maintained.  This  is 
not  possible  with  the  overloaded  or  underloaded  steam  locomotive- 
hauled  train. 

2.  Acceleration  rates  are  rapid  and  uniform  in  practice.  The  ac- 
celeration rate  used  with  electric  power  was  one  of  the  first  great  advan- 
tages which  attracted  the  attention  of  the  traveling  public.  Schedules 
for  train  service  seldom  call  for  the  high  rates  of  acceleration  which  are 
possible.  American  electric  roads  use  rates  of  1.2  to  1.6  m.p.h.p.s. 

Steam  railroad  trains  cannot  gain  speed  as  rapidly  as  electric  motor- 
car trains,  because  high  rates  of  acceleration  require  an  enormous  weight 
on  drivers,  and  a  large  amount  of  energy.  The  use  of  heavy  engines, 
and  steam  at  long  cut-offs,  in  frequent  stop  service,  is  expensive. 

The  reasons  for  high  acceleration  of  motor-car  trains  are: 

a.  Weight   of  the  motor-car  train  is  on  the  drivers  to  a  great  ex- 
tent.    A  drawbar  pull  is  provided  which  is  ample,  and  proportional  to 
the  weight  and  length  of  the  train.     The  slipping  of  drivers  is  avoided. 
The  fastest  car  movement  is  possible  with  the  greatest  percentage  of 
weight  on  the  drivers;  and  this  may  be  4  to  6  times  greater  than  when 
locomotives  are  used. 

b.  Motive  power  for  the  train  is  increased  gradually,  with  the  varying 
length,  and  number  of  cars  in  the  train.     This  feature  provides  for  a 
constant  acceleration  rate,  yet  there  is  absolute  freedom  in  arranging 
train  intervals  and  schedules  for  rapid  transit  and  for  changes  in  traffic. 

c.  Capacity  from  the  central  power  station  is  fully  sufficient  to  meet 
the  requirements  for  rapid  train  acceleration. 

d.  Energy  required  for  propulsion  of  motor-car  trains  at  a  given 
schedule  is  least  when  they  are  started  and  stopped  at  the  maximum 
rate  of  acceleration  and  retardation.     This  is  because,  first,  the    maxi- 
mum speed  needed  is  less  with  a  high  acceleration  which  saves  a  small 
amount  in   train   resistance,  and,  second,  the   speed  at  the   beginning 
of  braking  is  less  and,  consequently,  less  energy  is  absorbed  and  lost 


230 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


in  braking.  Economy  requires  that  electric  trains  making  frequent 
stops  be  equipped  for  starting  and  stopping  as  rapidly  as  possible  and 
that  train  coasting  be  utilized.  This  requires  the  highest  rate  of  ac- 
celeration, the  greatest  drawbar  pull  per  ton  of  train  weight,  and  that 
the  motive  power  be  placed  at  intervals  thruout  the  train. 


DRAWBAR  PULL  ON  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 

AS  USED  ON  MANHATTAN  ELEVATED  RAILROAD,  NEW  YORK,  AND  IN 

HEAVY  ELECTRIC  TRAIN  SERVICE  IN  MANY  LOCATIONS. 


No.  of 

Motor 

Drawbar 

Drawbar 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Drawbar 

Drawbar 

Ratio  of 

cars 
per 
train. 

cars 
per 
train. 

pull  per 
train 
elec. 

p^ill  per 
train 
steam. 

elec. 
equip, 
(tons). 

steam 
locos. 

(tons). 

of 
train 
elec. 

of 
train 
steam. 

pull  per 
ton 
elec. 

pull  per 
ton 
steam. 

drawbar 
pulls 
per  ton. 

3 

2 

27,000 

12,000 

14 

24 

74 

84 

365 

143 

2.5 

4 

3 

40,500 

12,000 

21 

24 

101 

104 

401 

115 

3.5 

5 
6 

7 

4 
4 

4 

54,000 
54,000 
54,000 

12,000 
12,000 
12,000 

28 
28 
28 

24 
24 
24 

128 

148 
168 

124 
144 
164 

422 
366 
329 

97 
83 
73 

4'.  3 

4.4 
4.5 

3 

2 

51,000 

50,000 

32 

100 

137 

205 

372 

244 

1.5 

4 

2 

51,000 

50,000 

32 

100 

172 

240 

296 

209 

1.4 

5 
6 

3 
4 

76,500 
102,000 

50,000 
50,000 

48 
64 

100 
100 

223 
274 

275 
310 

343 
272 

182 
161 

1.9 

1.7 

7 

4 

102,000 

50,000 

64 

100 

309 

345 

330 

145 

2.3 

8 

5 

127,500 

50,000 

90 

100 

360 

370 

344 

135 

2.5 

9 

5 

127,500 

50,000 

90 

100 

395 

405 

315 

124 

2.5 

Manhattan  elevated  coaches  weigh  only  20  tons.  The  second  set  of  figures, 
wherein  the  coaches  weigh  35  tons,  should  be  use  for  ordinary  train  service. 

The  difference  in  weight  is  small  except  when  there  are  few  cars  per  train. 

When  unusually  rapid  acceleration  is  required,  as  on  Hudson  and  Manhattan 
R.  R.,  all  of  the  cars  are  motor  cars.  If  few  stops  are  to  be  made,  three  motor  cars 
are  sufficient  for  a  5-  or  6-car  train. 

3.  High  schedule  speed  is  practical  because  there  is  great  drawbar 
pull  for  rapid  acceleration,  and  a  central  station  power  supply.  Ade- 
quate service  is  provided  for  the  ordinary,  congested,  morning  and 
evening  traffic,  with  frequent  stops  in  which  a  high  schedule  speed  is 
absolutely  essential.  Rapid  acceleration  to  full  speed  in  the  minimum 
time  allows  a  lower  maximum  speed. 

High  speeds,  75  miles  per  hour  or  more,  are  hard  to  attain  with 
trains  hauled  by  steam  locomotives.  Berlin-Zossen  electric  passenger 
cars  repeatedly  attained  a  speed  of  125  m.  p.  h.;  an  interesting  record. 
The  high  speed  which  is  possible  with  electric  power  exceeds  that  which 
can  be  obtained  safely  from  a  locomotive  having  reciprocating  effort 
and  unbalanced  motion. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  231 

"The  power  increases  at  a  higher  ratio  than  the  square  of  the  speed  at  higher 
speeds,  and  it  would  be  necessary  to  use  steam  locomotives  of  such  large  dimensions 
that  a  large  part  of  the  motive  power  would  be  used  in  driving  them  alone,  and  thus 
the  service  could  not  be  commercially  practicable.  The  steam  locomotive  has  there- 
fore not  been  considered  in  these  projects  for  the  high-speed  railway,  and  electricity 
has  been  provided  as  motive  power  for  the  hauling  of  trains." 

4.  Distribution  of  weight  of  the  train  on  the  rail  is  excellent.     This 
decreases  the  intensity  of  pressure  and  of  strains  by  distributing  them 
along  the  roadbed,  bridge,  or  elevated  structure.     Distributed  weights 
and  strains  decrease  the  first  cost  of  the  road  and  the  cost  of  track  main- 
tenance, and  increase  the  safety  in  operation.     Total  weights  of  motor- 
car and  steam  locomotive  hauled  trains  were  compared  in  Chapter  III; 
and  motor-car  and  electric  locomotive  hauled  trains  in  the  last  table. 

5.  Distribution  of  motive  power  thruout  the  train  is  ideal,  in  practical 
operation.     Power  is  not  concentrated  in  one  or  two  locomotives  at  the 
head  of  the  train.     Strains  transmitted  to  the  supporting  structures,  along 
the  car  bodies,  and  thru  the  couplers  are  reduced.     Capacity  in  trans- 
portation can  thus  be  a  maximum. 

6.  Reliability  of  motor-car  service  must  be  admitted.    The  duplication 
of  motors  provides  for  a  reserve  in  case  of  accident  to  individual  motors. 
Controllers  are  complicated,  but  work  remarkably  well  in  practice. 

Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Company,  of  New  York  City,  operated  119  miles  of 
elevated  track  and  80  miles  of  subway  track,  and  in  1907  maintained  1439  motor  cars  and 
994  trailers.  It  was  necessary  for  each  car  to  run  on  an  average  4000  miles  per  month, 
and  to  make  10,000  stops  and  starts  during  that  time.  Under  these  conditions,  the 
average  car  mileage  per  delay  due  to  electrical  and  mechanical  causes  was  32,642  in 
the  case  of  the  subway  and  41,792  in  the  case  of  the  elevated  road. 

New  York  Central  electrical  zone  records  for  1908  showed  that  the  multiple- 
unit  cars  traversed  3,500,000  miles  with  train  delays  of  830  minutes,  about  equally 
divided  between  electrical  and  mechanical  causes.  Katte,  to  New  York  Railroad 
Club,  March  19,  1909. 

Hudson  and  Manhattan  Railroad  trains  between  New  York  and  New  Jersey, 
in  March,  1911,  ran  112,000  car-miles  per  delay  of  1  minute.  The  service  is  severe, 
with  a  recognized  disadvantage  of  underground  operation,  a  headway  during  rush 
hours  of  90  seconds,  more  passengers  per  car-mile  than  any  rapid-transit  line,  numerous 
sharp  curves,  and  grades  from  2  to  4  1/2  per  cent.  The  monthly  car  mileage  exceeds 
600,000. 

Performances  of  this  kind  are  unparalleled  in  steam  transportation, 
and  they  deserve  consideration  and  study. 

7.  Similarity  and  duplication  in  equipment  is  an  asset  from  an  invest- 
ment and  from  an  operating  standpoint. 

8.  Independence  of  each  car  is  a  most  valuable  physical  advantage, 
to  be  utilized  in  varying  the  schedule,  to  cut  out  the  dead  mileage,  to 
split  at  junctions,  etc. 


232 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


9.  Safety  is  assured  in  the  operation  of  motor-car  trains.     The  sub- 
ject as  detailed  under  "  Characteristics  of  Electric  Locomotives/'  follows 


FIG.  55. — WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE  RAILROAD  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 

Altantic  City-Cam  den,  New  Jersey. 
Direct-current,  third-rail  equipment,  1906. 


FIG.  56. — MOTOR-CAR  TRUCK  USED  BY  WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE  RAIUIOAD. 
Baldwin  truck  and  General  Electric  240-h.  p.  motors. 

a.  Design  of  electric  motors  decreases  strains  and  pounding. 

b.  Control  circuits  prevent  accidents. 

c.  Automatic  devices  on  controller  safeguard  operation. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


233 


d.  Speed  is  increased  with  safety,  by  the  design  of  motors. 
Speed  may  be  limited  by  design  or  by  control  devices. 

e.  Wheel  bases  which  are  long  and  rigid  are  avoided. 


FIG.  57. — WEST  SHORE  RAILROAD  THREE-CAR  TRAIN. 
Third-rail  road,  Syracuse  to  Utica,  N.  Y. 

f.  Tests  of  equipment  are  facilitated  and  are  rigid. 

g.  Regeneration  of  energy  in  braking  prevents  accidents, 
h.     Air  brakes  are  used  in  tunnels  with  safety. 


FIG.  58. — PITTSBURG,  HARMONY,  BUTLER  &  NEW  CASTLE  TWO-CAR  TRAIN. 
1200-volt,  direct-current  railway. 


i.      Boilers  and  reciprocating  mechanism  are  avoided, 
j.      Exhaust  steam  and  smoke  are  absent, 
k.     Fire  risk  to  property  is  decreased. 


234 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


1.      Enginemen  are  not  distracted  with  other  duties, 
m.    Meters  are  used  to  assist  in  intelligent  operation, 
n.     Weights  are  not  excessive,  and  are  distributed. 


FIG.  59. — MARYLAND   ELECTRIC  RAILWAY.     BALTIMORE  AND  ANNAPOLIS  SHORT  LINE   MOTOR  CAR. 

Single-phase  6600- volt  railway. 


FlG.    60. PlTTSBURG    AND     BuTLER    MOTOR-CAR    TRAIN. 

Single-phase  6600-volt  railway. 

A  recent  practice  in  motor-car  train  service  is  to  place  a  steel  baggage 
car  at  the  head  of  each  passenger  train,  so  that,  in  case  of  collision  or 
derailment,  the  safety  to  life  will  be  increased. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


235 


10.  Capacity  is  a  prime  characteristic  of  motor-car  trains.  The 
subject  was  treated  in  Chapter  III,  " Advantages  of  Electric  Traction." 
In  addition: 


FIG.  61. — ERIE  RAILROAD.     ROCHESTER  DIVISION  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 


FIG.  62. — ROCK  ISLAND  SOUTHERN  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 

Motive  power  from  the  central  station  is  available  for  the  ordinary 
6-  to  10-car  train,  the  power  supplied  to  which  is  usually  larger  than  that 
required  by  the  electric  locomotive  hauled  train.  Rapid  acceleration, 
which  is  so  often  desired,  requires  abundant  motive  power. 


236 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Terminal  capacity  is  increased  by  more  efficient  train  movements, 
absence  of  the  locomotive  turning,  and  rapid  acceleration. 

ECONOMY  OF  OPERATION. 

Economy  in  transportation  is  of  vital  importance.  It  requires  ability 
to  furnish  capacity,  speed,  and  unexcelled  service;  to  induce  traffic,  to 
prevent  complaint,  to  get  business  in  competition,  and  to  hold  it,  are  all 
advantageous,  because  business  should  be  developed  on  a  large  scale  to 
be  most  profitable. 


FIG.  63. — SALT  LAKE  AND  ODGEN  RAILWAY  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 

Economy  of  operation  with  electric  motor-car  trains  is  higher  than 
with  any  other  scheme  of  operation  yet  offered  in  railroading.  This 
has  been  proved  by  results,  and  by  use  of  such  trains  for  the  bulk  of 
the  suburban  passenger  train  service  from  many  large  cities. 

The  reasons  for  economy  are  grouped  as  follows: 

1.  Maintenance  of  ways  and  structures  is  less  because  of  the  distribu- 
tion of  train  weight,  stresses,  and  motive  power. 

2.  Maintenance  of  equipment  is  a  minimum  because  of  simplicity, 
lower  cost  of  inspection,  higher  mileage,  and  higher  rates  of  acceleration 
which  allow  a  lower  maximum  speed. 

For  comparison, — New  York  Subway  in  1909  had  735  motor  cars 
each  equipped  with  two  240-h.p.  motors,  or  an  equipment  of  350,000 
h.p.  This  would  be  equivalent  to  about  350  locomotives  of  1000  h.p. 
each.  Compare  the  small  Interborough  repair,  shop  in  use  at  the  end  of 
its  line  with  the  tools,  machinery  and  the  men,  the  round  houses,  shop 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  237 

equipment,  washing  plants,  cinder  pits,  turn  tables,  etc.,  which  would 
be  required  for  350  steam  locomotives. 

Terminal  charges  would  cost  about  $1.50  per  steam  locomotive,  as 
compared  with  22  cents  per  motor  car.  Maintenance  and  repairs  in 
the  two  cases  would  show  a  cost  from  $2250  to  $2750  per  year  per  steam 
locomotive,  and  from  $100  to  $120  per  year  for  a  400-h.p.  motor-car 
equipment;  or,  including  the  steam  and  electric  power  plant,  the  total 
cost  per  motor-car  is  from  $225  to  $275  per  car  per  year. 

Motor  inspection  and  overhaul  are  made  after  every  1200  to  1500  miles. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  records  show  that  while  the  road  was 
operated  by  steam  until  1906,  the  cost  of  maintenance  was  4.2  cents 
per  train-mile,  while  with  electric  traction  the  cost  is  2.1  cents  per  train- 
mile.  Its  data  also  show, — for  steam  operation  a  cost  of  .39  cent  per 
car-mile;  for  electric  operation  a  cost  of  .28  cent  per  car-mile.  Had 
the  weight  and  speed  not  been  increased  with  electric  traction,  the 
results  would  have  been  .20  cent  per  car-mile.  Still  well. 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  Company,  which  operates  the  electric 
railway  and  interurban  lines  in  and  between  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  Still- 
water,  and  Minnetonka,  378  miles  of  track,  with  eight  hundred  23-ton 
48-foot  motor-cars,  and  21  freight  motor  cars,  each  equipped  with  240- 
to  300-h.p.  per  car,  shows  the  following: 

"With  a  passenger  car  mileage  of  over  2,000,000  miles  per  month,  we  are  doing 
very  little  rewinding  of  either  armatures  or  fields.  We  are  not  having  any  trouble  on 
account  of  motors  overheating.  During  the  year  1909,  we  have  not  averaged  two 
men  working  as  winders  per  day  and  a  great  many  days  we  have  not  had  a  single 
man  working  on  armature  windings."  J.  W.  Smith,  Master  Mechanic.  E.  T.  W., 
VI,  32. 

3.  Wages  are  saved  in  the  operation  of  trains  for  many  reasons. 

The  rate  paid  per  hour  is  lower  because  the  work  is  simple,  more 
automatic,  and  less  dangerous.  The  rate  now  paid  by  the  New  York 
Central,  38.5  cents  per  hour,  is  the  same  for  handling  either  electric 
or  steam  trains;  yet  on  less  important  traffic  the  wages  are  reduced. 

One  engineman  or  motorman  is  used  in  place  of  two  men,  to  hand  e 
a  train  of  4  to  12  motor  cars. 

Heavier  trains  are  hauled  with  electric  power.  The  increased  weight 
and  length  make  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  wages  per  ton-mile,  per  train- 
mile,  and  per  passenger-mile. 

Faster  tra:ns  are  hauVd  with  the  available  capacity,  which  re- 
duces the  trainmen's  wages  per  passenger  carried,  or  per  ton  of  freight 
hauled.  See  table  on  "Schedule  Speed  of  Trains,  Increased  by  Elec- 
tric Traction/'  in  Chapter  XI. 

Maintenance  and  inspection  are  greatly  decreased.  These  and  other 
reasons  have  been  detailed  in  Chapter  III  under  "Wages." 


238 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


4.  Fuel  and  power  are  saved  in  operation  as  is  explained  in  Chapters 
III  and  VI.  Four  reasons  for  the  saving  are,  briefly, 

Power  is  produced,  and  utilized  efficiently. 

Dead  weight  is  reduced. 

Fuel  is  used  advantageously,  and  the  total  cost  of  fuel  is  reduced 
fully  50  per  cent,  in  ordinary  cases. 

Water  power  is  often  available  to  reduce  the  costs. 


FIG.  64. — SPOKANE  AND  INLAND  EMPIRE  RAILROAD  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 
The  6600-volt,  25-cycle  system.      Four  100-h.p.  motors  per  42-ton  motor  car. 


FIG.  65. — LONDON,   BRIGHTON  AND  SOUTH  COAST  RAILWAY  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 
The  6600-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase  system.     Four  115-h.  p.  motors  per  motor  car;  two  55-ton 
motor  cars  ond  one  35-ton  coach  per  three-car  train.     Four  175-h.  p.  motors  per  motor  car;  two  60- 
ton  motor  cars  and  two  35-ton  coaches  per  four-car  train. 

5.  Cost  of  maintenance  and  total  cost  of  operation  must  be  placed 
on  a  comparable  basis,  i.  e.,  per  car-mile,  ton-mile,  seat-mile,  etc.,  rather 
than  per  train-mile.  Comparisons  with  similar  tables  on  the  maintenance 
cost  of  electric  locomotives  are  valuable  where  the  two  classes  of  service 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


239 


are  worked  together.     Operating  cost  for  motor-car  trains  is  presented 
quantitatively  in  the  tables  which  follow. 


MAINTENANCE  EXPENSE  OF  MOTORS  PER  CAR-MILE. 


Ele 

Name  of  railway. 
equ 

;c.         Motor    i     ,   , 
Reference  or  authority, 
ip.          car. 

Boston  Elevated  

1.846     Mass.  R.  R.  Commission. 

Boston  &  Worcester  3.00       Annual  report. 
Manhattan  Elevated                 .                   0  25^-          214 

New  York  Subway  2< 

5            1.32       E.  R.  J.,  March  28,  1908. 
5            1.63       
1  00 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit,  Elev  1( 
New  York  Central  
Long  Island  R    R                                              7( 

)        Gibbs,  1910. 
i             1.01        Wood,  1911. 
1  .  78       Annual  Report,  1909. 
I         E.R.  J.,May,  1911,  p.  913. 
t         
)            1.78       Annual  Report,  1909. 
2.20       Annual  Report,  1909. 
2.00       Annual  Report,  1909. 
2.90       Annual  Report,  1909. 
) 

West  Jersey  <fe  Seashore  6f 
Philadelphia  Rapid  Transit  
Washington,  Bait.  &  Annapolis  2- 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley  8^ 
Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton  3t 
Montreal  Terminal  Ry  
Hudson  Valley 

Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  
Buffalo  &  Lockport  .             .                            7( 

Michigan  United 

1.00       Annual  Report,  1909. 
>         Renshaw,  June,  1910. 
...       2.  17       Mass.  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
1  .  49       Street,  to    New  England 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati  7; 
Sixty  street  rys  
Twenty  heavy  electric  rys  

Twenty  electric  heavy  ry.  power  plant  ?  .... 
Scioto  Valley  Traction  
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  
Chicago  &  Oak  Park  
Metropolitan  Elevated  
Northwestern  Elevated  .' 
South  Side  Elevated  
Minneapolis  &  St.  Paul  Suburban  
Spokane  &  Inland 

...       2.29          R.  R.  Club,  1904. 
1.91       Annual  Report,  1909. 
...       1.38       111.  R.  R,  Com.,  1908. 
...       1.02       111.  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
...       1.55       111.  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
...       1.90       111.  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
...       1.41        111.  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
...       1  .40       Minn.  R.  R.  Com.,  1909. 
3  08       Annual  Report    1909 

Central  California  Traction,  1200  volts  
Havana  Electric  Ry  
Ordinary  electric  locomotive  per  mile  
Ordinary  steam  locomotive  per  mile  

...       2.01        E..R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909. 
...       2.84       Annual  Report,  1909. 
...       5.00       See  data,  Chapter  VII. 
8.00       See  data,  Chapter  II. 

Some  of  the  reports  on  electric  equipment  are  per  electric-car  mile,  and  appar- 
ently others  are  per  motor-car  mile. 

New  York  Subway  motor  cars  are  overhauled  every  65,000  miles.  Inspection 
every  1200  miles  costs  0.5  cent  per  car-mile. 

Long  Island  Railroad  motor  cars  are  overhauled  every  60,000  car-miles.  Inspec- 
tion every  100  car-miles  costs  0.61  cent  per  car-mile.  The  cost  of  the  same  item 
for  a  steam  train  is  1.14  cents. 


240          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE  EXPENSE  OF  ELECTRIC  CARS  PER  CAR-MILE. 


Name  of  railroad. 

No.  of 
motor 
cars. 

No.  of 
electric 
cars. 

Electric  car 
repairs  and 
renewals. 

Electric 
car 
mileage. 

Cost  per 
car-mile. 
Cents. 

New  York  Central  

137 

200 

$33,897 

3,500,000 

0.96 

Pennsylvania-Long  Island.  .  :  .  . 

132 

219 

65,632 

4,945,719 

1.34 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore 

93 

93 

4,552,531 

1.01 

New  York  Subway   1907 

837 

44,000,000 

Paris  Subway,  1907  .    . 

951 

34,000,000 

Erie  R   R   (1909) 

6 

12 

11,286 

304,666 

3.70 

Norfolk  &  Southern 

18 

37 

6838 

Boston  &  Maine  

12 

12 

14,660 

746,857 

1.90 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazleton  

6 

7 

10,877 

310,647 

3.50 

Lackawanna  &  \Vyoming  Val 

35 

36 

74  375 

Scioto  Valley 

17 

17 

23,770 

1,164,821 

2.04 

Northwestern  Elevated  

288 

388 

149,593 

12,550,306 

1.20 

Chicago  &  Milwaukee 

54 

78 

39,311 

2,878,864 

1.38 

Rock  Island  Southern 

8 

232,099 

1.32 

Waterloo,  Cedar  F.  &  Northern  . 

8,488 

550,897 

1.54 

Colorado  &  Southern 

10 

20 

2  840 

Spokane  &  Inland  

25 

35 

118,855 

3,157,401 

2.66 

London  Underground 

383 

908 

1  00 

Data  for  the  first  roads  listed  are  from  special  I.  S.  C.  C.  reports,  for  1908,  1909  or 
1910;  other  data  are  from  annual  reports  of  the  railroad  companies,  and  from  other 
sources. 

Cost  of  maintenance  does  not  include  depreciation  or  superintendence.  Main- 
tenance expense  varies  with  the  number  of  cars  operated,  and  with  the  number  of 
stops  per  mile. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


241 


TOTAL  OPERATING  EXPENSE  OF  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  PER  CAR-MILE. 
Includes  Maintenance  and  Repairs,  and  all  Items  Except  Fixed  Charges. 


Name  of  railway. 


Cost  per 
car-mile 
electric. 


Cost  per 
car-mile 
steam. 


Boston  Elevated 

The  Connecticut  Company 

Manhattan  Elevated 

Interborough  Subway 

Brooklyn    Rapid    Transit,   Ele. 

New  York  Central 

Hudson  &  Manhattan 

Long  Island  R.  R 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton 

Wash.,  Bait.  &  Annapolis 

Erie  R.  R 

Michigan  United 

Indiana  interurbans 

Lake  Shore  Electric 

Fifty-five  electric  roads 

Scioto  Valley  Traction 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago 

Chicago  &  Oak  Park  Elevated..  . 
Metropolitan  Elevated,  Chicago . 
Northwestern  Elevated,  Chicago. 

South  Side  Elevated 

Lake  Street  Elevated 

Rock  Island  Southern 

Illinois  Traction  Company 

Milwaukee  Northern 

Waterloo,  Cedar  F.  &  Northern. 

Ft.  Dodge,  Des  M.  &  So 

Minneapolis  &  St.  Paul  Suburb. 

Spokane  &  Inland 

Central  California  Traction 

Mersey  Ry.,  England 

Underground  Electric,  London. . 


$.1850 
.1556 
.1005 
.0974 
.1607 
.1858 
.1653 
.1780 
/  .2046 
\  .1819 
.1120 
.1900 
.1800 
.1190 
.1580 
.1548 
.1320 
.1660 
.1510 
.1100 
.1070 
.0910 
.1100 
.1170 
.1360 
.1970 
.1610 
.1980 
.2067 
.1750 
.2670 
.1610 
.1260 
.1950 


3900 


.2795 
.2230 
.2500 


Reference,  notes  or 
authority. 


Annual  Report. 
Annual  Report. 
Public  Service  Com. 


.1060 
.1174 


.2730 


Annual  Reports. 
E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  14,1911,  p.  69. 
Annual  Report,  1910. 
Gibbs.  144-ton  trains,  1908. 
Gibbs.  163-ton  trains,  1908. 
Wood,  166-ton  train,  1910. 
Annual  Report,  1909. 
E.R.  J.,  May,  1911,  p.  913. 
Lyford.  A.  I.  E.  E.,  1908. 
Annual  Report,  1909. 
Indiana  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
Annual  Report,  1910. 
Average. 

Annual  Report,  1909. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
Illinois  R.  R,  Com.,  1908. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
Brinckerhoff.     See  p.  104. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,-  1909. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,  1909. 
Illinois  R.  R.  Com.,  1908. 
Wisconsin  R.R.  Com.,  1910. 
Annual  Report,  1909. 
Iowa  R.  R.  Com.,  1909. 
Minn.  R.  R.  Com.,  1910. 
Annual  Report,  1909. 
E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909. 
Shaw,  B.I.C.E.,  Nov.,  1909. 
Annual  report,  1908. 


Long  Island  did  not  make  a  radical  change  in  length  of  trains  when  a  simple 
substitution  was  made  from  steam  to  electric  power. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  under  steam  operation  ran  twice  as  many  cars  per  train, 
for  express  service,  usually  with  a  few  stops;  electric  trains  are  shorter,  3  to  4  cars, 
and  make  frequent  stops.     The   showing  is,  therefore,  the  more  remarkable,  since 
it  costs  decidedly  more  to  run  a  short  train  with  many  stops  than  a  thru  train. 
16 


242 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  expenses  include  power,  maintenance  of  power  plant,  transmission  lines, 
substations,  contact  lines,  cars  and  motors,  wages  of  all  operators,  traffic  and  gen- 
eral expense,  and  all  operating  expenses  of  the  railway. 

The  cost  per  car-mile  with  electric  traction  should  be  high  because  of  the  larger 
number  of  stops  per  mile,  higher  schedule  speed,  and  greater  power  per  train. 

COST  OF  MOTOR  CARS  WITH  MOTOR  EQUIPMENT. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Year 
noted. 

No.  of 

seats. 

Length 
of  car. 

Wt. 

tons. 

Motors  &  h.p. 
of  motor. 

Kind  of 
current. 

Estimated 
cost. 

Notes. 

New  Haven,  Boston 

1911 

4-150 

Alternate.. 

$30,000 

Steel. 

Boston  &  Albany.  .  . 

1911 

2-240 

Direct  .... 

17,829 

Steel. 

Boston  &  Eastern.  .  . 

1910 

55ft. 

4-200 

Direct  ;          16,850 

Boston  Elevated  .... 

1905 

33 

2-165 

Direct  

New  Haven  

1909 

76 

70 

87 

4-150 

Alternate.  .   

New  York  Central.  .  . 

1906 

68 

60 

54 

2-240 

Direct  ..  

Steel. 

West  Jersey  &   S.  S. 

1906 

58 

56 

48 

2-240 

Direct  12,214 

Wood. 

1911 

52 

2-240 

Direct  

19,500 

Steel. 

Long  Island  

1910 

52 

51 

41 

2-200 

Direct  

Steel. 

Pennsylvania  

1909 

68 

67 

75 

2-210 

Direct  18,500 

Steel. 

Interborough  

1911 

500 

510 

350 

14-240 

Direct  110,000 

Steel. 

Cost  of  converting  a  38-ton  steam  coach  to  a  motor  car,  about  $3800. 

Cost  of  cars  with  4-motor,  125-h.p.  equipment,  and  multiple-unit  control,  direct  current 
$19,000;  and  alternating  current  $24,500;  ditto  50-h.p.,  direct-current,  for  interurban  service, 
$6000;  one  truck,  $1000.  See  cost  of  steam  cars,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Sept.  30,  1910,  p.  578. 

MOTOR-CAR  VERSUS  LOCOMOTIVE-HAULED  TRAINS. 

Comparisons  of  motor-car  trains  and  locomotive  hauled  trains  show: 
Drawbar  pull  of  electric  motor-car  trains  has  been  shown  to  be  from 
1.5  to  4.5  times  greater  than  steam  locomotive-hauled  trains. 

Weight  of  a  motor-car  train  is  less  than  that  of  an  electric  locomo- 
tive hauled  train.  The  difference  amounts  to  about  44  per  cent,  for 
a  2-car  train;  30  per  cent,  for  a  3-car  train;  and  down  to  12  per  cent, 
for  6-7  8-,  and  10-car  trains.  This  is  shown  by  the  examples  below: 

COMPARISON  OF  TRAIN  WEIGHT,  ELECTRIC  AND  STEAM. 
Based  on  the  same  Tractive  Effort  and  Number  of  Seats. 


Service. 

Light  suburban. 

Heavy  railway. 

Motive   power. 

Electric 
locomotive. 

Motor-car 
trains. 

Steam    loco- 
motive. 

Motor-car 
trains. 

Wt.  of  loco,  tons  . 
Wt.  of  cars,  tons. 

92 
3(a)36,    108 

0 
3@46,    138 

165 
6@60,    360 

0 
6@75,  450 

Wt.  total,  tons  ...                    200 

138                         525 

450 

Saving  with  3  cars. 
Saving  with  2  cars. 

31%                     6  cars. 
44%                     7  cars. 

14% 
10% 

MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  243 

COMPARISON  OF  TRAIN  WEIGHTS,  ELECTRIC  AND  STEAM. 
Based  on  Ordinary  Suburban  Service. 


New   York   Central    & 
Hudson  River  R.  R. 

Steam  locomotive 
service. 

Motor-car  train 
service. 

Wt.  of  steam  locomotives,  tons.  . 
Wt   of  motor  cars,  tons 

138 

0 
4-216 

Wt.  of  coaches,  tons  

6-200 

2-  82 

Wt.  of  passengers,  tons  
Wt.  total,  tons  

12 

350 

12 
310 

. 

Weight  was  reduced  40  tons  per  train,  for  the  same  number  of  seats.  S.  R.  J., 
Nov.  4,  1905,  p.  837. 

Weight  of  motor  cars  is  increased  gradually  and  in  proportion  to  the 
train  length.  Fixed  dead  weight  of  locomotive  and  tender  are  cut  out, 
and  an  economy  is  effected  in  the  ton-mileage.  North-Eastern  Rail- 
way of  England,  which  electrified  its  steam  road  in  1904,  has  in- 
creased its  train-mileage  100  per  cent.,  yet  its  ton-mileage  has  not  been 
increased. 

Weight  distribution  is  excellent.  Shearing  and  deflecting  strains  on 
structures  are  reduced. 

Flexibility  of  motor  cars  decreases  the  cost  of  shunting  or  switching. 
Space  is  saved  in  restricted  yards. 

Acceleration  for  any  train  combination  is  the  most  rapid.  "Equal 
acceleration,  speed,  and  equality  of  work  from  each  motor  car  whatever 
the  number  of  cars  in  a  train.  "  Sprague. 

Lowest  maximum  speed  is  obtained  with  a  given  schedule  speed. 

Highest  schedule  speed  is  obtained  with  a  given  maximum  speed. 

Fuel  expenditure  per  car-mile  is  lowest  with  motor  cars. 

Cost  of  operation  is  also  lowest  with  the  motor-car  train. 

Unless  it  is  practical  to  operate  trains  with  a  fixed  number  of  coaches, 
the  motor-car  train  equipment  has  all  the  major  operating  advantages. 

Investment  for  motor  car  trains  is  greater;  but  is  compensated  by  im- 
proved facilities  for  handling  traffic  and  increased  gross  and  net  earnings. 

See  "Advantages  of  Locomotives  over  Motor-car  Trains,"  Chapter  VII. 

MOTOR  CARS  IN  TRAINS  VERSUS  SINGLE  MOTOR  CARS. 

The  proper  choice  for  a  given  service,  which  may  be  supplied  either 
by  2-  or  3-car  trains,  or  by  more  frequent  service  with  single  cars,  is 
determined  by  gross  earnings  or  traffic  productivity  and  operating 
expenses. 


244 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Traffic  may  be  attracted  by  greater  comfort  or  better  accomodations. 
For  example,  seats  may  be  offered  in  place  of  straps;  or  several  cars  per 
train  to  provide  smoother  riding  qualities. 

Economy  of  operation  is  higher  with  trains  than  with  single  cars,  per 
seat-mile  and  per  ton-mile  because: 

Wages  are  saved.     The  saving  increases  with  the  train  length. 

Power  consumption  is  greatly  decreased  because  there  is  less  friction 
per  ton.  See  " Power  Required  for  Trains." 

Maintenance  is  less  per  ton-mile  because  less  power  and  fewer  motors 
are  required  for  train  service  than  for  single  cars. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  MOTOR  CARS  AND  COACHES  IN  TRAINS. 

Arrangement  of  motor  cars  and  coaches  in  trains  is  detailed  in  the 
tabular  data  at  the  end  of  this  chapter.  One  example  is  cited: 

Long  Island  Railroad  has  23  different  types  of  local  and  express 
train  runs,  over  13  different  routes.  The  distance  between  stops  for 
local  trains  varies  between  1.6  and  1.0  miles;  and  for  express  trains,  the 
distance  between  stops  is  as  much  as  9.6  miles.  On  an  average  there 
are  3  to  4  cars  per  train. 

Motors  on  136  motor  cars  consist  of  two  200-h.  p.  direct-current 
units.  A  gear  ratio  of  2.32  is  used.  Weight  of  motor  car  is  38  to  41 
tons,  and  coaches  weigh  31  tons. 


MOTOR  CARS  PER  COACH  IN  LONG  ISLAND  R.  R.  TRAINS. 


Number  of  cars. 

Local  service. 

Express  service. 

Two-car  train                .    .  . 

Two  motor  cars  

One  motor  car. 

No  coaches 

One  coach. 

Three-car  train  

Two  motor  cars  
One  coach 

Two  motor  cars. 
One  coach. 

Four-car  train  

Three  motor  cars  

Two  motor  cars. 

One  coach. 
Three  motor  cars 

Two  coaches. 
Three  motor  cars. 

Two  coaches            

Two  coaches. 

Six-car  train 

Four  motor  cars  

Three  motor  cars. 

Seven-car  train 

Two  coaches. 
Four  motor  cars            .... 

Three  coaches. 
Four  motor  cars. 

Eight-car  train 

Three  coaches. 
Five  motor  cars   

Three  coaches. 
Four  motor  cars. 

Three  trailers             

Four  coaches. 

MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  245 

CONTROL  OF  MULTIPLE -UNIT  TRAINS  AND  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Train  control  for  electric  cars  was  systematized  in  1898.  Mr.  Frank 
J.  Sprague  should  be  given  the  credit  for  this  work,  which  was  of  greatest 
importance  in  the  history  of  electric  traction. 

In  the  early  days,  motor  cars  hauled  trailers.  Then  followed  a  period 
when  two  mechanically  coupled  motor  cars  were  required,  each  operated 
by  a  separate  motorman.  Electric  wires  running  from  car  to  car  were 
then  tried,  but  that  plan  was  expensive  and  the  space  in  a  car  for  a  con- 
troller which  could  handle  the  power  for  several  cars  was  not  available. 
Predictions  were  made  that  the  electric  locomotive  would  be  used  for 
local  trains.  When  plans  were  made  for  the  first  electric  trains  in 
Chicago,  in  1896,  the  General  Electric  engineers  and  the  Westinghouse 
engineers  reported  that  the  multiple-unit  motor-car  train  scheme  was 
impossible,  not  practical  if  it  were  possible,  and  therefore  valueless. 

With  the  assistance  of  Mr.  F.  H.  Shepard,  who  developed  the  details, 
Mr.  Sprague  perfected  his  multiple-unit  plan,  demonstrated  the  success 
of  the  scheme,  and  got  it  adopted  by  the  South  Side  Elevated  Railroad  of 
Chicago.  The  first  British  road  to  use  multiple-unit  control  was  the  Great 
Northern  and  City  Railway,  in  1904.  Elec.  World,  March  5,  1904. 
Most  of  the  electric  trains  in  America  and  Europe  are  now  operated  by 
multiple-unit  control  equipment  on  motor  cars  and  locomotives.  More 
recently,  the  apparatus  used  has  been  adopted  for  large  cars,  many  of 
which  do  not  run  in  trains. 

Multiple-unit  train  operation  is  defined  by  Sprague: 

"  A  semi-aut6matic  system  of  control  which  permits  of  the  aggregation  of  two  or 
more  transportation  units,  each  equipped  with  sufficient  power  only  to  fulfill  the 
requirements  of  that  unit,  with  means  at  two  or  more  points  on  the  unit  for  operating 
it  thru  a  secondary  control,  and  a  train  line  for  allowing  two  or  more  of  such  units, 
grouped  together  without  regard  to  end  relation,  or  sequence,  to  be  simultaneously 
operated  from  any  point  in  the  train."  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1899;  S.  R.  J.,  May  4,  1901. 

Multiple-unit  control  is  complicated,  yet  the  units  in  the  mechanism 
are  so  perfected  that,  like  those  in  a  clock,  they  form  a  reliable  aggregate. 
The  control  equipment  is  wonderfully  reliable. 

Hudson  and  Manhattan  Railroad  in  April,  1910,  ran  504,565  car-miles 
in  the  severest  motor-car  train  service  in  America;  yet  there  was  one 
delay  per  72,081  car-miles,  and  one  detention  chargeable  to  control  equip- 
ment per  168,188  car-miles. 

Train  control  is  distinguished  from  single-car  control,  as  in  the  latter 
the  switch  contacts  in  the  drum  controller  are  usually  operated  by  hand. 
In  train  control  the  contact  switches  are  placed  under  the  car  and  are 
controlled  either  by  solenoid  action  on  main-circuit  contactor  switches 
as  in  the  Sprague-General  Electric  method;  or  by  electro-magnetic  action 


246 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


on  valves,  and  compressed  air  pressure  which  closes  main-circuit  con- 
tactor switches,  as  in  the  Westinghouse  electro-pneumatic  method. 
General  Electric  control  embodies  the  Sprague  control.  A  train  cable 
which  carries  a  small  line  current  connects  the  control  circuits  thruout 
the  train.  The  contactors,  which  are  simply  heavy  switches,  are  operated 
by  power  from  this  cable.  The  line  voltage  must  exceed  one-half  the 

normal  voltage  before  the  switches 
will  operate.  The  magnetic  opera- 
tion of  the  contactor  causes  a 
quick  make  and  break  of  the  cir- 
cuit. The  control  scheme  is  posi- 
tive and  automatic.  The  rate  of 
acceleration  is  fixed  and,  with  the 
limit  devices,  a  safe,  continuous, 
and  efficient  action  is  provided, 
to  prevent  damage  to  field  and 
armature. 

The  master  controller  is  placed 
at  each  end  of  each  car.  The 
small  current  in  the  control  circuit, 
about  2  amperes  per  motor  car, 
passes  thru  the  master  controller 
to  the  several  points  along  the  train 
thru  a  10-wire  train  line. 

The  master  controller  does  not 
act  directly,  but  governs  the  opera- 
tion of  motor  controllers  or  con- 
tactors under  each  car,  which  in 
turn  control  the  rheostats,  switch- 
ing, grouping  of  motors,  parallel- 
ing, reversing,  etc.,  in  the  (inde- 
pendent) power  circuits  on  each 
car.  Energizing  the  proper  wires 
of  any  master  controller  on  the 
train  causes  the  corresponding- 
switch  contactors  to  move  simultaneously  on  all  the  motor  cars. 

Auxiliary  apparatus  for  each  motor  car  includes  switch  contactor 
groups,  cut  outs,  current  relays  to  prevent  overload,  potential  relay  to 
open  motor  circuit  in  case  of  no  voltage,  circuit  breakers,  jumpers,  etc. 
Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company  developed  the 
multiple-unit  train  control  under  the  name  of  the  electro-pneumatic 
system.  The  first  road  to  adopt  the  Westinghouse  plan  was  the  Kings 
County  Elevated  Railway  of  Brooklyn  in  1898.  A  description  of  the 


FIG.  66. — GENERAL  ELECTRIC  TRAIN 

CONTROLLER. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


247 


early  apparatus  was    given    in   St.    Ry.  Journ.,    October,    1899.     This 
apparatus  was  perfected  by  F.  H.  Shepard  and  Wm.  Cooper. 

Westinghouse  electro-pneumatic  system  involves    the   operation    of 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 
FIGS.  67-68. — ELECTRIC  TRAIN  CONTROL  CABLE  AND  COUPLER  SOCKETS. 

circuit  controlling  switches  by  means  of  compressed  air  from  the  brak- 
ing system.  Small  air  cylinders,  which  close  the  motor  circuit  switches, 
operate  against  powerful  springs,  and  when  the  air  pressure  is  removed 
the  springs  quickly  open  the  switch.  Admission  and  release  of  air  are 


248 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


governed  by  electrically  operated  valves,  the  current  for  which  comes 
from  a  14-volt  storage  battery  on  each  car.  Line  voltage  is  not 
brought  into  the  car,  cab,  or  controller.  The  train  line  carries  only  the 
14-volt  battery  current.  The  motor  circuit  in  each  car  is  independent, 
and  all  wiring  is  well  grouped  at  the  motor  truck  end  of  the  car.  Master 
controllers  are  placed  at  each  end  of  each  car.  All  of  the  current  which 
is  used  for  the  operation  of  all  of  the  switches  on  the  train  goes  thru  the 
master  controller  which  is  being  used,  but  the  current  for  operating 
the  switches  on  each  motor  car  is  obtained  from  the  battery.  Auxiliary 


FIG.  69. — GENERAL  ELECTRIC  CONTRACTOR  Box. 

apparatus  includes  a  current  limit  switch  for  each  motor,  switch  con- 
tactor groups,  cut  outs,  circuit  breakers,  and  car  jumper  connections. 

Multiple-unit  control  equipments  for  light  trains  have  recently  been 
improved,  and  are  superseding  platform  control.  They  are  reliable;  and 
remove  all  power  wiring  and  heavy  current-carrying  parts  from  the 
vestibules,  thus  increasing  the  safety  to  employees  and  passengers. 

Advantages  of  independent  storage  batteries  versus  line  voltage,  for  automatic 
control  systems: 

Ability  to  reverse  and  buck  motors;  with  quadruple  equipment,  when  air  brakes 
fail,  and  when  power  is  off  the  line  or  when  trolley  leaves  the  contact  wire. 

Controller  is  independent  of  low  line  voltage 

Fuses  in  control  circuits,  which  may  blow  and  render  control  inoperative  in 
emergencies,  are  eliminated. 

Trouble  with  defective  insulation  in  train  line,  and  false  operation,  are  reduced. 

Burning  and  scoring  of  contact  fingers  is  reduced. 

Danger  from  high  line  voltages  in  the  cab  is  reduced. 

Disadvantages  of  electric-pneumatic  control: 
Complication  is  caused  by  the  additional  equipment  used. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  249 

Batteries,  charging  relays,  and  terminals  must  be  mounted  on  rubber  cushions, 
to  prevent  vibration  from  breaking  the  more  delicate  parts. 

Air  valves  and  pneumatic  switches  become  clogged  by  scale  in  the  air  pipes,  and 
a  little  dirt  under  the  controlling  fingers  can  prevent  action  in  the  low- voltage  circuit. 

Control  of  locomotives  involves  the  same  principles  as  control  of 
motor-car  trains;  but  the  capacity  of  each  motor  is  greater. 

Acceleration  must  be  relatively  more  uniform  to  prevent  breakage  of 
couplers,  and  strains  on  equipment.  With  uniformity  of  application,  a 
very  much  greater  effort  can  be  exerted  than  when  the  pull  is  irregular. 
The  controller  must  therefore  have  about  double  the  number  of  points 
or  steps  used  for  passenger  trains.  The  design  is  such  that  the  current  is 
not  taken  off  the  motors  after  it  is  once  applied,  i.  e.,  the  circuit  is  not 
opened  to  change  motor  combinations  from  series  to  parallel,  or  to  con- 
catenation, or  to  change  the  number  of  poles.  The  so-called  "bridging" 
plan  of  connection  is  desirable,  not  the  open-circuit  plan.  Transformer- 
tap  controlis  perfect,  when  there  is  a  reasonable  number  of  steps.  In- 
duction regulator  control  is  ideal.  Water  rheostats,  used  on  European 
locomotives,  provide  absolutely  uniform  graduations  of  resistance. 

Results  are  a  failure  in  railroading  if  the  accelerating  force  is  not 
properly  applied  to  the  train.  In  passenger  service,  an  acceleration  rate 
which  varies  from  1.2  to  1.6  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  is  disagreeable,  while  a  steady 
acceleration  rate  of  2.0  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  is  not  disagreeable.  These  matters  need 
consideration,  because  the  gain  by  uniform  and  rapid  acceleration  is 
so  important.  In  locomotives  for  freight  service,  variation  in  control 
rate  is  sure  to  result  disastrously,  to  jerk  out  drawbars,  and  to  cause  ac- 
cidents and  delays. 

Control  systems  must  be  semi-automatic  in  action,  and  must  also 
provide  a  check  on  the  rate  of  acceleration,  yet  allow  any  lower  rate 
which  is  desired.  Should  locomotives  or  cars  break  apart,  the  control 
current  must  be  automatically  and  instantaneously  cut  out  from  the 
other  locomotive  or  motor  cars.  The  ability  of  the  engineman  to  control 
the  locomotive  or  train  must  not  be  lost,  if  the  train  cable  is  short-circuited. 

Multiple -unit  operation  with  polyphase  motors  under  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  railroad  operation,  was  at  first  difficult  because  of  the 
small  air  gaps  and  the  difference  of  duty  with  varying  driver  diameters. 
Consult:  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  March  24,  1906,  page  462. 

"  Multiple-unit  grouping  and  operation  of  three-phase  motors  is  ordinarily  imprac- 
ticable because  of  the  small  slip."  Sprague,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  21,  1907,  p.  706. 

Later  experience  modifies  the  above  statements.  It  is  necessary  to 
have  motor-car  wheels  or  locomotive  drivers  of  about  the  same  diameter. 
The  wheels  which  have  the  slightly  larger  diameters,  on  any  car  or  loco- 
motive, whether  coupled  or  not,  will  tend  to  run  faster;  and  thus,  by  slip 


250          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

and  wear,  the  diameters  tend  to  equalize.  In  the  shop,  some  attention 
must  be  given  to  see  that  wheels  do  not  have  widely  varying  diameters. 

Ganz  Electric  Co.,  on  installations  for  Italian  State  Railway,  and 
General  Electric  Company,  for  the  Great  Northern  Railway  locomotives, 
simply  insert  a  small,  but  wasteful,  resistance  in  the  rotors  of  the  motor. 
This  is  done  automatically,  on  the  Giovi  locomotives. 

Italian  State  Railway  and  Swiss  Federal  Railway  have  made  tests  with 
coupled  three-phase  locomotives,  also  with  a  locomotive  placed  at  each 
end  of  the  train,  and  on  old  and  new  locomotives  having  widely  different 
driver  diameters  but  with  the  same  rated  speed;  and  the  record  published 
shows  that  no  serious  difficulties  have  been  encountered  due  to  over- 
heating of  particular  locomotives  or  motors. 

Simplon  locomotives,  manufactured  by  Brown,  Boveri  and  Company, 
use  a  squirrel-cage  rotor,  with  a  7  per  cent,  drop  in  speed  from  no  load  to 
full  load,  which  allows  considerable  variation  in  driver  diameters. 

TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

New  York  Central  motor-car  trains  provide  for  suburban  service  from 
the  New  York  terminal  (Grand  Central  Station)  to  North  White  Plains, 
23.5  miles  north  on  the  Harlem  Division;  also  to  Hastings,  19  miles  north 
on  the  Hudson  Division.  About  137  motor  cars  are  used,  each  weighing 
53  tons,  and  63  coaches,  each  weighing  41  tons.  Eight-car  trains,  5  motor 
and  3  coaches,  have  2400-h.  p.  in  motor  equipment.  Such  a  train  weighs 
over  420  tons  and  in  accelerating  at  the  rate  of  1.3  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  requires 
a  drawbar  or  tractive  effort  of  about  138  pounds  per  ton  or  55,200  pounds 
total.  Almost  twice  this  amount  is  available  for  traction,  or,  the  accelerat- 
ing rate  could  be  doubled  without  slipping  the  wheels.  One  truck  of 
each  motor  car  is  equipped  with  two  240-h.  p.,  660-volt,  direct-current, 
interpole  motors,  with  a  1.88  gear  ratio.  See  Figure  53. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  in  1910,  for  its  New  York  tunnel  and  terminal 
service,  began  the  use  of  157-ton  2500-h.p.  electric  locomotives;  also 
450-ton,  6-car,  2520-h.p.  motor-car  trains  for  its  New  York-Long 
Island,  suburban  service;  and  in  1911  to  Newark,  New  Jersey.  The 
motor-car  train  requires  greater  energy  than  the  locomotive  because 
of  the  continuity  of  service,  the  higher  acceleration,  and  the  frequent 
stops. 

Motor-car  train  equipment  already  purchased  consists  of  about  225  steel  motor 
cars,  for  passenger  service.  Pennsylvania  standard  trucks  are  used  with  side-extended 
bolster  springs  and  8.5-foot  wheel  bases.  Power  equipment  per  motor  car  consists  of 
two  Westinghouse  215-h.p.,  direct-current  motors.  Forced  draft  is  used  to  cool  and 
to  keep  out  the  dust  and  grit.  The  entire  axle  is  enclosed  to  keep  the  dust  out  of 
bearings.  The  motor  equipment  was  described  under  Ventilation  of  Motors.  See 
Figure  42,  page  184.  Each  car  is  a  motor  car  and  weighs  53  tons. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


251 


Long  Island  Railroad,  a  subsidiary  company,  operates  138  steel  38-  to 
41-ton  passenger  motor  cars,  with  two  200-h.p.  motors  per  car,  for 
suburban  service  west  of  Brooklyn  to  distant  points  on  Long  Island. 


FIG.  70. — LONG  ISLAND  RAILROAD  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN.     STEEL  COACHES. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  purchased,  in  1909, 
4  motor  cars  and  6  trail  coaches  for  its  local  service  between  New  York 
City  and  Stamford,  Connecticut,  34  miles.  The  motor  cars  are  designed 
to  pull  2  trail  cars.  Steel  cars,  built  by  the  Standard  Steel  Car  Company, 


•  •111  iiiiii  ••"»•» 


FIG.  71. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HERTFORD  MULTIPLE  UNIT  87-TON  MOTOR  CAR. 
Operated  in  trains  on  the  New  York  Division,  1909. 

are  70  feet  long.     Seats  are  arranged  for  76  passengers.     Motor  car  weighs 
87  tons  and  coaches  50.     These  are  the  heaviest  motor  cars  yet  built. 
The  electric  system  employed  is  the  11,000-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase. 


252 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors  per  car  consist  of  four  150-h.p.,  600-ampere,  235-volt  West- 
inghouse  units,  with  a  3.30  gear  ratio.  The  gear  is  mounted  on  a  quill 
which  surrounds  the  axle  (with  9/16-inch  clearance).  There  are  4  drive 
pins  which  fit  into  pockets  in  the  drivers,  and  helical  springs  which  sur- 


FIG.  72. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  TRUCK  USED  ON  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

Truck  for  two  single-phase,  150-h.  p.,  quill-mounted,  Westinghouse  motors;  used  on  New  York 

Division.     Trucks  built  by  Standard  Motor  Truck  Company. 

round  the  driving  pins  and  carry  the  weight  of  the  quill,  gear,  and  half  of 
the  motor,  and  transmit  the  driving  action  or  torque  smoothly,  to  the  car 
wheels.  This  plan  increases  the  weight  and  cost,  and  the  diameter  of  the 


FIG.  73. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  TRUCK  USED  ON  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 
Truck  for  two  single-phase,  125-h.  p.,  nose-mounted,  General  Electric  motors  used  on  New  Canaan 

Branch. 


gear  seat  and  motor  axle  bearings.     The  motor  is  entirely  spring-sup- 
ported to  effect  good  riding  qualities  and  to  minimize  track  destruction. 
Control  scheme  used  is  the  electro-pneumatic.     Automatic  accelera- 
tion is  provided  at  the  rate  of  .5  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  when  hauling  2  coaches. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


253 


PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MOTOR  CARS  ON  NEW  YORK, 
NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD  R.  R.,  NEW  YORK  DIVISION. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed 
m.  p.  h. 

Tractive 
effort  Ib. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

4000 

.830            17.5 

17,600 

820 

Gear  ratio  3.3;  wheels  42  in. 

2400           .925 

25.3 

8,800 

600 

One-hour  rating  at  235  volts. 

1800           .952            30.4 

5,600 

448       Continuous     capacity    with 

1200           .970            41.0 

2,700 

290           forced  ventilation. 

1130 

.975 

45.0 

2,000 

240 

Four  motors  per  motor  car. 

Aspinwall,  Tests,  Elec.  Journal,  Nov.,  1909;  Trucks,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

Motor-car  trains  with  3  cars  weigh  187  tons  and  have  600-h.p.  motor 
capacity;  while  the  locomotive-hauled  trains  with  6  cars  and  double  the 
seating  capacity  weigh  about  402  tons  and  have  960-h.p.  motor  capacity. 
Significant  comparisons  may  be  made  for  suburban  service. 

Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend  Railway  uses  4  single-phase,  125- 
h.p.  motors  per  car  and  3-car  passenger  trains.  Cars  weigh  56  tons. 
Trolley  voltage  is  6000  normally,  but  600  volts  alternating  in  the  cities. 
Motors  operate  in  series-parallel,  2  motors  on  each  truck  being  in  series. 

A  250-kw.  oil-insulated,  self-cooled  auto-transformer  varies  the  volt- 
age to  the  motors  by  means  of  a  series  of  8  taps.  The  master  controller 
is  operated  with  current  from  two  15-volt  batteries.  Manipulation  of 
the  controller  handle  operates  magnets,  which  operate  controller  air 
valves,  which  in  turn  operate  contactors  in  a  main  switch  group  to  vary 
the  voltage  from  the  transformer  from  62  volts  to  250  volts. 

Coaches  without  motors  are  equipped  with  master  controllers.  Snow 
plows  not  fitted  with  motors  are  designed  to  be  pushed  by  motor  cars  and 
are  equipped  with  master  controllers  and  brake-train  valves  so  that  any 
number  of  cars  can  be  coupled  back  of  a  plow  and  controlled  from  the 
look-out  deck. 

An  11-car  train,  made  up  of  six  500-h.p.  motor  cars  and  5  coaches, 
and  operated  by  multiple-unit  control,  recently  made  an  80-mile  run  on 
this  road.  Incidentally,  with  the  extremely  small  loss  on  the  6000-volt 
contact  line,  long  trains  can  be  operated  successfully  over  long 
distances. 

Valtellina  Railway  of  Italy  uses  58-ton  motor  cars  which  haul  five  22- 
ton  coaches,  making  a  168-ton  train.  There  are  2  twin  250-h.p.,  15- 
cycle,  three-phase  gearless  motors,  mounted  on  a  hollow  shaft,  per  motor 
car.  Power  is  transmitted  to  46-inch  drivers  by  flexible  couplings.  See 
drawings  in  Parshall  and  Hobart's  "Electric  Railway  Engineering/' 


254          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Fio.  74. — VALTELLINA  RAILWAY,  ITALY,  MOTOR  TRUCK  FOR  PASSENGER  CARS,   1902. 


FIG.  75. — WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE  RAILROAD,  MOTORS  MOUNTED  ON   BRILL  TRUCKS. 
G.  E.,  No.  69,  240  h.  p.,  600-volt,  direct-current  motors. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


255 


FIG.  76. — MOTOR-CAR  TRUCK  USED  ON  THE  HUDSON  &  MANHATTAN  RAILROAD. 
Wheel  base  78  inches.     Wheels  34  inches.     Weight  of  truck,  11,750  pounds;  with  two  160-h.  p. 

motors,  22,750  pounds. 


Fie;    77. — J.  G.   BRILL  COMPANY'S  MOTOR-CAR  TRUCK  FOR  HEAVY  CARS  IN  HIGH-SPEED  PASSENGER 

SERVICE. 


256 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS.     PART  I. 

Geographical  Distribution.     Direct-current  600-volt  System. 


Name  of  railway. 

Largest  city  terminals. 

Number  of  cars. 

Number  of  miles. 

Motor 

Coach. 

Total. 

Between 
terminals. 

Right- 
of-way. 

Mileage. 

Boston  &  Maine  

Concord-Manchester.  . 

12 

0 

12 

16 

16 

50 

Boston  Elevated  

Boston  suburbs  

225 

91 

316 

11 

6 

26 

Boston  &  Worcester  .  .  . 

Boston-  Woicester  .  .  . 

60 

0 

60 

46 

37 

82 

New  York  Central  

(  N.Y.-N.  White  Plains 
\  N.  Y.-Hastings. 

137 

63 

200 

241 
19  / 

45 

152 

Manhattan  Elevated  .  . 

Manhattan-  Bronx  .  .  . 

895 

759 

1754 

13 

50 

119 

Interborough  Subway. 

Manhattan-Brooklyn  . 

910 

336 

1246 

18 

26 

85 

Hudson  &  Manhattan. 

New  York-  Jersey  C.  . 

200 

0 

200 

8 

8 

18 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Trans. 

Brooklyn  

659 

269 

928 

13 

50 

107 

Pennsylvania  R.R.: 

Long  Island  R.R  .... 

Brooklyn-Long  I  

136 

89 

225 

26 

62 

164 

Pennsylvania     Tun- 

New York-  Long  I  .... 

225 

0 

225 

15 

15 

50 

nel  &  Terminal. 

Jersey  City-Newark.. 

50 

0 

50 

9 

9 

20 

West   Jersey  &  Sea. 

Camden-  Atlantic  C.  .  . 

108 

0 

108 

65 

75 

154 

Philadelphia  Rapid  Tr. 

Philadelphia  Elev  

150 

0 

150 

8 

8 

18 

Philadelphia  <fc  West'n. 

Phila.-Norristown.  .  .  . 

28 

0 

28 

17 

20 

40 

Albany  Southern  R.R.. 

Albany-Hudson  

45 



45 

38 

34 

62 

West  Shore  R  R 

Utica-  Syracuse  

21 

o 

21 

44 

43 

114 

Roches  ter,Syracuse&E  . 

Syracuse-  Rochester  .  . 

82 

0 

82 

86 

80 

265 

Buffalo,  Lockport  &  R. 

Rochester-Lockport    . 

19 

57 

50 

58 

International  Ry 

Lockport-  Buffalo  .... 

26 

25 

20 

74 

Lackawanna   &    Wyo- 

Wilkes-Barre-Car-* 

35 

1 

361 

25 

25 

50 

ming  Valley. 

bondale. 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazel- 

Wilkes-Barre-Hazel- 

6 

1 

70 

31 

31 

32 

ton. 

ton. 

Mahoning  &  Shenango  . 

New   Castle-  Warren.  . 

34 

149 

Washington,  Balti- 

Baltimore- Wash  ing- 

43 

0 

43 

35 

50 

100 

more  &  Annapolis. 

ton. 

Michigan  United  Rys  .  . 

Jackson-Kalamazoo    . 

30 

159 

71 

125 

254 

Grand  Rapids,  Grand 

Grand  Rapids-Muske- 

30 

10 

40 

45 

45 

49 

Haven  &  Muskegon. 

gon. 

Dayton  &  Troy  

Dayton-Troy  

25 

0 

25 

31 

31 

49 

Lake   Shore  Electric  . 

Cleveland-Toledo  .... 

119 

215 

Scioto  Valley  Traction. 

Columbus—  Chillico  the  . 

17 

0 

17 

50 

79 

Ohio  Electric 

Dayton-Cincinnati 

55 

850 

Indianapolis,Col.&  S.  1 

Indianapolis-Louis- 

10 

117 

83 

f  68 

Indianapolis&Louisv  J 

ville. 

\  55 

Illinois  Traction  

St.  Louis-Danville  .  .  . 

600 

0 

600 

223 

550 

MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


257 


RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS,  1911.     PART  I. 
Direct-current  600- volt  System. 


Name  of  railway. 

Largest  city  terminals. 

Number  of  cars. 

Number  of  miles. 

Motor 

Coach. 

Total. 

Between 
terminals. 

Right- 
of-way. 

Mileage. 

Aurora,   Elgin  &   Chi- 
cago. 

South  Side  Elevated.. 
Chicago   &    Oak  Park 
Metropolitan  West  Side 
Northwestern  Elevated 
Chicago  &   Milwaukee 
Milwaukee  Electric  .... 

Milwaukee  Northern  .  .  . 
Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines 
&  Southern. 
Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls 
&  Northern. 
Interurban  Ry  

Northern  Texas  
Denver  &  Interurban  .  . 
Salt  Lake  &  Ogden  .  .  . 
Spokane  &  Inland  .... 

Puget  Sound  Electric.  . 
Oregon  Electric  
Portland  Railway  
Northern  Electric  
Southern    Pacific  
San  Francisco,  Oakland 
&  San  Jose. 
Los  Angeles  Pacific  .... 

Pacific  Electric  

Chicago-Aurora  .  .  .  .  ] 
Chicago-Elgin  j- 
Chicago-Freeport  .  .  J 
Chicago  
Chicago  
Chicago  
Chicago  
Chicago-Milwaukee.  .  . 
Milwaukee-  Water- 
town. 
Milwaukee-Sheboygan 
Ft.  Dodge-Des.  M  

Waterloo-  Waverly  .  .  . 

Des  Moines-Colfax  .  .  . 
Des  Moines-Perry  .... 
Ft.  Worth-Sherman  .  . 
Denver-Bouldei  
Salt  Lake-Ogden  
Spokane-Hay  den  Lake 
Spokane-Colfax.  ..... 
Spokane-Moscow  
Seattle-Tacoma  
Portland-Salem.  .'  
Portland-Cazadero  .  .  . 
Sacramento-Chico.  .  .  . 
Alameda-Oakland...  . 
Oakland  suburbs  

Los     Angeles-Santa 
Monica. 
Los  Angeles  -Coast  .  .  . 

115 

200 
65 
225 

288 
50 
30 

12 
20 

0 
200 

280 
100 
25 
15 

9 

115 

400 
65 
505 
388 
75 
45 

21 

(    40 
42 
[  125 

160 
47 
20 
57 
51 
186 
137 

64 
140 

100 

10 

27 

76 
51 

57 
86 

73 
40 

54 
80 

55 

16 
15 

9 
15 

55 

113 
25 
30 

24 
35 
76 
29 

72 
86 
54 

76 
24 

461 
77  J- 
91  J 
36 
50 
40 
91 
15 
6 

40 

80 
65 
45 

287 

200 
80 
472 
130 
100 
35 

214 
600 

25 

100 
24 
30 
42 
100 
38 

121 

50 
50 

33 
0 
60 
40 

225 

75 

150 
24 
63 
42 
160 
78 

486 
675 

15 
6 

17 


258 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS.     PART  I. 

Direct-current  600-volt  System. 


Name  of  railway. 

Largest  city 
terminals. 

Number  of  cars. 

Number  of  miles. 

Motor. 

Coach. 

Total. 

Between 
terminals. 

Right- 
of-way. 

mile- 
age. 

Central  London  
London  Electric 

London 

68 
383 
197 
36 
60 
72 
35 
40 
130 
0 
20 

172 
525 
235 
72 
90 
146 
35 
80 
210 
170 
12 

240 
908 
432 
108 
150 
218 
70 
120 
340 
170 
32 

7 

7 

13 
168 
49 
10 
16 
20 
8 
11 
60 
16 
*   4 
30 
10 
82 
13 
82 
30 
26 
63 
40 

46 
16 

81 

Metropolitan  District.... 
Baker  St.  &  Waterloo  ... 
Charing  Cross  E.  &  H.  ... 
Great  Northern,  P.  &  B  . 
Great  Northern  &  City  .  .  . 
Great  Western,  M.  &  W.L. 
Metropolitan  Ry  
City  &  South  London  .  .  . 
Waterloo  &  City  
London  &  North  Western 
Mersey  Ry  
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  . 
Liverpool  Overhead  
North-Eastern 

London  

25 
3 
8 
10 
4 
5 
30 
8 
2 
15 
5 
40 
7 
35 
18 
14 
31 

12 

25 
5 
8 
10 
4 
5 
30 
8 
2 
15 
5 
40 
7 
35 
18 
14 
31 

12 

London 

London 

London  
London  
London  
London  
London  

London  
London  
Liverp  aol-B  irkenhead 
Liverpool-Southport.  . 
Liverpbol-Seaforth  .  .  . 
New  Castle-on-Tyne.  . 
Cologne-Bonn  
Berlin 

24 
80 
44 
62 
10 
139 
570 

20 

37 
52 
7 
44 
10 
52 
381 

61 
132 
51 
106 
20 
191 
951 

Rhine  Shore 

Berlin  Overhead  &  Under. 
Paris  -Metropolitan 

Paris 

Paris-Lyons-Mediter- 
ranean. 
Paris-Orleans  

Paris  

Parh-Juvisy  
Paris-Versailles  
Milan-Porto  Ceresio.  . 

West  of  France  
Milan-  Varese-Porto 
Ceresio 

20 

40 

46 

46 

FIG.  78. — COLOGNE-BONN  RAILWAY.     MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 

Two  32-ton  motor  cars  each  with  two   130-h.  p.,   500-volt,   direct-current,  interpole,   Siemens 
motors,  operating  on  a  1000-volt  trolley  line,  and  two  18-ton  coaches  per  four-car  train,  1906. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  259 

RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS.     PART  II. 

Direct-current  600- volt  System. 


No.  of 

Motors  No. 

Tons, 

Tons 

Tram 

made  01 

Name  of  railway. 

motor 
cars. 

and 

h.P. 

car. 

per 
coach. 

Motor 

Coaches. 

Total. 

Boston  &  Maine 

12 

4-40 

1 

1 

2 

Boston  Elevated  
Boston  &  Worcester  
New  York  Central  

Manhattan  Elevated  
Interborough  Subway  

225 
60 
137 

895 

910 
200 

2-175 
4-50 
2-243 

2-125 

2-240 
2-160 

33 
25 
54 

27 

50 
35 

41 

20 
37 

6 
1 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 
3 
5 
7 
6 

0 
0 
3 
2 
2 
3 
3 
2 

3 
3 

o 

6 
1 
8 
6 
6 
7 
8 
5 
8 
If) 
6 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  : 
Long  Island  R.  R  
Penn.  Tunnel  &  Terminal...  . 
Newark  Rapid  Transit  

659 

136 
225 
50 

2-200 

2-200 
2-215 
2-160 

36 

40 
53 

17 
3 

f4 

3 
[2 

4 
6 

2 

2 
1 

2 
0 

6 
5 
3 

6 
6 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  

93 
15 

2-240 
2-240 

47 
52 

7 

7 

0 

o 

7 

7 

Philadelphia  Elevated 

150 

2-125 

5 

o 

5 

Philadelphia  &  Western 

28 

4-75 

3 

3 

Albany  Southern 

45 

4-80 

o 

West  Shore  R.  R  
Rochester,  Syracuse  &  Eastern  . 
Buffalo,  Lockport  &  Rochester. 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Val. 
Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton  
Washington,   Baltimore  &  An- 
napolis. 
Lake  Shore  Electric 

21 
82 
19 
35 
6 
40 
3 
20 

4-75 
4-125 
4-125 
2-150 
4-125 
4-100 
4-125 
4-90 

40 
42 

31 
43 
39 
43 
41 

2 

1 

2 
2 

1 

0 
0 
0 
0 

0 
0 

o 

2 
1 
2 

1 
1 
1 

Grand  Rapids,  Grand  Haven  &  M 

30 

2-150 

3 

Scioto  Valley  Traction 

17 

4-125 

1 

o 

1 

South  Side  Elevated,  Chicago.  . 

200 

2-52 
2-90 

25 

4 
3 

1 

2 

5 
5 

Chicago  &  Oak  Park  
Metropolitan  West  Side  
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  
Northwestern  Elevated,  Chicago 
Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric 
Milwaukee  Electric  
Indiana  Union  Traction 

65 
225 
115 

228 
50 
30 
285 

2-160 
2-160 
4-125 
2-160 
4-75 
4-125 
4-85 

33 

38 
40 

16 

18 

3 

4 

4 
3 
1 
1 

2 
2 

2 
0 
2 

o 

5 
6 
3 
6 
3 
3 
1 

Indianapolis  &  Louisville 

10 

4-75 

2 

o 

2 

Illinois  Traction  
Ft.  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  South, 
Puget  Sound  Electric  
North  Shore  Ry  California 

600 

20 
100 
37 

2-100 
4-75 
4-125 
2-125 

47 
43 

1 
3 

1 

0 

2 
2 
3 

Southern  Pacific  Company  
San  Fran.  Oakland  &  San  Jose. 
Los  Angeles  Pacific  

100 
38 
121 

4-125 
2-125 
4-75 

54 
38 

32 
30 

2 
6 

2 

4 

4 

10 

260 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS.     PART  II. 

Direct-current,  600- volt  System.     2000-pound  Tons. 


Name  of  railway. 

No.  of 
motor 
cars 

Motors 
No.  and 
h.  p. 

Tons 
motor 
car. 

Tons 
per 
coach. 

Train  made  up  of 

Motor  cars. 

Coaches. 

Total. 

Central  London  

68 

4-65 

28 

16 

2 

5 

7 

London  Electric  Railway  Co.: 

Metropolitan  District  

197 

/  4-150 
\  2-240 

32 
32 

20 
20 

3 

4 

4 
6 

7 
10 

Baker  Street  &  Waterloo..  .  . 

36 

2-240 

31 

20 

2 

4 

6 

Charing  Cross,  E.  &  H  

60 

2-240 

30 

2 

3 

5 

Great  Northern,  Pic.  &  B  

72 

2-240 

31 

19 

2 

4 

6 

Great  Northern  &  City  

35 

2-125 

25 

22 

2 

4 

6 

Great  Western,  M.  &  W.  L.  .  .  . 

40 

/  4-150  \ 
\  2-125  f 

39 

25 

2 

4 

6 

Metropolitan   London 

130 

j  4-150  \ 
\  4-240  / 

42  ] 

46  ; 

19 

4 

5 

9 

Waterloo  &  City     . 

20 

2-80 

2 

2 

4 

Mersey  Railway  

24 

4-100 

35 

25 

2 

3 

5 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire 
Liverpool-Southport. 

80 

f  4-150  \ 

\  2-125  ; 

511 

25  / 

40 

2 

2 

4 

Liverpool  Overhead  

44 

2-100 

16 

14 

2 

1 

3 

North-Eastern 

62 

2-150 

32 

25 

{I 

1 

4 

!} 

Cologne-  Bonn  

10 

2-130 

32 

18 

2 

2 

4 

Berlin  Overhead  &  Underground 

139 

4-75 

18 

5 

3 

8 

Berlin-Gross  Lichterfelde  

24 

2-125 

Paris-Metropolitan  

248 

2-240 

40 

19 

2 

6 

8 

Paris-Orleans  

100 

f  4-125\ 
\  2-175  / 

3 

2 

5 

Milan-  Varese-Porto  Ceresio  .... 

20 

4-160 

48 

34 

2 

2 

4 

City  and   South    London   has  fifty-two   464-h.p.  locomotives;   Metropolitan  Railway,  London, 
has  eleven  800  h.p.;  North-Eastern,  six  640-h.p.;   and  Paris-Orleans  eleven  1000-h.p,  locomotives. 


FlG.    79. ROTTERDAM-HAGUE-SCHEVENINGEN.       MOTOR-CAR   TRAIN. 

TWO  54-ton  motor  cars,  each  with  two  175-h.  p.,  single-phase  motors  and  one  34-ton  coach  per 

three-car  train. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 


261 


RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS,  1910.     PART  III. 
Three-phase  System.      2000-pound  Tons. 


Name  of  railway. 

No.  of 
motor 
cars. 

Motors 
No.  and 
h.  p. 

Tons, 
motor 
car. 

Tons 
per 
coach. 

Train  made  of 

Motor  cars. 

Coaches. 

Total. 

Stansstad-Engelberg  
Burgdorf-Thun  

Zossen  Tests  of  1903  

7 

2-35 
4-64 
4-250 
4-250 
2-65 

2-150 
4-150 
2-250 

36 

85 
100 

1 
1 

1 

1 
0 
0 

2 
1 
1 

London-Port  Stanley,  Ontario, 
1905. 

Valtellina    1902                  

10 

53 
32 

58 

30 
20 
21 

2 
1 
1 

1 
2 
5 

3 
3 
6 

FIG.  80. — BLANKANESE-HAMBURG-OHLSDORF  MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 
Two  69-ton  motor  cars  each  with   two  200-h.   p.,  single-phase  motors. 


262 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.    81. — BAVARIAN    STATE    RAILWAY.     MURNAU-OBERAMMERGAU    LINE      MOTOR  CAR    TRAIN. 
Two  100-h.  p.,  single-phase  Siemens  motors  per  motor  car  and  coach. 


IIITII1I 


til  HIM?' 

•f-  111 


FIG.  82. — VIENNA-BADEN  RAILWAY.     MOTOR-CAR  TRAIN. 
Four  60-h.  p.,  single-phase  motors  per  motor  car. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS 

RAILWAYS  OPERATING  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS.     PART  IV. 

Single-phase  System. 


263 


Name  of  railway. 

No.  of 
motor 
cars. 

No. 
of 
coaches. 

Motors 
No.  & 
h.p. 

Tons 
motor 
car. 

Tons 
per 
coach. 

Trains  made  of 

Motor. 

Coaches.    Total. 

New  York,  New  Haven&H.: 
New  York-  Stamford  
New  Canaan-Stamford.  . 
Harlem  River  Branch  .  . 
New  York,   Westchester  & 
Boston. 
Long  Island:  Sea  Cliff  Div. 
Baltimore     &     Annapolis 
Short  Line. 
Erie  R.R.:   Rochester  Div. 
Windsor,  Essex  &  Lake  S. 
Ft.  Wayne  &  Springfield  .  . 
Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati. 
Chicago,    Lake    Shore      & 
South  Bend. 

Rock  Island  Southern  

Colorado  &  Southern: 
Denver  &  Interurban.  .  . 
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  . 
Visalia  Electric             .  .    .  . 

4 

2 
4 
60 

6 

12 

6 

8 
4 
25 

V 

/6 

\4 

16 
25 
6 

(2 

! 

r\26 

\30 

30 
25 

110 

3 
19 
10 

6 

2 
12 

0 
0 

6 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 

o 

10 
10 
6 
10 

4-150 

4-125 
4-150 
4-150 

2-50 
4-100 

,  4-100 
2-100 
4-75 
4-100 
4-125 
4-75 
4-100 
4-125 

4-125 
4-100 
4-75 
4-75 
4-100 

87 
70 

50 
35 

(3 

12 
1 

1 

0 

2 

1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 

1 
2 
1 
1 

3 
1 

0 
0 

2 

0 
0 

o 

0 
0 
0 

1 
1 
1 

1 

7 
5 

2 

1 
3 

4 

1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 

2 
3 

2 
2 

50 

48 

"40" 
50 
56 

52 
52 

58 
42 
40 
40 

28 

37 
31 

28 

San  Francisco,  Vallejo  and 
Napa  Valley. 

Midland  Ry.,  England  .... 

London,  Brighton  &  South 
Coast. 
French  Southern 

6 

8 
60 

9 
0 

0 
30 

2-150 
2-180 
4-115 
4-175 
4-125 
2-175 

2-200 

4-220 
4-60 
2-70 

41 
45 
55 
60 
61 
54 

69 

59 
40 

21 
21 
35 
35 

1 

4 
2 

2 
2 

2 
4 

3 
3 
6 
6 

Rotterdam-Hague-  Scbe- 
veningen. 
Blankanese-Hamburg- 
Ohlsdorf. 
Bernese  Alps  
Vienna-Baden  Interurban. 

34 
19 

2 
2 

2 

1 

1 
0 

1 
3 

3 

2 

3 
4 



Mileage  of  all  single-phase  roads  is  given  in  "Electric  Systems,"  Chapter  IV. 

LITERATURE. 
References  on  Motor-car  Trains. 

HOBART:  "Electric  Trains,"  English  practice,  Van  Nostrand,  1910. 
Hill:  Historical  Data,  S.  R.  J.,  May  4,  1901. 

References  on  Train  Control. 

Cooper:  Direct-current  Motor  Control,  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.  and  March,  1906;    Elec. 

Review,  April  8,  1905;  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1109. 
Townley:  City  Traffic  and  Train  Control,  Elec.  Journal,  March,  1907. 
WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  "Electrical  Traction,"  Vol.  II,  on  Three-phase  Motor  Control. 


264  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Slichter:  On  Three-phase  Motor  Control.  Discussion  of  Great  Northern  Electrifica- 
tion, A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 

Jackson:  Single-phase  Car  Control,  Elec.  Journal,  Sept.  and  Dec.,  1905. 

Krass:  Control  for  Single-phase  Trains,  and  editorial,  E.  W.,  Dec.  30,  1909. 

Sprague:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Aug.,  1888;  May,  1899;  S.  R.  J.,  July,  1899;  Nov.  3,  1900;  May 
4  and  Oct.  1,  1904. 

Sprague  G.  E.,  Latest  Practice,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1093;  G.  E.  Review,  Nov., 
1908. 

Westinghouse,  Electric-pneumatic,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  3  and  Sept.  26,  1903. 

James:  Electro-pneumatic  Control,  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1905;  Jan.,  1906. 

Cooper:  Electro-pneumatic  Railway  Apparatus,  Elec.  Journal,  March,  1907. 

McNulty:  Electro-pneumatic  Control,  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1905. 

Renshaw:  Multiple-unit  Control,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  7,  1909;  E.  T.  W.,  July  9,  1910; 
A.  S.  &  I.  Ry.  Assoc.,  Oct.,  1909;  Elec.  Review,  Oct.  7,  1909. 

Leonard:  Multiple-unit  Voltage-speed  Control,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892,  p.  566; 
Feb.  18,  1894;  Nov.  21,  1902;  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  29,  1902. 

Motor-generator  Schemes,  E.  W.,  Aug.  1,  1908,  p.  229. 

Practice  on  Oerlikon  locomotives,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  26,  1904,  p.  951;  Dec.  8,  1906. 

Cutler-Hammer,  Multiple-unit  System,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  10,  1904,  p.  1050. 

Dick,  Kerr  &  Co.  Control,  London  Elec.,  April  19,  1907;  E.  R.  J.,  June  6,  1908. 

Regeneration  of  Power  and  Control. 

Henry:  Regenerative  Control,  General,  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  7,  1900. 
Cooper:  Regeneration  of  Single-phase  Power,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907. 
WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  "Electrical  Traction,"  Vol.  I,  Chapter  12,  describes: 

Johnson-Lundells'  Scheme,  with  double-wound  armatures  and  two  commutators. 

Raworth's  Scheme  using  compound-wound  direct-current  motors. 

References  on  Motor  Cars  and  Trucks. 

Boston  Elevated:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  1,  1904,  p.  479. 
Boston  &  Maine:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  6,  1902,  p.  921. 
N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.,  New  York  Division:  Aspinwall,  Elec.  Journal,  Nov.,  1906;  Nov., 

1909;  Trucks,  E.  R.  J.,  April  14,  1906;   Dec.  12,  1908,  and  March  26,  1910;    New 

Canaan  Division,  E.  R.  J.,  June  13,  1908;  May  15,  1909. 
New  York  Central:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  4,  1905,  p.  837;  April  28,  1906. 
Manhattan  Elevated:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  6, 1902,  p.  907;  wooden  cars,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  6,  1902; 

steel  cars,  S.  R.  J.,  June  4,  1910,  p.  1010. 
Interboro  Subway:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  20,  1902,  p.  382;  Aug.  15  and  22,  1903,  p.  264; 

Oct.  8,  1904;  March  14,  1908;  June  18,  Oct.  22,  1910. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan:  E.  R.  J.,  June  8,  1907,  p.  1028;  Oct.  2,  1909;  June  24,  1910. 
Erie  Railroad:  S.  R.  J.,  July  14,  1906. 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  8,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  July  22,  1911. 
Long  Island  R.  R.:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  4,  1905,  p.  832;  Aug.  11  and  18,  1906. 
Pennsylvania-Long  Island:  E.  R.  J.,  June  17,  1911,  p.  1057;  June  17,  1911. 
West  Jersey  &  Seashore:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  1,  1906;  Nov.  10,  1906. 
Philadelphia  Elevated:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1906,  p.  567. 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley:  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  4,  1906. 
Ohio  &  Indiana  Interurbans:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  13,  1906,  p.  625. 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend:  E.  R.  J.,  April  10,  1909. 
South  Side  Elevated,  Chicago,  E.  T.  W.,  Feb.  18,  1911. 


MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  265 

Chicago  &  Milwaukee,  Cafe  Parlor  Cars:  E.  R.  J.,  May  15,  1909;  Dining  Cars,  E.  R.  J., 

Oct.  8,  1910,  p.  618. 
Illinois  Traction,  Sleeping  Cars:  E.  R.  J.,  March  19,  1910,  p.  476;  Oct.  8,  1910,  p.  618; 

Baggage,  E.  R.  J.,  Feb.  11,  1911;  Interurban  Cars,  July  8,  1911,  p.  76. 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago,  Dining  Cars:  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1910,  p.  618. 
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit:  S.  R.  J.,  March  1,  1902,  p.  237;  Oct.  6,  1906. 
Spokane  &  Inland:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  10,  1906,  p.  951. 

Southern  Pacific  Trucks,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  22,  1910,  March  18,  1911,  p.  470. 
Southern  Pacific  Motor  Cars:  E.  R.  J.,  June  17,  1911. 
Gas-electric  Cars:  G.  E.  Review,  Feb.,  1908;  E.  W.,  July  22,  1911,  p.  217. 

London  Electric  Railways,  Underground:  E.  R.  J.,  July,  1910. 

Central  London  Underground:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1902,  p.  604. 

London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast:  E.  R.  J.,  March  6,  1909;  Oct.  12,  1910. 

Mersey  Railway:  S.  R.  J.,  April  4,  1903. 

Great  Western,  England:  Aug.  3,  1907. 

Cologne-Bonn:  S.  R.  J.,  May  2,  1908. 

Paris-Metropolitan,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  6,  1904. 

Parma  Provincial:  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911,  p.  951. 

Fayet-Chamonix,  with  flexible  coupling  between  motor  and  axle:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  7 

1903. 
See  single-phase  railways,  at  end  of  Chapter  IV. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 

Introduction : 

Electric  locomotives  not  a  primary  power. 

Comparison  of  steam  and  electric  locomotives. 
Physical  Characteristics : 

Capacity. — Drawbar  pull,  its  quality  and  amount;  drawbar  pull  at  high  speeds; 

acceleration  rates  utilized,  speed  and  unification  of  speed,  mileage  of  locomo 

tives  and  cars,  power  developed  per  ton. 

Other  Physical  Features. — Mechanical  efficiency,  simplicity,  safety  in  opera- 
tion, reliability  in  service. 
Commercial  Considerations : 

Traffic  and  earnings,  car  movement,  terminal  capacity,  loads,  freight  haulage 

Maintenance  and  repairs,  wages  and  time  saved. 

Economy  of  Power. — Utilization,  effective  and  efficient,  regeneration  of  power, 

water  powers,  economy  of  fuel,  cost  of  service,  earnings  from  investments. 
Advantages  over  Motor-car  Trains: 

Independent  units,  use  as  freight  cars,  danger  to  passengers,  high  voltages  in 

motor,  design  of  motors,  cost  of  equipment,  cost  of  maintenance. 
Electric  Locomotive  Design : 

General  review,  mistakes  in  design,  center  of  gravity,  mechanical  data,  weight 

factor,  weight  analysis. 
Mechanical  Transmission  of  Motive  Power: 

Methods  outlined,  driver   diameters,  gearless  motors,  geared   motors,  cranks 

and  side  rods,  cranks  with  jackshafts  and  side  rods 
Cost  of  Electric  Locomotives. 
Literature. 


200 


CHAPTER  VII. 
CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  application  of  electric  locomotives  as  a  motive  power  for  railroad 
train  haulage  is  now  considered. 

Locomotives  are  only  a  part  of  a  motive  power  equipment. — Steam 
locomotives  require  a  repair  shop;  round  house  for  frequent  washing  of 
flues;  stations  distributed  along  the  route,  with  men  and  machinery  to 
store  and  handle  the  coal,  and  to  pump  the  water  to  tanks;  locomotives  to 
haul  and  distribute  coal  to  these  stations;  and  a  loaded  coal  and  water 
tender  in  each  train.  Electric  locomotives  require  a  repair  shop  and 
an  inspection  house.  The  coal  is  not  hauled  with  the  train,  but  it  is 
carried  to  one  central  point,  if  water  power  is  not  used.  Electric  loco- 
motives also  require  a  central  power  plant  with  a  complete  equipment  of 
boilers,  steam  turbines,  alternating-current  generators,  reliable  trans- 
mission and  contact  lines,  and  sometimes  rotary  converter  substations. 

Comparison  of  steam  and  electric  locomotives  with  reference  to  their 
physical  characteristics,  and  the  financial  results  therefrom,  is  advanta- 
geous because  on  an  important  railroad  division  the  ultimate  limit  of  the 
economical  load  is  generally  prescribed,  by  the  power  and  other  qualities 
of  the  locomotive.  Such  a  comparison  indicates  the  nature  and  also  the 
extent  of  the  improvements  which  are  possible  thru  the  substitution  of 
electric  for  steam  traction. 

Steam  locomotives  are  prime  movers,  that  is,  energy-generating 
machines  as  contrasted  with  electric  locomotives  which  are  simply 
energy-collecting  machines.  This  fundamental  difference  affects  operat- 
ing characteristics  and  features  of  design. 

Electric  locomotives  do  not  yet  operate  in  the  best  fields,  on  long 
divisions  in  dense  freight  traffic  and  on  long  mountain  grades.  The  devel- 
opment in  design  is  not  the  result  of  long  years  of  experience,  and 
electric  locomotives  are  generally  not  handled  by  such  well-trained 
motive-power  men  as  found  in  steam  railroad  organizations.  The 
demonstration  of  results  must  be  made  by  argument,  in  part,  because 
in  some  cases  an  opportunity  has  not  yet  been  given  to  show  the  full 
measure  of  the  financial  advantages. 

See  Electric  Locomotive  History,  to  1895,  under  History.  See  Speed-torque 
Characteristics  of  Electric  Locomotives  under  Motors.  See  Techical  Description 
of  Electric  Locomotives  in  the  next  three  chapters. 

267 


268  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

PHYSICAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

Physical  advantages  of  electric  locomotives  arise  from  the  inherent 
characteristics  of  electric  motive  power. 

Capacity  is  the  most  important  of  these  advantages  because  as  already 
explained  capacity  bears  directly  upon  economy  of  train  operation.  The 
capacity  of  steam  locomotives  is  too  limited. 

"The  gage  is  too  narrow  for  admitting  a  properly  designed  boiler  upon  a  large 
locomotive.  Many  steam  locomotives  have  reached  the  limit  of  their  capacity 
because  the  limited  gage  prevents  the  boiler  being  made  larger."  Angus  Sinclair.. 

There  is  a  reasonable  objection  to  the  heavy  and  complicated  Mallet 
compound,  if  a  simple  and  efficient  design  of  electric  locomotives,  un- 
limited by  track  gage,  is  available. 

"The  men  in  charge  of  the  railways  of  this  country  have  struggled  for  15  years 
with  the  greatest  problem  of  our  times — how  to  move  a  load  whose  weight  increases 
10  per  cent,  a  year  with  a  steam  locomotive  whose  power  increases  but  21/2  per 
cent,  a  year.  The  limit  of  safe,  speedy,  and  reasonable  service  with  existing  facilities 
has  been  reached."  James  J.  Hill  to  Kansas  City  Commercial  Club,  Nov.  16,  1907. 

"Expenses  are  per  train-mile  and  receipts  are  per  ton-mile,"  a  statement  of 
economists,  is  a  valuable  one  to  apply,  if  sufficient  power  is  provided  to  move  the 
heaviest  tonnage  per  train  on  the  level  and  up  the  grades  at  a  reasonable  speed. 
The  statement  is  valueless  without  good  speed,  since  the  economical  use  of  the  equip- 
ment, the  track,  and  the  terminals  are  vital  factors  in  the  cost  of  transportation; 
further  the  cost  of  trainmen's  wages,  which  varies  with  the  train  speed,  equals  the 
cost  of  fuel  for  steam  locomotives. 

"  The  traffic  which  American  railroads  have  to  handle  is  continually  increasing. 
But  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  increase  our  facilities  in  the  same  ratio.  We  are  up  against 
the  matter  of  motive  power,  and  in  tfiat  we  have  reached  the  limit  of  development 
under  steam,  so  long  as  the  present  gage  is  employed.  Widening  of  the  gage  would 
increase  the  capacity  of  our  engines.  But  it  is  hardly  possible  to  think  of  rebuilding 
the  railroads.  Electricity  is  the  next  best  thing,  and  I  believe  we  will  come  to  that 
to  increase  our  power  and  our  train  load."  E.  H.  Harriman,  October,  1907. 

Three  months  prior  to  the  death  of  Mr.  Harriman,  which  occurred  September  10, 
1909,  it  was  announced  that  all  suburban  trains  near  Oakland  would  use  electric 
power  to  give  immediate  relief  to  the  crowded  traffic  conditions ;  and  further  that  the 
Sacramento  Division  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  would  ultimately  be  electrified 
to  increase  the  train  load  and  speed. 

Increased  locomotive  capacity  offers  immediate  relief  from  congested 
traffic  conditions  that  seem  almost  hopeless  under  some  existing  circum- 
stances. A  modern  steam  locomotive  is  a  splendid  piece  of  apparatus, 
but  where  conditions  of  service  have  grown  beyond  what  can  be  handled 
efficiently  by  steam  locomotives,  the  powerful  electric  locomotive  steps 
in  and  takes  up  the  task,  and  solves  some  of  the  railroad  problems. 

"  Whenever  traffic  is  dense  enough,  electric  traction  not  only  materially  decreases 
the  operating  cost  per  ton-mile,  but  either  accomplishes  this  end  with  a  material 
decrease  in  the  motive  power  equipment,  or  can  handle  as  much  as  50  per  cent,  more 
traffic  than  can  be  handled  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  steam  operation.'' 
Graham,  Third  Vice-president,  Erie  Railroad,  1910. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         269 

Capacity  is  available  with  electric  traction  because  the  source  of 
energy  is  a  large  central  station,  where,  for  important  service  and  for  heavy 
grades,  ample  power  and  great  temporary  overloads  may  be  advantage- 
ously employed.  The  steam  locomotive  has  its  source  of  power  upon  its 
back.  The  electric  locomotive  has  a  power  station  behind  it. 

The  backbone  of  railroad  business,  the  freight  traffic,  now  calls  for 
heavier  trains  and  faster  schedules.  Railway  managers  demand  this 
because  expenses  are  per  train-mile  and  per  train-hour.  This  demand 
cannot  be  met  by  the  steam  locomotive,  for  its  capacity  and  weight  per 
ton,  per  axle,  and  per  foot  of  wheel  base  has  reached  uneconomical  and 
undesirable  limits. 

Capacity  is  all-important  in  railroading,  for  the  public  and  for  the 
investor.  Service  is  demanded,  to  transport  freight  and  passengers 
safely,  rapidly,  and  in  very  heavy  trains. 

Capacity  in  the  electric  locomotive  results  from : 
Drawbar  pull,  its  quality  and  amount. 
Drawbar  pull  at  high  speed. 
Acceleration  rates. 
Speeds  utilized. 
Mileage  of  locomotives. 
Power  developed  per  ton. 

Drawbar  pull,  its  quality  and  amount,  governs  the  tonnage  hauled 
in  each  train.  The  matter  is  therefore  of  fundamental  importance. 
When  the  weight  on  the  drivers,  the  motor  design,  or  the  steam  pressure, 
piston  area,  leverage,  and  condition  of  the  rails  are  fixed,  the  amount  of 
the  drawbar  pull  depends  entirely  on  the  character  or  quality  of  the  effort. 

Reciprocating  efforts  of  a  steam  locomotive,  during  each  revolution 
of  the  drivers,  cause  a  variation  in  tractive  effort  of  from  25  to  45  per 
cent,  from  the  average  effort.  Circumferential  efforts  obtained  from 
motor  armatures  are  uniform,  and  there  is  no  tendency  of  drivers  to  slip 
at  particular  points. 

The  maximum  drawbar  pull  of  the  steam  locomotive,  with  its  varying 
reciprocating  effort,  is  about  22  per  cent,  of  the  weight  on  drivers,  while 
comparable  values  for  the  electric  locomotive  are  from  26  to  34  per  cent. 
Based  on  total  weights,  including  the  tender,  the  drawbar  pull  of  electric 
locomotives  is  from  40  to  50  per  cent,  greater  than  steam  locomotives. 

Mallet-compound  steam  freight  locomotives  weighing  250  tons,  with 
158  tons  on  drivers,  ordinarily  develop  a  drawbar  pull  of  about  60,000 
pounds,  while  electric  freight  locomotives  weighing  115  tons,  all  on 
drivers,  ordinarily  develop  60,000  pounds. 

New  York  Central  steam  locomotives  of  the  heaviest  Altantic  type, 
with  the  tender,  weigh  150  tons,  of  which  47  tons  are  on  two  pairs  of 
drivers;  and  those  of  the  heaviest  Pacific  type  weigh  175  tons,  of  which 


270          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

67  tons  are  on  the  three  pairs  of  drivers.  Its  electric  locomotive,  of  1909, 
weighs  115  tons,  of  which  71  tons  are  on  four  pairs  of  drivers.  The  steam 
locomotive  weighs  15  to  10  pounds  while  the  electric  locomotive  weighs 
about  7  pounds  per  pound  of  effective  drawbar  pull. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  66-ton  locomotives  develop  45,000  pounds 
drawbar  pull  or  .34  of  the  weight,  before  slipping  the  drivers. 

Slipping  of  drivers  is  easy  to  avoid  with  electric  traction,  yet  tractive 
forces  cannot  be  used  which  are  greater  than  that  indicated  by  the  prod- 
uct of  the  coefficient  of  tractional  friction  and  the  weight  on  the  drivers. 

TORQUE  OF  MOTORS. 

Direct-current  motors  when  connected  in  series  have  double 
their  normal  drawbar  pull  per  kilowatt  input.  Compound  steam  loco- 
motives, when  connected  for  starting  conditions  as  simple  engines, 
develop  double  their  normal  drawbar  pull,  but  with  double  the  steam 
input  which  is  used  in  compound.  Two  electric  locomotives  when 
coupled  at  the  head  of  a  train  are  operated  on  the  multiple-unit  plan,  by 
one  engineman;  and  the  control  of  each  locomotive  is  automatic  and 
synchronous,  and  thus  equal  tractive  effort  from  each  unit  is  provided. 

Three-phase  motors  furnish  a  drawbar  pull  which  in  its  amount  varies 
directly  as  the  square  of  the  impressed  line  voltage.  Thus,  with  a  10 
per  cent,  drop  in  voltage,  due  to  line  loss,  the  drawbar  pull  is  reduced  19 
per  cent.;  and  with  a  20  per  cent,  drop,  is  reduced  36  per  cent.  The 
trouble  is  cumulative  since  the  drawbar  pull  in  starting  is  a  maximum, 
the  power  factor  of  the  motor  is  very  low,  a  heavy  volt-ampere  input 
is  required  for  the  work,  and  the  heavy  current  produces  excessive  line 
drop.  Transformer  substations  on  3500-volt,  three-phase  railroads  must 
be  placed  3  to  5  miles  apart  to  prevent  a  large  line  loss.  The  drawbar 
pull  is  low  because  the  magnetic  field  strength  is  lowered  by  design  to 
reduce  the  steel  losses  and  the  magnetic  leakage.  The  drawbar  pull  is 
increased  by  decreasing  the  air  gap,  or  by  inserting  wasteful  resistance  in 
the  rotor  in  starting. 

Single -phase  series  motors  produce  a  pulsating  effort. 

"  The  torque  of  the  motor  pulsates  at  twice  the  circuit  frequency  and  the  electrical 
torque  varies  from  its  maximum  value  to  zero  and  may  even  assume  a  negative  value 
if  the  field  flux  is  not  in  time-phase  with  the  armature  current.  This  condition  does 
not  exist  with  reference  to  the  mechanical  torque  which  reaches  the  drivers,  because 
of  the  inertia  and  of  the  elasticity  of  the  medium  between  the  electrical  and  mechani- 
cal torque.  When  the  drivers  are  stationary  the  torque  is  transmitted  thru  springs 
at  a  certain  definite  value.  In  order  that  the  mechanical  torque  may  reach  zero 
fifty  times  per  second,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  field  armature  structures  to  be 
returned  by  the  springs  to  the  zero  torque  an  equal  number  of  times  in  this  period. 
The  inertia  of  the  moving  armature  and  the  elasticity  of  the  springs  causes  a  vibra- 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         271 

tion  thru  very  narrow  limits,  and  the  torque  which  reaches  the  drivers  and  which 
fluctuates  with  the  electrical  torque  will  be  almost  constant  at  a  value  equal  to  about 
one-half  of  the  maximum  electrical  torque.  Observations  show  that  the  mechanical 
torque  exerted  varies  only  slightly,  and  that  the  slipping  of  the  drivers  is  almost 
impossible."  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  April  14,  1906,  p.  591. 

Methods  used  for  smoothing  out  the  pulsating  torque  or  drawbar  pull  of  single- 
phase  motors  are  to  employ  flexible  spring  couplings  between  the  armature  shaft  and 
the  axle.  In  the  15-cycle,  125-ton  locomotive  built  by  the  General  Electric  Company 
in  1909  (see  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  May  8,  1909),  a  series  of  leaf  springs,  arranged  radially 
around  the  armature  shaft,  provides  a  flexible  coupling  which  is  interposed  between 
the  armature  shaft  and  the  crank-shaft.  In  the  New  Haven  gearless  type,  25-cycle 
passenger  locomotives  and  motor  cars,  each  end  of  the  quill-mounted  armature  shaft 
is  provided  with  6  pins  which  connect  to  the  drivers  thru  helical  springs.  In  the  New 
Haven  geared  type  freight  locomotives,  pinions  are  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  armature 
shaft  and  they  mesh  into  gears  which  are  mounted  on  a  quill  surrounding  the  axle, 
and  each  end  of  the  quills  is  provided  with  6  driving  arms  and  helical  springs  to  equal- 
ize the  torque.  Incidentally,  but  of  greatest  importance,  the  transmission  of  strains 
and  shocks  from  the  track  to  the  motors  is  avoided.  In  the  New  Haven  crank-type 
freight  locomotive,  heavy  helical  compression  springs  are  interposed  between  the 
split  spider  of  a  large  radius  armature  and  the  spider  mounted  on  the  motor  shaft. 

Shouldering  or  nosing  seldom  exists  in  electric  locomotives.  The 
drawbar  pull  is  forward  and  effective,  not  an  alternating  right  and  left- 
thrust.  Therefore  the  loosening  of  spikes,  the  maintenance  of  the  rail 
gage  and  alignment,  and  the  care  of  the  roadbed  are  decreased.  Oscilla- 
tions, caused  by  the  coned  surface  of  driver  treads,  may  not  be  avoided, 
but  are  easily  dampened  by  side  springs,  and  are  not  destructive. 

Temperatures  in  winter  do  not  decrease  the  drawbar  pull  of  electric 
locomotives  and  delay  the  service.  Steam  locomotives  have  less  tractive 
effort  in  winter  on  account  of  a  decrease  in  the  mean-effective  steam 
pressure,  condensation  on  the  cylinder  walls  and  piston  rods,  radiation 
of  heat  from  boilers,  chilled  furnaces,  etc.  Rating  Tables  were  given 
under  "Operating  Characteristics  of  Steam  Locomotives/'  page  64. 

Electric  locomotive  drawbar  pull  and  speed  are  increased  by  cold 
and  windy  weather,  at  the  time  when  the  increased  friction  requires 
greater  power  to  haul  the  train.  On  many  roads  this  increased  capacity 
has  been  found  to  be  of  great  value  and  "the  aggregate  delay  has  been 
less,  a  fact  particularly  noticeable  in  times  of  snow  storms."  Sprague. 

Drawbar  pull  is  effective  in  hauling  the  cars,  because  the  mechanical 
friction  of  electric  locomotives  is  less,  particularly  so  in  high-speed 
service;  because  the  higher  tractive  effort  requires  less  dead  weight; 
and  because  the  30- to  60-ton  coal  and  water  tender  are  eliminated. 

For  example,  in  the  New  York  Central  electric  zone,  the  common 
electric  passenger  locomotive  weighs  100  to  115  tons;  it  hauls  the  same 
train  which,  outside  of  the  electric  zone,  is  hauled  by  a  171-ton  steam 
locomotive.  To  show  the  saving  in  non-revenue-bearing  ton-mileage, 
kach  steam  locomotive  averaged  25,620  ton-miles  monthly  of  which  49 


272 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


per  cent,  was  useful  car-ton-miles,  while  each  electric  locomotive  averaged 
33,210  ton-miles  monthly,  of  which  65  per  cent,  was  useful  car-ton-miles. 
The  total  saving  in  weight  is  reported  as  11  per  cent.  Note  also: 


STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  TRAIN  WEIGHTS,  NEW  YORK  CENTRAL. 

APRIL,  1905. 


No.  of 
coaches. 

Tons  for 
coaches. 

Tons  for 
elec.  loco. 

Tons  for 
steam  loco. 

Tons  for 
train. 

Wt.  of  motive  power 
per  cent,  of  total. 

6 

307 

100 

407 

24  5  for  electric 

6 

256 

171 

437 

40  4  for  steam 

8 

413 

100 

513 

19  5  for  electric 

8 

345 

171 

516 

33  3  for  steam 

8 

123 

0 

0 

393 

68  .  7  for  electric. 

This  comparison  between  electric-locomotive-  and  steam-locomotive- 
hauled  trains  is  favorable  to  the  former;  and  the  last  comparison,  with 
motor-car  trains,  is  even  more  favorable  to  the  electric  train. 

Drawbar  pull  is  well  sustained  at  high  speed  in  electric  locomo- 
tives. In  steam  locomotives  it  falls  off  rapidly  as  the  speed  increases 
because  the  fixed  power  of  the  boiler  requires  a  reduction  in  the  mean- 
effective  steam  pressure  as  the  number  of  revolutions  increases. 

Drawbar  pull  of  series-wound  alternating-current  and  direct-current 
electric  motors  decreases  much  more  rapidly  than  the  speed,  increases 
and,  as  a  result,  high  speeds  are  often  accompanied  by  reduced  work. 
Series  motors  must  therefore  have  ample  continuous  capacity,  also 
means  for  speed  regulation,  by  field  or  potential  variation;  and  the 
electric  locomotive  must  be  sufficiently  heavy,  to  compare  favorably 
with  a  steam  locomotive  having  a  large  heating  surface. 

Statements  are  often  made  which  place  the  drawbar  pull  of  steam 
locomotives  in  a  too  unfavorable  light.  For  example,  one  ordinary 
Mallet  compound,  with  150  tons  on  drivers  and  5000  square  feet  of  heat- 
ing surface,  rated  2150  h.  p.,  shows  a  higher  continuous  drawbar  pull  at 
15  miles  per  hour  than  three  Michigan  Central  locomotives,  each  having 
100  tons  on  drivers,  and  a  continuous  rating  of  500  h.  p.  on  forced  draft. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         273 


DRAWBAR  PULL  OF  STEAM  AND   ELECTRIC  FREIGHT   LOCOMOTIVES. 


Locomotive. 

Electric. 

Electric. 

Electric. 

Electric. 

Steam. 

Steam. 

Company. 

Michigan 
Central. 

Great 
Northern. 

Grand 
Trunk. 

New 
Haven. 

Great 
Northern. 

Great 
Northern. 

T1..,-^ 

TM  

r\ 

n/r    11    j. 

Type  or 
kind. 

•Direct 
current. 

Three 
phase. 

One 
phase. 

One 
phase. 

Mallet 
compound. 

Consolida. 
simple. 

H.p  
Tons,  total, 
on  drivers 
D.B.pull,lbs: 
starting. 
5  m.p.h.  . 
10  m.p.h.. 
11  m.p.h.. 

500 
100 
100 

50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
48,000 

1500 
115 
115 

52,000 
52,000 
52,000 
52,000 

1140 
132 
132 

50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
50,000 

1120 
135 
96 

51,000 
50,000 
48,000 

2150 
252 
158 

60,000 
55,000 
50,500 

1450 
156 
108 

50,000 
44,000 
39,000 

12  m.p.h.. 

33,000 

52,000 

45,000 

45.600 

13  m.p.h.. 

24,000 

52,000 

40,000 

14  m.p.h.. 

18,700 

52,000 

32,500 

15  m.p.h.  . 
16  m.p.h.. 

14,500 
10,500 

47,500 
0 

29,500 
24,000 

40,000 
37,600 

44,500 

33,300 

17  m.p.h.. 

9,500 

22,000 

35,500 

18  m.p.h.. 

7,200 

19,000 

33,600 

20  m.p.h.. 

5,000 

16,000 

29,600 

38  000 

26  500 

Michigan  Central,  Great  Northern,  Grand  Trunk,  and  New  Haven  electric  loco- 
motives were  designed  for  mixed  passenger  and  freight  service.  Ordinary  conditions 
are  considered,  and  continuous  horse  power. 


18 


274  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

DRAWBAR  PULL  OF  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Locomotive 

Steam 

Steam 

Electric 

Electric 

Electric 

Electric 

Company. 

Penn- 
sylvania 

New  York 
Central. 

New  York 
Central. 

Simplon 
Tunnel. 

New 
Haven. 

Penn- 
sylvania. 

Number  

5266 

2797 

3401 

367 

041 

3977 

Type  or 

Atlantic 

Pacific 

Direct 

Three 

One 

Direct 

kind 

simple. 

Simple. 

current. 

phase 

phase 

current 

H.  p.,  cont.  .  . 

1,000 

1570 

1166 

1365 

800 

800 

Tons,  total 

161 

171 

115 

76 

102 

157 

on  drivers. 

55 

71 

71 

76 

77 

100 

D.B.pull,lbs.: 

starting  

22,000 

33,500 

33,500 

26,400 

19,200 

69,300 

lOm.p.h..  . 

20,000 

33,500 

35,000 

26,400 



15  m  p  h. 

18,500 

32,000 

35,000 

26,400 

16  m  p  h 

18000 

31  000 

35,000 

21  200 

20  m.p.h..  . 

16,000 

30,000 

35,000 

21,200 

21,000 

25  m.p.h..  . 

13,500 

24,000 

35,000 

18,050 

17,000 

60,000 

30  m.p.h..  . 

12,000 

19,500 

35,000 

18,050 

13,500 

28,000 

33  m.p.h..  . 

11,000 



34,000 

12,350 

12,000 

21,000 

35  m.p.h.  .  . 

10,500 

16,000 

32,000 

12,350 

11,000 

44,500 

40  m.p.h.  .  . 

9,000 

14,000 

20,500 

12,350 

9,000 

29,500 

45  m.p.h.  .  . 

8,300 

12,600 

13,000 

9,470 

7,400 

21,000 

60  m.p.h.  .  . 

6,200 

10,000 

6,000 

0 

4,300 

10,000 

ACCELERATION  RATES. 

Acceleration  rates  commonly  used  with  electric  trains  are  about 
twice  as  high  as  those  used  for  steam  trains,  and  the  character  of  the 
tractive  effort  is  uniform,  so  that  the  average  is  raised.  The  speed- 
torque  characteristics  of  electric  locomotives,  noted  in  the  last  table,  show 
that  high  acceleration  rates  can  be  well  maintained.  Direct-current 
locomotives  have  a  high  tractive  effort  available  for  acceleration  up  one 
half  of  the  rated  speed;  single-phase  locomotive  drawbar  pull  falls  off 
somewhat  faster;  but  three-phase  locomotives  have  a  small  decrease  in 
drawbar  pull  and  acceleration  rate  with  its  lower  speeds.  In  freight 
and  passenger  service  with  few  stops,  a  high  acceleration  rate  is  not  an 
important  matter,  but  good  suburban  service  demands  high  accelerating 
rates  in  order  to  attain  full  speed  in  the  minimum  time,  to  use  the  lowest 
maximum  speed  for  a  given  schedule  speed,  to  increase  the  coasting  and 
to  reduce  the  loss  in  braking.  See  "Motor-car  Trains."  Complete  data 
on  acceleration  rates  are  given  under  " Power  Required  for  Trains." 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         275 

SPEED  AND  ITS  UNIFICATION. 

Speeds  of  electric  locomotives  may  be  high,  both  maximum  and 
schedule  speed,  for  the  following  reasons,  a  to  e: 

a.  Motion  is  rotary,  not  reciprocating;  it  is  balanced,  not  unbalanced. 
The  hammer  blow  of  the  counterbalance  is  eliminated.     High  speeds  do 
not  rack  the  locomotive  and  destroy  the  roadbed.     The  maximum  speed 
may  be  increased  with  safety  on  weak  roadbeds,  trestles,  and  bridges, 
because  of  the  absence  of  the  unbalanced  efforts,  and  because  of  the 
decreased  weight  on  the  drivers. 

b.  Center  of  gravity  is  lower  and  thus  the  safety  of  movement  is 
increased,  provided  that    (1)    weights   and   motors  are  distributed,   (2) 
weights    are    spring-mounted,    and    (3)    two-    or   four-wheeled    guiding- 
trucks  are  used  for  high-speed  work.     On  the  other  hand,  a  center  of 
gravity,  8  to  10  feet  above  the  4.71-foot  gage  track,  as  used  on  high- 
speed steam  locomotives,  seems  to  be  dangerous.     (See  data  on  center 
of  gravity  in  this  chapter  under  Electric  Locomotive  Design.) 

c.  Acceleration  rates  are  higher  by  design,  as  noted. 

d.  Central  stations  are  used  to  supply  power  to  the  motors.     The 
speed  of  the  train  can  be  maintained  with  heavy  loads.     High  drawbar 
pull  at  high  speeds  as  used  with  electric  power  is  a  valuable  asset. 

e.  Unification  of    train    speeds   becomes    possible  with    electrically 
hauled  freight  and  passenger  trains.     Motors  which  will  run  at  a  much 
more  uniform  speed,  regardless  of  the  grades  and  load,  can  be  used  with 
economy.     Unification  of   train  speed  improves  the  efficiency  and  the 
safety  of  operation  and  the  capacity  of  the  track.     The  complication 
from  non-uniformity  of  speed  among  the  various  trains  over  the  same 
tracks  is  apparent,  especially  so  on  well-loaded  trunk  lines  with  varying 
train  weights  and  service.     Uniform  speed  is  not   a  characteristic  of 
steam  locomotives:  a  1600-ton  train  is  hauled  at  25  to  28  m.  p.  h.  on  the 
level,  at  10  to  12  m.  p.  h.  on  1.0  per  cent,  grade,  and  at  5  to  7  m.  p.  h. 
on  the  2.0  per  cent,  grade. 

Electric  locomotives  are  able  to  maintain  the  speed  with  varying 
drawbar  pull  independent  of  the  load  or  grade,  up  to  the  overload  limits 
of  the  motors.  A  three-phase  locomotive  speed  is  nearly  uniform,  inde- 
pendent of  the  load  or  grades;  the  single-phase  locomotive  speed  is 
maintained  in  a  measure  as  the  load  increases  by  simply  raising  the  trans- 
former voltage  delivered  to  the  motor;  and  the  direct-current  locomotive 
speed  is  maintained,  to  some  extent,  by  varying  the  field  of  the  motor. 
Unification  of  speeds  simply  requires  ample  motor  capacity,  rather  than 
motor  characteristics. 

The  advantages  of  ample  motor  capacity,  to  produce  a  much  more 
uniform  speed,  are  apparent.  One  speed  for  all  trains  is  not  practical, 


276  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

and  the  same  speed  for  up-grade  and  down-grade  is  most  undesirable 
from  a  commercial  standpoint,  yet  greater  uniformity  of  speed  among 
the  several  trains  on  a  division  makes  for  simplicity  of  train  dispatching 
and  for  the  economical  movement  of  heavy  traffic  on  a  single-track  road. 

Mileage  of  Locomotives  is  increased  by: 

Ample  capacity  in  the  motor  and  in  the  central  station. 

Rapid  acceleration  whenever  it  is  practical. 

Drawbar  pull  to  maintain  the  speed  of  heavier  trains. 

Higher  maximum  and  schedule  speeds. 

Fewer  delays,  from  greater  simplicity. 

Quicker  movements  at  terminals  and  switching  yards. 

Less  time  in  repair  shops  and  inspection  sheds. 

Time  saved  in  washing  out  and  cleaning  boilers. 

Time  saved  in  coaling,  watering,  and  turning. 

Availability  for  service  with  minimum  delay. 

Unification  of  train  speeds. 

Increased  motor  capacity  in  windy,  stormy,  and  cold  weather. 

"New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  electric  locomotives  on  the  New 
York-Stamford  electric  zone  cover  an  average  of  210  miles  per  day,  while  statistics  on 
115  steam  locomotives  on  the  same  inter-division  service  showed  an  average  of  158 
miles."  Murray,  March,  1909. 

New  York  Central  electric  locomotives  make  fully  25  per  cent,  greater  daily 
mileage  than  steam.  Wilgus,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March,  1908. 

Valtellina  Railway  records  show  the  annual  mileage  of  steam  locomotives  is 
17,213  and  the  annual  mileage  of  electric  locomotives  is  35,120.  "One  electric  loco- 
motive is  actually  doing  the  work  of  two  steam  locomotives  of  the  same  capacity." 
Valatin. 

Mileage  of  cars  in  freight  service  is  increased  by  the  use  of  electric  traction. 
Freight  cars  on  steam  roads  average  but  24  miles  per  day,  or  10  m.  p.  h.  when  moving. 
Steam  locomotives  in  freight  service,  on  account  of  the  operating  and  traffic  conditions, 
make  less  than  100  miles  per  day;  but  these  limitations  do  not  apply  with  equal  force 
to  the  electric  locomotives,  and  greater  mileage  per  month  is  realized.  The  reason  is 
not  entirely  on  account  of  the  ability  to  raise  the  schedule  speed,  for  example  from 
10  m.  p.  h.  to  17  m.p.h. ;  the  improvement  is  cumulative;  because  overtaking  trains  and 
opposing  trains  do  not  compel  the  slow  freight  trains  to  take  the  sidings,  and  wait  for 
long  periods.  The  dispatcher  would  have  minimum  trouble  and  avoid  many  delays 
if  all  speeds  were  more  nearly  uniform.  The  raising  of  the  freight  train  speeds,  and 
the  surety  that  the  electric  locomotives  will  be  on  time,  make  a  radical  reduction  in 
the  time  wasted  on  sidings  and  increase  the  monthly  mileage  per  locomotive. 

Greater  locomotive  and  car  mileage  per  day  raises  the  efficiency  of  the  investment 
of  the  railroad  in  rolling  stock,  main  tracks,  and  terminals. 

POWER   DEVELOPED  PER  TON. 

The  capacity,  in  horse  power  per  ton,  of  electric  locomotives  is  twice 
as  great  as  with  steam  locomotives.  This  is  proved  by  comparing  the 
tables  on  "  Weight  Factor  of  Electric  Locomotives/'  given  later,  with 
the  table,  page.  56,  Chapter  II,  on  "  Horse  Power  per  Ton  of  Steam  Loco- 
motives," The  weight  of  electric  trains  may  thus  be  doubled  without 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES        277 

increasing  the  unit  stresses  from  the  locomotives  on  the  bridges  and  rail- 
way structures.     The  greater  horse  power  per  ton  results  from: 

a.  Absence  of  coal  and  water  tender,  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  total. 

b.  Absence  of  furnace  and  boiler. 

c.  Greater  proportion  of  weight  on  the  drivers.      (Many  steam  locomotives  use  a 
pair  of  wheels  to  support  the  fire  box.) 

d.  Greater  tractive  effort  per  ton  on  drivers. 

e  .  Electric  motor  designs,  which  show  great  power  per  ton.  Electric  locomo 
tives  are  designed  for  the  average  work  and  they  may  be  safely  overloaded  50  per 
cent,  for  hours,  or  100  per  cent,  temporarily.  Steam  locomotives  are  designed  for 
the  maximum  work,  and  the  limit  of  their  capacity  is  in  the  boiler.  The  limit  for  the 
electric  motor  is  the  heating  of  the  insulation  on  wires,  and  this  requires  several  hours. 
Intermittent  service  allows  cooling,  and  the  capacity  is  raised  in  windy,  cold  weather. 

ADDITIONAL  PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

Advantages  of  the  electric  locomotive,  as  a  machine,  with  reference 
to  smoke,  noise,  dirt,  fire,  gas,  mechanical  efficiency,  simplicity,  safety 
and  reliability,  were  detailed  in  Chapter  III. 

Increased  capacity  and  good  operating  features  may  be  obtained  by 
electrification;  but  capacity  may  also  be  gained  by  grade  reduction, 
tunnels,  double  tracking,  elimination  of  curves,  track  elevation,  block- 
signals,  more  track  at  terminals,  more  cars,  and  heavier  steam  locomotives. 
A  broad-gage  railroad  management  studies  the  initial  cost,  operating 
features,  and  expenses  of  all  the  physical  improvements  which  are  possible 
and  asks  for  that  combination  which  will  give  the  greatest  net  return 
from  any  added  investment. 

COMMERCIAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  use  of  electric  locomotives  results  in  important  commercial 
advantages,  which  are  worthy  of  consideration. 

1.  Traffic  and  earnings  are  increased  as  a  result  of  ample  capacity  and  superior 
power  service.     Items  1,  2,  3,  4  and  5  were  detailed  in  Chapter  III. 

2.  Car  movement  is  facilitated  to  a  very  great  extent. 

3.  Terminal  capacity  is  increased — a  great  advantage. 

4.  Heavier  loads  are  hauled,  and  at  good  speed. 

5.  Freight-train  haulage  becomes  practical. 

6.  Maintenance  and  repairs  are  decreased. 

7.  Wages  and  time  are  saved. 

8.  Utilization  of  power  is  effective  and  efficient. 

9.  Regeneration  of  power  is  practical. 

10.  Water  power  can  often  be  utilized. 

11.  Economy  of  fuel  is  obtained. 

12.  Cost  of  service  is  decreased. 

13.  Earnings  from  investments  are  enhanced. 


278          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE  AND  REPAIRS. 

Maintenance  is  decreased,  for  the  reasons  given  below : 

a.  Simplicity  of  electric  motive  power  equipment  and  the  smaller 
amount  of  moving  apparatus  reduce  the  wear  and  tear.     The  material 
and  labor  required  for  repairs  is  reduced  to  two-thirds  of  that  for  steam 
locomotives. 

b.  Depreciation  is  slow  as  a  result  of  simplicity.     In  America  about 
450  electric  locomotives  are  now  in  service,  and  the  indications  for  the 
first  10  to  15  years'  service  are  clear.     The  steam  locomotive  is  short  lived, 
and,  after  being  sent  to  the  back-shop  about  five  times,  to  rebuild  the 
boiler  and  furnace,  the  good  metal  and  machine  work  are  worn  out; 
and  after  the  engine  has  been  in  operation  at  real  hard   work  for   10 
years,  it  becomes  a  drag  on  the  service.     Depreciation  of  central  station 
boilers,  the  steam  or  hydraulic  turbines,  and  the  electric  locomotives, 
when  combined,  is  relatively  small  per  h.  p.  hour  delivered  or  per  ton- 
miles  hauled. 

c.  Mechanical  friction  of  electric  motors,  motor  cars,  and  locomotives 
is  relatively  low,  because  of  the  reduced  number  of  moving  elements,  less 
frictional  resistance,  and  a  50  per  cent,  reduction  in  the  dead  weight. 

d.  Cleaning  and  inspection  work  is  decreased.     Electric  locomotives 
and  motor  cars  are  inspected  after  each  1200- to  1500-mile  run,  or  about 
every  8   days;   the   equipments    are   blown    out   with   compressed   air, 
are  cleaned,  inspected,  gaged,  and  oiled;  and  without  further  delay  are 
ready  for  service.     The  great  saving  in  round-house  labor  is  apparent. 
Steam  locomotives,  after  each  day's  run  of  about  150  miles,  are  cooled, 
blown  off,  washed  out,  and  cleaned;  then  coaled,  watered,  and  fired  up, 
in  addition  to  the  inspection. 

e.  Coal  and  water  tenders,  which  must  be  hauled  by  steam  loco- 
motives, add  to  the  cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs,  but  this  is  avoided 
with  electric  traction.     The  numerous  water-pumping  plants,  the  coal 
supply  sheds,  and  the  fuel  and  labor  necessary  to  maintain  them,  and  to 
supply  the  tenders,  are  dispensed  with,  and  this  work  is  concentrated 
at  the  central  station. 

f.  Fewer  locomotives  are  used  with  electric  traction.     Data  from 
the  installations  made,  and  those  under  way  on  a  larger  scale,  indicate 
clearly  that  three  electric  locomotives  will  replace  five  steam  locomotives 
because  the  former  have  larger  capacity,  lower  weight  per  h.  p.  developed, 
greater  daily  mileage,  and  fewer  units  in  the  repair  shops. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  and  repairs  is  now  considered. 

Stillwell  states:  "The  maintenance  and  upkeep  of  electric  loco- 
motives may  be  placed  at  2  1/2  per  cent,  per  annum,  while  the  rate  for 
steam  locomotives  is  20  per  cent,  per  annum." 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         279 

Van  Alstyne;  Vice-president  of  the  American  Locomotive  Company, 
stated  to  the  Northwest  Railway  Club:  "After  a  careful  consideration,  I 
believe  that  the  repairs  and  maintenance  on  electric  locomotives  could 
not  exceed  one-half  of  those  on  steam  locomotives." 

Pomeroy  gives  this  comparison  of  maintenance  costs: 

Locomotive.  Steam.  Electric. 


Boiler     .        .  .          

23% 

0% 

Running  gear 

.    .    |            20 

20 

Machinery 

30 

15 

Lagging  and  painting            

12 

5 

Smoke  box 

.  .               5 

0 

Coal  and  water  tender 

|           13 

0 

Total 

loo 

^0 

New  York  Central  saved  20  per  cent,  net,  in  repairs  and  fixed  charges. 
The  average  cost  of  interest,  depreciation,  repairs,  inspection,  and  hand- 
ling was  about  $4750  per  year  for  steam  locomotives  and  $3800  per  year 
for  electric  locomotives,  according  to  Wilgus. 

New  Haven  steam  locomotive  records  per  locomotive-mile  are: 
Passenger  locomotive  maintenance,  $.017;  repairs,  $.039;  total,  $.056. 
Freight  locomotives,  maintenance,  .014;  repairs,  .067;  total,  .081. 
Its  electric  locomotive  maintenance  and  repairs  have  been  high  because 
the  installation,  made  in  1907,  was  of  a  radical  and  untried  character; 
but  the  maintenance  and  repair  expense  is  now  decreasing  rapidly. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  reports  in  effect  that  the  maintenance  cost 
for  steam  locomotives  at  the  Port  Huron  tunnel,  where  the  service  is 
heavy  and  severe,  averaged  13.6  cents  per  locomotive-mile  in  1908; 
while  that  of  the  electric  locomotive  was  4.3  cents  per  locomotive-mile. 
Maintenance  and  repairs  for  1909  were  55  per  cent,  of  the  steam  cost. 

Maintenance  and  repair  records  of  locomotives  are  not  easily  obtained. 
Accounts  show  a  general  uniformity,  but  rules  of  each  railroad  govern. 
Cost  depends  upon  the  kind  of  water  used,  the  class  of  enginemen 
employed,  the  thoroness  and  efficiency  of  the  shop  work,  which  in  turn 
may  be  affected  by  labor  troubles;  the  condition  of  the  roadbed,  the  train 
loading,  the  policy  of  the  company  regarding  improvements,  and  safety 
in  train  service.  After  a  wreck,  locomotive  repairs  may  be  charged  to 
accidents.  Renewals  of  old  locomotives  may  be  charged  to  equipment. 

Passenger  locomotives  in  steam  service  require  general  repairs  about 
every  100,000  miles;  freight  locomotives,  every  70,000  miles;  yet  this 
depends  on  the  service,  not  on  the  miles.  Records  should  extend  over 
many  years  and,  should  be  fair,  should  be  based  on  the  ton-miles  hauled. 


280  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

MAINTENANCE  AND  REPAIR  COSTS  PER  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  MILE. 

TABLE  I. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Cost  per 
mile;  cents. 

Authorities  and  reference 
quoted. 

Buffalo  &  Lockport 

0  79 

Stillwell  A  I  E  E    Jan   1907  p   62 

Baltimore  &  Ohio            .... 

6  00 

Muhlfield,  S  R  J  ,  Feb  24  1906  p  307 

St.  Louis  &  Suburban 

0  60 

G  E   advertisement 

New  York  Central  

1.60 

G.E.,  first  50,000-mile  test 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 
Grand  Trunk         

1.26 
4.60 
5.00 

7  46 

G.E.,  100,000-mile  test. 
Interstate  Commerce  report,  1908. 
A.I.E.E.,  Jan.  25,  1907,  p.  150. 
1909  records  by  Kirker 

Hoboken  Shore  
Illinois  Traction 

4.30 
1.50 
2  24 

1908  Elec.  Review,  March  6,  1909. 
Bevoise. 
1910  approximate 

Paris-Orleans    

2.30 

Dubois,  S.R  J  ,  May  20,  1905 

Paris-  V  ersailles 

5  00 

Dubois    S  R  J     May  20    1905 

Paris-Metropolitan    

1.54 

Dubois,  S.R.J.,  May  20,  1905 

Valtellina         

1  38 

Cserhati,  S  R  J    Aug  26  1905   p  303 

1.80 

Stillwell,  A.I.E.E.  Jan.  1907,  p.  62. 

1 

PABLE  II. 

• 

No. 

Locomotive 

Annual 

Cost  per 

Data 

Name  of  railroad. 

of 

repairs  and 

locomotive 

mile; 

for 

locos. 

renewals. 

mileage. 

cents. 

year. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

10 

$16,475 

200  000 

8.2 

1908 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 

21 

27,660 

'  500,000 

5.5 

1908 

New  York  Central 

35 

45  888 

1  000  000 

4  6 

1908 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

10 

7,775 

170,000 

4.5 

1909 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 

41 

256,704 

2,000,000 

12.8 

1909 

New  York  Central       

47 

31,319 

1,000,000 

3   1 

1909 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

12 

180,000 

1910 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 

41 

140,983 

2,136,500 

6.6 

1910 

New  York  Central 

47 

1  100,000 

1910 

Great  Northern  

4 

30,534 

50,150 

5.00 

1910 

Repair  and  renewal  data  are  from  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  Report  for 
1908,  p.  181;  for  1909,  p.  137;  annual  reports  of  railroad  companies,  and  other  sources. 
See  maintenance  data  for  Steam  Locomotives,  and  for  Motor-car  Trains. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         281 

Some  railroads  believe  in  wearing  locomotives  out,  as  fast  as  possible, 
in  hauling  trains,  and  few  extra  locomotives  are  kept  in  service;  loco- 
motiv^s  are  continually  replaced  with  more  modern  machines.  This  plan 
gives  better  results  than  to  operate  locomotives  which  are  15  years  old. 

In  studying  maintenance  cost,  care  should  be  taken  to  get  the  basis 
of  the  book-keeping  and  all  comparable  data  on  service.  Complete  in- 
formation is  seldom  obtained. 

WAGES. 

Wages  and  time  are  saved  with  electric  service. 

Locomotive  and  roundhouse  work  is  decreased. 

Rate  of  wages  paid  is  reduced. 

Firemen  are  not  required. 

Automatic  devices  and  meters  increase  safety. 

Locomotive  mileage  is  greater;  shopping  is  less. 

Heavier  trains  require  less  labor  per  mile  run. 

Double  heading  does  not  require  duplication  of  men. 

Time  is  utilized  efficiently  in  actual  running. 

Service  is  more  continuous  with  electric  locomotives. 

Less  work  and  time  are  required  for  efficient  switching. 

Labor  is  more  efficient,  and  is  of  a  better  class. 

Speed  of  freight  trains  on  grades  is  higher. 

These  points  have  been  detailed  in  Chapter  III,  under  the  heading, 
"  Decreased  Operating  Expenses — Wages." 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  records  show  a  saving,  following  the  St.  Clair 
tunnel  electrification,  of  15  and  23  per  cent,  in  the  wages  paid  to  locomo- 
tive crews  and  train  crews  respectively. 

New  York  Central  uses  one  motorman  for  a  6-  to  10-car  multiple-unit 
train  in  place  of  an  engineman  and  a  fireman  on  a  steam  locomotive. 

Metropolitan  and  Metropolitan  District  Railway,  London,  reduced 
the  wages  of  drivers  20  to  25  per  cent,  with  the  advent  of  electric  traction. 

Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  electric  express  trains  have  only  two 
trainmen,  one  driver  and  one  conductor;  while  the  heavier  local  trains 
require  one  driver,  one  conductor,  and  one  rear  man. 

In  England,  Germany,  and  France  the  same  general  fact  is  noted: 
Electric  train  service  requires  less  wages  per  train  mile. 

ECONOMY  OF  POWER. 

Utilization  of  the  power  produced  at  the  central  station  is  effective 
and  efficient  when  electric  locomotives  are  used,  as  explained  in  Chapter 
III,  under  "Decreased  Operating  Expenses." 

Regeneration  of  power  which  effects  an  economy  in  operation  is  con- 
sidered under  "Power  Required  for  Trains." 

Water  powers  can  be  used.     See  "Water  Power  Plants." 


282          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

ECONOMY  OF  FUEL. 

Steam  locomotives  burn  approximately  the  following  coat  per  1000 
ton-miles:  Switching,  1300;  suburban,  500;  ordinary  passenger,  250; 
ordinary  freight,  150.  The  pounds  of  coal  per  i.  h.  p.  hr.  approximate: 
Suburban,  6.75;  ordinary  passenger,  4.0;  ordinary  freight  locomotives, 
3.0;  and  modern  steam  power  plants,  2.0  pounds.  See  page  82. 

Electric  traction,  with  energy  supplied  from  a  central  .station,  is  now 
compared  with  the  steam  locomotive: 

FUEL  SAVING  WITH  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 

Fuel  of  cheaper  grades,  saves 30  to  10% 

Furnace  and  boiler  economy 35  to  30 

Radiation  and  condensation 20  to  10 

Cylinder  or  steam  economy 30  to  25 

Friction  of  mechanism 12  to     6 

Total  saving  (not  the  sum), ' 60 

Generator  and  transformer  loss 5  to     8 

Transmission  and  contact  line 2  to     8 

Transformation 3  to     6 

Motor  and  control 10  to     6 

Total  loss  approximates 25 

Net  saving  in  fuel  (1.00  -.60)  x  1.25- 50 

The  fuel  savings  include  those  due  to  stoker  in  furnace,  water-tube 
boilers,  superheaters,  feed  water  heater,  less  radiation,  less  stand-by  and 
banked-fire  losses,  gain  at  poppet  valves,  greater  expansion  of  steam  in 
turbines,  condensing  operation,  and  power  production  on  a  large  scale. 

Economy  of  fuel,  which  is  naturally  expected  with  electric  traction, 
was  considered  in  Chapter  III  under  "  Decreased  Operating  Expense." 

Efficiency  of  simple  steam  locomotives  was  explained  in  Chapter  II. 
Efficiency  is  lowest  with  the  late  cut-off  required  on  grades,  and  in  start- 
ing or  accelerating  a  train.  The  fuel  consumed  by  steam  locomotives 
while  standing  idle,  or  waiting  at  a  meeting  point,  is  a  large  percentage 
of  the  total.  Each  locomotive,  without  doing  any  useful  work,  may 
burn  300  to  800  pounds  of  coal  per  hour  or  15  to  25  tons  per  month. 
Almost  all  of  this  is  saved  in  electric  traction. 

The  superior  efficiency  of  a  modern  steam  power  plant  is  evident. 
Power  can  ordinarily  be  generated,  delivered,  and  applied  in  a  wholesale 
manner  more  effectively  than  by  an  individual  steam  locomotive. 
Modern  power  plants  employ  high-grade  engineers  to  manage  the  fur- 
naces and  stokers  and  to  burn 'cheapest  fuels,  under  clean  water-tube 
boilers.  Efficient  steam  turbines,  minimum  internal  losses,  ample  water 
for  condensation,  feed-water  heaters,  and  economisers  are  utilized. 
Losses  in  electric  generators,  lines,  and  transformers  are  compensated  by 
the  decreased  friction  and  the  lighter  weight  of  the  electric  locomotive. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES        283 

The  saving  of  50  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  fuel  is  realized.  Fuel  cost  is 
1 1  per  cent,  of  the  operating  expenses  of  steam  railroads  and  is  thus  an 
item  affecting  economical  transportation. 

New  York  Central  Railroad  furnishes  data  on  fuel  saving,  of  interest. 

"For  road  tests,  steam  locomotives  require  1.22  pounds  of  coal  per 
car-ton-mile;  electric  locomotives,  after  allowing  for  power  plant  charges 
and  expenses  at  2.6  cents  per  kw.  hr.,  save  28  per  cent,  of  the  fuel  item." 
It  formerly  paid  for  coal,  used  on  steam  locomotives  in  terminal  service, 
$5.00  per  long  ton,  and  in  road  service,  $3.50;  while  at  its  Mt.  Morris 
power  station,  coal  with  equal  B.t.u.  costs  less  than  $3.05  per  ton. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad's  electric  power  station  in  Long  Island  City 
burns  low-grade  screenings  efficiently  on  modern  stokers. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  for  its  Port  Huron  tunnel,  formerly  used 
anthracite  coal  under  its  steam  locomotives.  These  results  are  reported: 

"  The  fuel  bill  for  steam  locomotives  during  the  last  six  months  in  steam  service 
averaged  $4,956  a  month.  The  fuel  bill  for  the  first  six  months  of  electric  service 
averaged  $1,152.60  a  month.  Hard  coal,  costing  $6  a  ton,  was  used  on  the  steam 
locomotives.  Bituminous  coal,  costing  $2  per  ton,  is  used  in  the  power  station." 
Kirker,  in  Elec.  Review,  March  6,  1909,  p.  423.  The  1909  records,  with  cheaper 
grades  of  coal,  give  the  fuel  cost  as  39  per  cent,  of  that  under  steam  operation. 

South  Side  Elevated  Railroad,  Chicago,  in  1898  operated  modern  Baldwin  com- 
pound locomotives,  weighing  28  tons,  to  haul  5-car  trains.  The  road  was  electrified 
and  the  saving  in  coal  was  $500  per  day. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  under  most  favorable  conditions  with  its  steam 
locomotives  used  1  pound  of  coal  to  produce  2.23  ton-miles,  or  1.50  ton-miles  when  the 
weight  of  the  cars  only  was  considered.  Four  years  later,  when  electricity  was  used 
exclusively,  1  pound  of  coal  burned  at  the  power  house  produced  3.83  ton-miles. 
Therefore  the  ratio  of  ton-mileage  per  pound  of  coal  in  favor  of  electric  operation  was 
2.57  to  1;  or,  since  under  electrical  operation  the  average  speed  was  2  m.p.h.  greater, 
the  ratio  of  ton-mileage  per  pound  of  coal  was  3  to  1.  This  saving  in  coal  consump- 
tion is  1,000,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum.  (Stillwell.) 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  tests,  as  reported  by  Murray, 
electrical  engineer,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907,  p.  147,  show  the  coal  and  the  ton- 
miles  required  during  18  months  for  the  run  between  New  York  and  New  Haven,  in 
steam  railroad  service,  were  as  follows: 


1 
1 

1 

Lb.  of  coal                Lb.  of  coal 

Average 

Kind  cf  raihoad  service. 

per  average             per  revenue 

tons  per 

i.h.p.  hr.                   ton-mile. 

train. 

Passenger-express       .    .     .     .    .    . 

4.06  to  4.37 

0.194 

527 

Passenger-express-local      .... 

4.68  to  4.61 

0.335 

314 

Freight  service  ; 

not  taken 

0.169 

931 

Tests  were  made  in  August  when  track  and  temperature  favored  good  results. 
Murray  estimated,  in  January,  1907,  that  the  saving  of  coal  with  electric  traction 


284          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

would  be  40  per  cent.  Two  years  later  he  wrote:  "  By  far  the  most  interesting  feature 
of  the  investigation,  which  has  been  continued,  is  now  to  find  that,  by  actual  opera- 
tion, the  saving  in  coal  for  electric  passenger  operation,  as  against  steam,  for  the  same 
service,  is  just  50  per  cent." 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway,  of  England,  J.  A.  F.  Aspinwall,  General 
Manager,  has  recently  reported  that  on  its  Liverpool-Southport  branch,  37  miles, 
which  now  uses  electric  traction,  the  saving  in  coal  per  train-mile  is  48  per  cent. 

"  Mersey  Tunnel  Railway  of  England,  with  steam  traction,  required  1  ton  of  coal 
costing  $4.00  per  ton  to  move  1  ton  of  train  load  2.21  miles  at  17.75  miles  per  hour; 
while  with  electric  traction,  it  required  1  ton  of  coal  costing  only  $2.18  per  ton  to 
move  1  ton  of  train  load  2.29  miles  at  an  average  speed  of  22.25  miles  per  hour." 
The  net  saving  was  55  per  cent.  J.  Shaw,  B.  I.  C.  E.,  November,  1909.  , 

Cost  of  service  per  ton-mile  is  reduced  because  electric  locomotive 
units  haul  faster  and  heavier  trains  in  a  given  time;  save  in  fuel,  labor, 
and  maintenance;  utilize  the  cheapest  coal,  or  water  powers;  decrease 
the  non-revenue-bearing  ton-miles  of  locomotives;  and  utilize  the  energy 
produced  to  great  advantage,  in  common  service  or  on  mountain  grades. 

Earnings  from  investments  are  enhanced  when  the  tracks,  equipment, 
and  rolling  stock  are  used  efficiently;  when  more  work  is  done  in  a  given 
time;  and  when  the  ton-mileage  is  increased  by  an  efficient  motive  power. 
The  increased  load,  the  increased  speed,  the  shorter  delays,  and  the 
greater  mileage  of  locomotives  and  cars^  also  save  in  investments 
which  would  otherwise  be  required  in  an  ordinary  single-track  road,  at 
bridges,  tunnels,  grades,  and  congested  terminals. 

An  increased  investment  is  required  with  electric  traction;  but  it  is 
evident  that  if  twice  the  horse  power  can  be  utilized  efficiently  on  a  given 
length  of  line,  to  double  the  work  or  the  receipts  from  the  same  track, 
and  if  this  can  be  done  with  an  extra  investment  of  a  small  part  of  the 
total  cost  of  the  road,  the  business  proposition  is  worth  consideration. 

Increased  efficiency  and  capacity,  and  other  physical  advantages  of 
electric  traction,  result  in  a  financial  advantage;  otherwise  electric  power 
should  never  receive  consideration  for  important  railway  service. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  LOCOMOTIVES  OVER  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 

The  electric  locomotive  has  some  advantages  in  train  haulage  not 
possessed  by  motor  cars. 

Independent  units  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  locomotives.  The 
division  of  the  equipment  between  the  locomot'ves  and  the  coaches 
facilitates  different  classes  of  care  and  inspection.  Locomotive  motors, 
in  heavy  service,  after  running  several  hours  on  an  extreme  overload, 
may  be  cooled  by  forced  draft;  or  another  locomotive  may  be  utilized. 
With  motor-car  trains  this  is  not  so  practical. 

Locomotives  are  used  as  freight  cars  by  the  Paris-Orleans  Railway, 
by  the  North-Eastern  of  England,  and  by  American  interurban  roads. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         285 

Such  locomotives,  of  the  baggage-car  type,  weighing  20  to  60  tons,  are 
loaded  with  express,  mail,  merchandise,,  perishable  goods,  etc.,  and 
haul  freight  cars  or  passenger  coaches. 

Locomotives  are  needed  for  thru  passenger  and  freight-car  haulage. 

Danger  to  passengers  is  decreased  when  the  motors  are  placed  on  the 
locomotive  only.  It  is  more  difficult  to  avoid  some  of  the  dangers  of  an 
electric  shock,  from  leakage,  fire,  or  short  circuit,  whenever  high  voltages 
required  in  railroading  pass  thru  steel  conduit  wiring  under  each  electric 
car  of  the  train.  In  case  of  a  head-end  collision,  the  danger  is  decreased 
when  a  locomotive,  or  a  steel  baggage  motor  car,  is  at  the  head  of  a  train. 

High  voltages  can  be  used  on  the  field  windings.  Three-phase, 
3000-volt  locomotive  motors  do  not  require  a  step-down  transformer, 
and  the  locomotive  weight  is  greatly  reduced.  Leonard's  motor- 
generator  locomotive  plan,  which  embraces  a  high-voltage,  single-phase, 
60-,  25-,  or  15-cycle,  high-speed  motor,  driving  a  direct-current  gene- 
rator, which  in  turn  supplies  current  at  varying  voltages  to  600-volt 
direct-current  motors,  may  be  used.  High  voltages  are  not  practical 
with  motor-car  trains,  without  the  use  of  step-down  transformers. 

Designs  of  motors  for  locomotive  service  are  better,  because  the  space 
between  or  above  large  drivers,  or  above  the  frames,  may  be  used.  In- 
sulation of  motors  can  be  used  more  liberally  or  more  advantageously. 

Cost  of  equipment  is  reduced  with  locomotives.  Larger  motors  are 
used,  the  installation  is  concentrated,  and  few  changes  are  required  in 
existing  passenger  and  freight  cars. 

Maintenance  of  equipment  is  lower  than  on  motor-car  trains  Fewer 
motors  are  placed  on  the  locomotive  trucks  or  frames;  cleanliness  is 
obtained,  and  insulation  is  not  easily  damaged  by  moisture.  Motor 
equipment  is  more  accessible  and  can  receive  better  supervision  and 
inspection  to  prolong  its  life.  The  number  of  parts  is  less  with  the  larger 
motors  and  thus  the  cost  of  repairs  and  inspection  of  motors  and  con- 
trollers is  less.  The  total  maintenance  cost  of  motors  of  locomotives 
per  ton-mile  or  per  passenger-mile  hauled  is  less  than  60  per  cent,  of  the 
maintenance  cost  of  motors  on  cars. 

ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  DESIGN. 

Modern  electric  locomotives  for  railroad  trains  represent  the  cul- 
mination of  numerous  efforts  in  design,  beginning  even  before  the  pioneer 
days  at  Baltimore,  in  1895.  A  general  review  will  assist  in  gaging  the 
value  of  the  work  done  and  will  classify  some  of  the  features  which 
follow  in  " Technical  Descriptions  of  Electric  Locomotives." 

Up  to  the  year  1905,  there  had  been  few  attempts  at  standardization 
of  frames  or  of  mechanical  motion,  for  either  freight  or  passenger  service. 
Each  new  locomotive  had  special  features  in  design;  but  almost  every 


286  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

conceivable  wheel  arrangement,  driving  mechanism,  and  general  pro- 
portion had  been  tried  out,  in  an  effort  to  create  ideal  types. 

It  is  a  notable  fact,  that,  following  the  adoption  of  electric  locomotive 
power  by  the  leading  steam  railroads,  since  1906,  the  character  of  the 
construction  and  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  electric  locomotive 
frame,  truck,  wheels,  etc.,  have  been  rapidly  improved,  and  standardized 
to  some  extent. 

E'ectric  locomotives  are  energy-collecting  and  transmitting  machines, 
as  contrasted  with  steam  locomotives  which  are  prime  movers,  that  is, 
energy-generating  machines,  a  fundamental  difference  which  affects  opera- 
tion and  design.  This  inherent  difference  is  such  that  steam  practice 
and  experience  cannot  be  utilized.  The  boiler,  furnace,  and  fuel  and 
water  supply,  and  the  reciprocating  strains  are  absent. 

Designs  of  e  ectric  machines  generally  embrace  a  box-shaped  sym- 
metrical cab  or  superstructure,  double-end  operation,  flexible  frrmes, 
light-weight  plate  and  rolled-steel  shapes  in  side  framing,  transmission  of 
forces  and  strains  of  freight  locomotives  thru  articulated  trucks,  lower 
center  of  gravity,  geared  and  direct  connection  of  motive  power  to  axles, 
and,  except  in  Pennsylvania  type  locomotives,  journals  outside  of  the 
driving  wheels.  In  braking,  the  energy  of  rotation  stored  up  in  large 
heavy  motors  require  more  powerful  brakes,  larger  brake  shoes,  and 
tires  to  dissipate  the  stored  energy.  In  electric  freight  locomotives 
ballast  is  often  added  to  get  the  desired  tractional  adhesion. 

Electric  locomotive  design,  as  a  matter  of  prime  importance,  embraces 
a  machine  which  is  capable  of  performing  the  same  kind  of  service  which 
the  modern  steam  locomotive  now  performs;  which  exceeds  the  steam 
locomotive  in  its  power  capacity;  and  which  is  adapted  for  branch  lines, 
light  passenger  and  heavy  freight  service.  George  Westinghouse,  1910. 

Mistakes  made  in  the  design  of  early  electric  locomotives  were  caused 
by  lack  of  experience,  by  not  appreciating  the  problems,  by  a  desire  for 
simplicity,  and  by  unsatisfactory  compromises  between  steam  and  elec- 
tric locomotive  designers. 

1.  Low  centers  of  gravity  were  used,  which  at  high  speed  caused  the  curves  to  be 
slewed. 

2.  Heavy  dead  weights  were  not  spring-mounted,  and  the  track  was  destroyed 
by  the  intensity  of  the  blows  at  low  joints,  badly  aligned  spots,  and  special  work  at 
crossings  and  switches.     Side  springs  were  not  used  between  motors  and  frames  to 
ease  the  blow  on  the  curves.     G earless  motors  increased  the  cost  of.  track  mainte- 
nance, when  they  were  not  spring-mounted. 

3.  High  speeds  were  attempted  without  locomotive  guiding  truck  wheels.    Lead- 
ing trucks  are  necessary  and  they  must  carry  a  considerable  vertical  load  (20,000  to 
28,000  pounds  per  axle),  otherwise  high-speed  running  becomes  hard  and  dangerous. 
Rigid  frames  and  symmetrical  disposition  produced  severe  nosing  effects. 

4.  Concentration  of  power  on  a  shoit  driver-wheel  base  produced  strains  with 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES        287 

great  intensity  of  pressure  and  with  suddenness  of  application.     Electric  locomotives 
pitched  and  rolled,  with  the  best  track  alignment. 

5.  Bearings  on  motors  were  not  long  enough  and,  with  the  added  heat  radiated 
by  the  motor,  they  ran  hot. 

6.  Motors  were  not  accessible  for  inspection,  nor  easily  removed  from  the  loco- 
motive, for  overhauling  and  repairs. 

7.  Ratings  of  motors  on  the  one-hour  basis  were  misleading  and  deceiving;  and 
ratings  based  on  continuous  performance  or  for  many  hours'  run  were  not  known. 
Trouble  and  disappointment  followed  until  some  of  these  things  related  to  design 
were  understood  and  corrected. 

Types  of  locomotives  are  classified  with  reference  to  trucks: 

1.  Rigid  wheel  base  types   (a)   without  leading  and  trailing  trucks,    (b)   with 
leading  and  trailing  trucks.     Examples:  Grand  Trunk;  New  York  Central. 

2.  Separated  bogie  truck  types   (a)   symmetrical  and   (b)   unsymmetrical,   the 
trucks  being  connected  thru  the  upper  frames.     Examples:  New  Haven,  passenger; 
Great  Northern. 

3.  Articulated  trucks,  wherein  two  sections  are  hinged  back  to  back.     Examples: 
Pennsylvania;  Michigan  Central. 

Other  classifications  can  be  made  with  reference  to  motor  mounting,  the 
mechanical  transmission  of  power  between  the  motors  and  driving  axles,  etc. 

Mr.  George  Gibbs  tested  many  types  of  electric  locomotives  for  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  in  1909,  to  determine  the  relative  riding- 
qualities  of  high-speed  "ocomotives.  He  states: 

"It  was  found  that  all  types  of  locomotives  were  practically  steady  at  speeds 
under  40  miles  per  hour,  but  that  above  this  speed  marked  differences  appeared; 
that  the  steadiest  riding  machines  were  those  with  (a)  high  center  of  gravity  and  (b) 
with  long  and  unsymmetrical  wheel  base.  In  other  words,  that  the  nearer  steam 
locomotive  design  is  approached  in  wheel  arrangement,  distribution  of  weight,  height 
of  center  of  gravity,  and  ratio  of  spring-borne  to  under-spring  weight,  the  less  the  side 
pressures  registered  on  the  rail  head.  In  addition  to  the  excessive  side  pressures  on 
the  rail  head,  due  to  the  oscillation  and  "nosing"  of  a  low  center  of  gravity  machine, 
abnormal  track  effects  may  be  caused  by  the  vertical  pounding  due  to  a  large  non- 
spring-borne  motor  weight,  or  to  weights  with  imperfect  spring  cushion.  A  remedy 
for  all  of  these  defects  appears  to  mean  a  combination  of  driving  and  cairying  wheels, 
an  unsymmetrically  disposed  wheel  base  and  the  setting  of  the  motors  on  the  main 
frames  above  the  axles."  Electric  Locomotives .  International  Railway  Congress,  1910; 
Ry.  Age  Gazette,  March  25,  1910,  p.  830;  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911,  p.  961. 

Mr.  Sprague  thinks  that  nosing  on  New  York  Central,  and  other 
electric  locomotives,  is  caused  by  the  driver  treads,  which  are  cones,  and 
these  try  alternately  to  mount  or  ride  on  the  flange  side  of  the  tread, 
producing  a  swinging  or  lateral  motion.  These  vibrations  are  dampened 
by  time-element  springs,  and  the  blows  of  the  wheels  are  attenuated. 

Mr.  Sprague  states  emphatically  that  the  hard  riding  qualities  of  the  New  York 
Central  locomotives  are  not  due  to  their  low  center  of  gravity  and  symmetrical  base, 
but  rather  to  the  absence  of  sufficient  resistance  in  the  pony-truck  centering  springs 
to  prevent  nosing.  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July  1,  1910. 


288  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Center  of  gravity  of  electric  locomotives  is  usually  low. 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Kind 
of 
service. 

Speed 
in 
m.p.h. 

Year 
first 
used. 

Wt, 
in 
tons. 

Diam. 
of 
Arm. 

Diam. 
of 
Drivers. 

Armature 
center 
above  rail. 

Center  of 
gravity 
above  rail. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio. 

Passenger 

25 

1895 

96 

62" 

31  .0" 

43" 

Freight 

25 

1903 

80 

42 

22.  1 

40 

Freight  ...:... 

26 

1910 

92 

25.0 

50 

26.1 

43 

New  York  Central  .  . 

Passenger  

60 

1906 

95 

29.0 

44 

22.0 

44 

Passenger  

60 

1909 

115 

29.0 

44 

22.0 

40 

New   Haven  

Passenger  

60 

1907 

96 

39.5 

62 

31.0 

53 

Passenger  

60 

1909 

102 

39.5 

62 

31.0 

51 

Fgt.  geared  .  .  . 

35 

1909 

140 

39.5 

63 

63.7 



Fgt.  side-rod.  . 

35 

1910 

135 

76.0 

57 

91.0 

Valtellina,  1904  .... 

Passenger  

38 

1904 

69 

68.0 

59 

41.0 

53 

Pennsylvania  10,001 

Experimental  . 

40 

1905 

97 

56 

28.0 

42 

10,003 

Experimental  . 

40 

1909 

100 

72 

36.0 

55 

Pennsylvania  

Passenger  

66 

1910 

157 

56.0 

72 

93.5 

64 

Grand  Trunk  

All  trains  

25 

1908 

66 

30.0 

62 

31.0 

51 

Great  Northern  

All  trains  

15 

1909 

115 

35.75 

60 

30.0 

60 

Michigan  Central  .  .  . 

All  trains  

22 

1909 

100 

25.0 

48 

25.1 

42 

Paris-  Orleans    

Passenger  

30 

1900 

55 

23.5 

49 

24.5 

The  tendency  is  to  use  larger  driver  diameters  to  get  a  longer  life  from  the  tires. 
Steam  locomotives  in  passenger  service  have  a  center  of  gravity  about  72  inches 
above  the  rails. 

No  diversity  of  opinion  would  exist  regarding  the  advantage  of  a  low 
center  of  gravity,  nor  would  the  track  maintenance  be  higher,  with  a  low 
center  of  gravity,  provided  (1)  The  track  and  rails  were  level  tangents; 
(2)  the  weight  and  power  of  the  locomotive  were  well  distributed,  not 
concentrated;  (3)  the  two  or  four  guiding  wheels  were  not  omitted,  and 
(4)  the  armature  and  motor  frame  weights  were  not  rigidly  mounted. 

A  four-wheeled  leading  truck  turns  on  its  pivot  and  instead  of 
attempting  to  at  once  turn  the  mass  of  the  locomotive,  the  forward 
wheels  act  as  a  guide,  with  the  rear  as  a  fulcrum.  Wheels  are  not  rigidly 
mounted  in  bearings,  but  they  traverse  slightly,  in  any  direction,  without 
moving  the  whole  mass  of  the  locomotive. 

Electric  machines  with  low  center  of  gravity  have  less  tendency  to 
topple  over,  but  have  greater  resultant  side  thrusts  on  the  rail  head. 
Electric  locomotives  in  high-speed  service  must  be  properly  guided, 
and  must  have  a  high  center  of  gravity,  for  service  over  ordinary  irregular 
track.  The  locomotive  then  heels  over  at  the  curves  and  increases  the 
vertical  pressure  on  the  rails,  rather  than  the  side  thrust. 

The  nosing  of  the  motor  cars  is  held  to  be  small  because  the  product  of  the  lever 
arm  about  the  center  pin  of  the  rear  truck,  and  the  mass  on  front  of  the  rear  truck 
make  a  small  moment  to  produce  lateral  components  or  harmonic  vibrations,  com- 
pared with  the  moment  arm  of  the  car  body. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES 


289 


MECHANICAL  DATA  AND  WEIGHT  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Year 
built. 

1-hour, 
h.p. 

Wheel                Tons 
order.                motors. 

Tons 
total. 

Tons   on     Pounds  per 
drivers.       driv.  axle 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

1895 

1080 

OO-OO 

96 

96 

48,000 

1903 

800 

00-00                     22.0 

80 

80 

40,000 

1910 

1100 

OO-OO                     21.0 

92               92 

46,000 

New  York  Central  

1906 

2200 

oOOOOo              |     25.0 

95 

68 

33,500 

1909 

2200 

ooOOOOoo              25.0 

115 

71 

35,500 

Pennsylvania  

1910 

2500 

ooOO-OOoo            43  .  0 

157 

100 

50,000 

Michigan  Central  

1909 

1100 

OO-OO                      22  .  3 

100 

100 

50,000 

Simplon  

1907 

1100 

oOOOo                      25.0 

70 

50 

33,333 

1909 

1700 

OOOO 

27.0 

76 

76 

38,000 

Valtellina  

1902 

600 

OO-OO 

22.0 

52 

52 

26,000 

1904 

1200 

oOOOo 

27.5 

69 

47 

31,340 

1906 

1500 

oOOOo 

27.3 

69               47               31,340 

Giovi  

1909 

1980 

OOOOO 

27.0 

67               67               26,800 

Great  Northern  

1909 

1700 

OO-OO 

30.0 

115             115               57,500 

Grand  Trunk  

1908 

720 

ooo 

23.5 

66               66          ,      44,000 

Spokane  &  Inland  

1908 

670 

OO-OO 

72 

72 

36,000 

New  Haven: 

Passenger,  020  

1907 

960 

00-00 

33.4 

96               96               48,000 

Passenger,  041  

1908 

960 

oOO-OOo                33.4 

102                77 

38,500 

Freight,      071  

1909 

1260 

oOO-OOo                 40  .  0 

140               96 

48,000 

Freight,      070  

1910 

1350 

oOO-OOo                 41.6 

135 

92 

46,000 

Freight,      069  

1911 

1396 

ooOOOOoo        !  

116 

Switcher,    0200  

1911 

600 

OO-OO                      16.0 

80 

80 

40,000 

Oranienburg  

1906 

1050 

OO-OO                 

66 

66 

33,000 

Baden  State  

1910 

1050 

oOOOo                 

71 

Berne.se  Alps,  A.  E.G..  . 

1910 

1600 

oOO-OOo 

30.0 

103               75               37,500 

Oer. 

1911 

2000 

OOO-OOO              21.0 

97               97               33,600 

French  Southern  

1910 

1600 

oOOOo                      30.0 

88               61               40,600 

Prussian  State  

1911 

800 

0000                   

64               64               36,500 

Swedish  State  

1911 

2000 

000-000           

110             110               36,666 

The  weight  per  driver  axle  for  high-speed  electric  locomotive  service 
should  not  exceed  40,000  with  ordinary  track  and  50,000  with  very  good 
rail,  bridges,  and  road  bed — even  in  slow-speed  service.  The  lower 
weight  per  axle  greatly  decreases  the  cost  of  track  ma'ntenance.  Euro- 
pean practice  indicates  35,000  to  40,000  pounds  per  axle.  German  gov- 
ernment has  specified  a  maximum  of  36,000  pounds  per  axle. 

Dead  weight  per  driving  axle  of  New  York  Central  electric  locomotives 
is  13,000  pounds;  of  Michigan  Central  is  14,000  pounds;  of  Great  North- 
ern is  18,300  pounds. 


19 


290 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


MECHANICAL  DATA  ON  TRUCKS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

1-Hour 
h.p. 

Tons 
total. 

Wheel  base. 

Lbs.  per  ft 
total  base. 

Rigid. 

Total. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

1080 

96 

6'-10" 

23'-2  3/4" 

8,300 

Baltimore  & 

New  York  Ce 

Pennsylvania 
Michigan  Cen 
St.  Louis  &  I 
Buffalo  &  Lo 
Hoboken  She 
Illinois  Tract 
Paris-OrleaTi  ° 

Ohio  10 

8 

11 

ntral  22 

80            96          6'-10" 
00            80        14-63/4 
160        14-63/4 
00            92          9  -6 
00          115        13-0 
00          157          7  -2 
00          100          9  -6 
40            50          6  -0 
40            38          6  -0 
00            64 

23/-2  3/4" 
14-6  3/4 
44  -2  3/4 
27-6 
36-0 
55-11 
27-6 
20-6 
13-0 

8,300 
10,990 
7,240 
6,700 
6,390 
5,610 
7,275 
4,900 
5,840 

....           25 

tral  11 
Belleville  6 
ckport  1       6 

re  !       4 
ion  ;       8 
10 

00            60          7-2 
00            55          7-10 
40            37          6-10 
00            70          6-9 
00            76          5-7 
00            52          6  -7 
00            68        16-1 
00            69        15  -5 
80            67        10  -1 
00          115        11-0 
20            66        16-0 
80            72       i  
60          102          8-0 
60          140          7-0 
50          135          8-0 
96          116        11-0 
00            80          8-0 
50            66        10-10 
50            71        11-6 
00            88        11-10 
00          103          9-11 
00            97        13-5 

26-2 
23-10 
21-4 
31-10 
26-3 
21-9 
31  -10 
31-2 
20-2 
31-9 
16-0 

30-10 
38-6 
43-6 
39-0 
23-6 
31-5 
31-2 
31  -6 
42-2 
36-5 

4,550 
4,520 
3,640 
4,400 
5,800 
4,775 
4,275 
4,400 
6,150 
7,250 
8,250 

6,620 
7,275 
6,210 
6,000 
6,810 
4,200 
4,550 
5,650 
4,880 
5,310 

Milan-Gallara 
Simplon 

te                6 

11 

Valtellina... 
Giovi 

17 
6 
12 
15 
!     19 

Great  Northe 
Grand  Trunk 
Spokane  

rn                17 

7 

i       6 

New  Haven 

041                    .  .         9 

071  12 
070  i     13 
069                             1  3 

0200  6 
Oranienburg  10 
Baden  State                                     10 

French  South 
Bernese  Alps 
Bernese  Alps 

ern                 ....       16 

,  A.E  G                     16 

Oerlikon  20 

CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES 


291 


WEIGHT-FACTOR  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT    LOCOMOTIVES 
RAILROAD  SERVICE. 


IN 


Name  of  railroad. 

Name  of 
builder. 

Kind  of 
service. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

1-hr. 
h.p. 

Wt., 
tons. 

1-hr.  h.p. 
per  ton. 

Cont. 
h.p. 

Cont.  h.p. 
per  ton. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio.  .  . 

..   G.E.... 

Passenger.  .  . 

16 

;   1080 

96 

11.3 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  .  .  . 

.    G.E.... 

Freight  

9 

800 

80 

10.0 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  .  . 

.    G.E.... 

Freight  

26 

1100 

92 

12.0 

460 

5.0 

New  York  Central  .  .  . 

.    G.E.... 

Terminal  .  .  . 

60 

2200 

115 

19.1 

1000 

9.0 

Pennsylvania  

.    G.E.... 

Terminal  .  .  . 

60 

2500 

157 

15.9 

1600 

9.8 

Michigan  Central.  .  .  . 

.!  G.E  

Tunnel  

10 

|    1100 

100 

11.0 

475 

4.7 

Bush  Terminal  

.!  G.E.... 

Switcher. 

10 

360 

50 

7.2 

Hoboken  Shore  

.    West.  .  . 

Switcher.  .  .  . 

6 

400 

60 

6.6 

Illinois  Traction  

.    G.E.... 

Freight  

30 

960 

60 

16.0 

Metropolitan  

.    T.H...  . 

Terminal  .  .  . 

800 

51 

15.7 

Paris-Orleans  

.    T.H.... 

Terminal  .  .  . 

30 

1000 

51 

16.4 

Weight  factor  does  not  refer  to  efficiency  of  design.  A  motor  with  slow  peripheral 
speed,  or  a  small  switcher,  or  a  slow-speed  locomotive  cannot  be  so  efficient  in 
pounds  per  ton  as  one  for  high  speed.  Most  locomotives  for  freight  service  are 
ballasted,  or  steel  is  used  liberally  in  the  design,  to  get  maximum  adhesion  for 
traction. 

The  speed  is  not  at  the  1-hour  or  continuous  h.p.  but  at  the  rated  loads,  or  trailing 
tons  on  the  ruling  grade,  given  in  a  succeeding  table  on  driver  diameters. 

R.  p.  m.  =m.  p.  h.  x  gear  ratio  x  336/diameter  of  drivers  in  inches. 

Data  on  peripheral  speed  of  motor  armatures  is  given  in  Chapter  V. 

The  tendency  to  rate  railroad  locomotive  motors  on  the  continuous  basis,  not  on 
the  1-hour  basis,  is  recognized. 


WEIGHT  FACTOR  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES  IN 
RAILROAD  SERVICE. 


Name  of 

Name  of 

railroad. 

builder. 

Valtellina  

Ganz  

Valtellina  

Ganz  

Valtellina  

Ganz  

Giovi-Savona..  .  . 

;  West  

Santa  Fe  

Brown  .  .    . 

Simplon  

Brown  .  .  . 

Simplon  

Brown  .  .  . 

Great  Northern.. 

Gen.  Elec. 

No.  of 

Kind  of 

Speed 

1-hr. 

Wt., 

1-hr. 

Cont. 
Cont. 

cycles. 

service. 

m.p.h. 

h.p. 

tons. 

.p. 
per  ton. 

h.p. 
per  ton. 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

19 

600 

52 

11.6 

15 

Passenger 

38 

1200 

69 

17  4 

15 

Passenger 

40 

1500 

69 

21   7 

16 

Freight.  .  . 

28 

1980 

67 

29.5 

1440      21.5 

16 

Freight.  .  . 

16 

320 

30 

10.6 

16 

Freight.  .  . 

43 

1100 

70 

15.7 

16 

Mixed  .... 

43 

1700 

76 

22.4 

25 

Mixed  

15 

1700 

115 

14.8 

1500       13.0 

European  locomotives  have  exceedingly  light  frames,  suitable  for  medium  speeds. 
American  locomotives  haul  3  to  4  times  the  tonnage  per  train.  Tons  of  2000  pounds. 
Great  Northern  continuous  rating  is  on  forced  draft. 


292 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


WEIGHT  FACTOR  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES  IN 
RAILROAD  SERVICE. 


Name  of 
railroad. 

Name  of 
builder. 

No.  of 
cycles. 

Kind  of 
service. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

1-hr, 
h.p. 

wt. 

tons. 

1-hr.  h.p. 
per  ton. 

Cont. 
h.p. 

Cont.h.p. 
per  ton. 

West.  Interworks 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

675 

68 

9.9 

Windsor,  Essex  & 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

400 

35 

11.4 

Lake  Shore. 

Spokane  &  I.  E.  . 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

25 

500 

52 

9.6 

385 

7.4 

Spokane  &  I.E.. 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

15 

680 

72 

9.5 

560 

7.8 

Grand  Trunk  .... 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

25 

720 

66 

10.9 

570 

8.6 

Rock  Island  

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

500 

50 

10.0 

New  Haven  041  . 

West.  .  . 

25 

Passenger. 

70 

960 

102 

9.6 

800 

8.0 

069. 

West. 

25 

Freight. 

35 

1396 

116 

12.0 

070. 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight  .  .  . 

35 

1260 

135 

9.3 

1120 

8.3 

071. 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

35 

1350 

140 

9.6 

1130 

8.0 

0200. 

West.  .  . 

25 

Switcher  . 

600 

80 

7.5 

450 

5.7 

Boston  &  Maine. 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight  .  . 

30 

1340 

130 

10.3 

1180 

9.1 

Passenger. 

55 

1340 

130 

10.3 

1180 

9.1 

Illinois  Traction. 

G.E...  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

600 

50 

12.0 

Swedish  State  .  .  . 

West.  .  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

460 

40 

11.5 

Prussian  State  .  .  . 

Siemens 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

330 

40 

8.3 

Siemens 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

1050 

66 

16.0 

A.  E.G.  . 

25 

Freight.  .  . 

1050 

65 

16.1 

Pennsylvania 

West.  .  . 

15 

Passenger. 

60 

920 

76 

12.1 

620 

8.2 

Visalia  Electric.  . 

West.  .  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

500 

47 

10.6 

Shawinigan  

G.E.... 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

•    40 

600 

50 

12.0 

French  Southern  . 

West.  .  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

46 

1200 

89 

13.4 

900 

10.1 

A.E.G.  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

74 

1600 

94 

17.0 

General  Electric  . 

G.E  

15 

Freight. 

40 

800 

125 

6.4 

Swiss  Federal.  .  .  . 

Siemens 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

40 

1350 

83 

16.1 

Oerlikon 

15 

Freight 

500 

45 

11    1 

Baden  State 

Siemens 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

75 

1050 

71 

14.8 

780 

10.9 

(Wiesental) 

A.E.G.  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

46 

780 

71 

11.0 

Bernese  Alps. 

A.E.G. 

15 

Freight. 

46 

1600 

103 

15.5 

Oerlikon 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

43 

2000 

97 

20.6 

Swedish  State  .  .  . 

Siemens 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

2500 

110 

18.2 

Siemens 

15 

Passenger. 

1000 

77 

13.0 

Prussian  State  .  .  . 

A.E.G.  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

1000 

77 

12.9 

A.E.G.. 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

800 

64 

12.5 

Mittenwald  

A.E.G.  . 

15 

Freight.  .  . 

800 

64 

12.5 

CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES 

WEIGHT  ANALYSIS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  EQUIPMENT. 
Direct-current,  600-volt  Locomotives. 


293 


Locomotive 
name. 

B.  &  0. 
R.R. 

B.  &O. 
R.R. 

B.  &O. 

Iv.Iv. 

New  York     Michigan 
Central.         Central. 

Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Year  

1895 

1903 

1910 

•1908 

1909 

1910 

1905 

Type  

Gearless. 

Geared. 

Geared.       Gearless. 

Geared. 

Crank. 

Gearless. 

Motors  

4 

4 

4                     4 

4 

2 

4 

H.p  

1080               800 

1100              2200 

1100 

2500 

1280 

Weights: 

Mechanical 

115  270 

130,000 

i  ^7  ^nn 

136,000 

197,000 

.  Motors  

35,420 

42,240            50,000 

46^00 

89^000 

45,000 

Electrical  parts  .  . 

9,310 

11,760    !        22,700 

17,600           28,000 

Total  weights.... 

192,600        160,000 

184,000 

230,000 

200,000 

314,000 

195,140 

On  drivers  

192,600 

160,000 

184,000 

141,000         200,000 

200,000 

195,140 

Per  cent: 

Mechanical 

72.0 

70.8 

68.4 

68.0 

62.7 

Motor  

22.2 

22.8 

21.7 

23.2 

28.3 

23.  1 

Electrical  parts  .  . 



5.8 

6.4 

9.9 

8.8                 9.0 

On  drivers  

100.0           100.0 

100.0 

61.3             100.0               63.7 

100.0 

Pennsylvania  1909  locomotives  were  modified,  and  those  built  in  1910  weigh  157 
tons  and  have  100  tons  on  the  drivers. 


WEIGHT  ANALYSIS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  EQUIPMENT. 
Three-phase,  Freight  Locomotives. 


Locomotive 
name. 

Giovi  or 
Savona. 

Simplon 
Tunnel. 

Simplon 
Tunnel. 

Valtel- 
lina. 

Valtel- 
lina. 

Valtel- 
lina. 

Great 
Northern. 

Year  

1908 

1906 

1909 

1902 

1904 

1906 

1909 

Type 

Crank. 

Crank. 

Crank. 

Crank. 

Crank. 

Crank. 

Geared. 

Motors  

2 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

4 

H.p  

1980 

1100 

1700 

600 

1200 

1500 

1700 

Weights: 

. 

Mechanical  

.  ,  

75,000 

74,000 

68000 

111,500 

Motors 

54,000 

50,000 

55,000 

44,000 

55,600 

54,600 

59  800 

Transformers.  .  .  . 

0 

0 

13,100 

0 

0 

0 

20^800 

Electrical  parts  .  . 

6,000 

15,000 

10,000 

15,000 

37,900 

Total  weights  

134,000 

140,000 

152,000 

104,000 

138,000 

138,000 

230,000 

On  drivers  

134,000 

94,000 

152,000 

104,000 

94,000 

94,000 

230,000 

Per  cent: 

Mechanical.    .... 

53.5 

48.7 

49.1 

48.5 

Motor  

40.3 

35.7 

36.2 

42.0 

40.8 

26.0 

Transformers.  .  .  . 

0 

0 

8.6 

0 

0 

9.0 

Electrical  parts  .  . 

4.5 

10.8 

6.5 

10.7 

16.5 

On  drivers  

100.0 

67.0 

100.0 

100.0 

68.0 

68.0 

100.  b 

294          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

WEIGHT  ANALYSIS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  EQUIPMENT. 

Single-phase  Locomotives. 


Locomotive 

French 

Spokane 

Bernese 

Grand 

New  Haven 

New  Haven 

name. 

Southern 

&  I.E. 

Alps. 

Trunk. 

freight. 

passenger. 

Year  

1909 

1907 

1910 

1907 

1909 

1908 

Type  

Geared 

Geared. 

Crank. 

Geared. 

Geared. 

Quill. 

Motors  

2 

4 

2 

3 

4 

4 

Hp                          .... 

1200 

680 

2000 

720 

1260 

960 

Weights: 

Mechanical  

82,960 

83,379 

116,560 

69,580 

169,872 

89,000 

Heater   

5,590 

5,000 

Motors  

59,200 

47,500 

42,240 

47,557 

79,000 

66,840    • 

Transformers  
Elec   parts 

18,680 
18,020 

6,155 
8,126 

24,200 
11,000 

5,550 
9,313 

14,060 
32,349 

}  43,  160 

Total 

178,860 

145,160 

194,000 

132,000 

300,871 

204,000 

On  drivers  

123,500 

145,160 

194,000 

132,000 

188,000 

154,000 

Per  cent: 

Mechanical  

46.4 

57.3 

60.0 

52.6 

58.5 

46.0 

Motor  

33.0 

32.8 

21.8 

36.2 

26.3 

32.8 

Transformers  

10.3 

4.3 

12.5 

4.2 

4.6 

I  21   9 

Elec.  parts  

10.3 

5.6 

5.7 

7.0 

10.6 

j/1 

On  drivers.  ...  ..... 

69.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

62.5 

75.5 

New  Haven  geared  freight  locomotive  was  redesigned  in  1910  and  the  weight 
reduced  to  280,000  pounds. 


SUMMARY  ON  ANALYSIS  OF  LOCOMOTIVE  WEIGHTS. 


Locomotive. 

Direct  cur- 
rent. 

Three-phase. 

Single-phase. 

Motor 
generator. 

ave.  ! 

ave. 

ave.          ave. 

Weight,  mechanical  

50  to  72 

66      48  to  56 

51 

46  to  59 

58 

43 

Weight  of  motor                      20  to  27 

24 

26  to  40 

30 

26  to  36 

27 

30 

Weight  of  electrical  parts.       5  to  10 

8 

7  to  10 

9 

7  to  11 

8 

21 

Weight  of  transformer  

0 

0 

Oto  10 

10 

8 

7 

6 

H  p   per  ton,  about 

16 

18 

14 

8 

A  study  of  this  statistical  table  shows  that  data  must  be  used  with  great  care. 
Note,  that  th?  reason  why  the  mechanical  weights  of  direct-current  locomotives 
are  high  in  percentage,  is  because  the  electrical  weights  are  low.  Three-phase  motor 
weights  appear  to  be  high,  but  this  is  not  true,  the  fact  being  that  European  designers 
simply  use  light  mechanical  frames.  As  more  data  are  added,  the  averages  will 
become  of  more  value.  The  1-hour  h.  p.  per  ton  is  not  a  fair  basis  for  comparison. 
When  data  on  the  continuous  h.  p.  per  ton  are  compared  the  differences  decrease. 

See  table  comparing  Oerlikon  locomotives  of  Bernese  Alps  Railway,  under 
"Technical  Description  of  Single-phase  Locomotives,"  page  395. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES        295 

MECHANICAL  TRANSMISSION  OF  MOTIVE  POWER. 

Motor  connections  to  locomotive  drivers  or  axles  are  provided  by 
the  use  of  several  schemes,  as  follows: 

1.  Gearless  motors,  with  armature  on  axle,  connected  (a)  directly  or 
solid,    as   in   New  York   Central   of  1906;    (b)    flexibly,  by  quill   over 
axle  and  spring  connection  to  drivers  by  radial  arms,  as  in  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  of  1896  and  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  passenger  locomo- 
tives of  1907. 

2.  Geared  motors  mounted  between  or  over  axles  for  gear  connection 
to  axle  (a)  directly,  with  the  center  line  of  motor  shaft  at  or  just  above 
the  elevation  of  the   center  line  of   the  axle,  as  in  motor  cars,  Great 
Northern,    Grand    Trunk,    and     Michigan    Central     locomotives;    (b) 
indirectly  thru  a  quill   surrounding   the   axle,   which   quill   is   flexibly 
connected  to  the  arms  in  the  drivers,  as  in  the  Boston  &  Maine  geared 
freight  locomotives,  the  4  motors  of  which  are  directly  over  the  4  driver 
axles;  (c)  indirectly,  three  gears  and  side  rods,  as  in  Oerlikon  locomo- 
tives on  the  Bernese  Alps  Railway. 

3.  Crank  motors  mounted  over  or  between  the  drivers  and  crank 
connected  from  armature  to  side  rods  or  to  side-rod  frames  (a)  directly, 
as  in  Field's  locomotive  of   1889    (see  engraving  of  same  in  history  of 
electric  locomotives);  (b)  almost  directly,  but  thru  a  Scotch  yoke,  as  in 
the   Valtellina  and  Simplon  locomotives,  where  the  2  motors  are  con- 
nected   together    and    connected    to   3    sets    of    drivers;   (c)   indirectly 
thru  countershaft,  wThich  engages  with  side  rods,  as  in  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  locomotives. 

4.  Mounting  of  motors  between  drivers  and  connection  thereto  by 
means  of  wide-faced  friction  wheels  on  the  armature  which  engage  in 
friction  wheels  on  the  axle.     This  scheme,  used  by  Daft  in  his  early 
locomotive,    has    recently   been    retried    by   inventors.     The    pressure 
between  pulleys  is  varied  by  means  of  compressed  air. 

Drivers  are  coupled  by  side  rods  to  prevent  slipping  of  individual 
drivers,  from  non-uniform  application  of  power  by  individual  motors,  or 
from  varying  driver  diameters,  or  from  varying  tractional  friction. 
When  all  drivers  are  coupled,  one  or  more  motors  may  be  disabled,  yet 
the  remaining  motors  or  motor  can  distribute  the  available  tractive 
effort  to  all  of  the  drivers. 

Gears  versus  cranks,  with  or  without  crank  shafts,  for  the  mechan- 
ical connection  between  armature  and  drivers,  are  frequently  debated. 
The  superiority  of  either  has  not  yet  been  generally  established. 

With  slow-speed  train  haulage,  gears  at  each  end  of  an  armature  shaft 
are  fairly  satisfactory.  For  high-speed  train  haulage,  large  locomotive 
motor  gears  of  the  ordinary  spur  type  with  the  best  well-machined  steel, 


296 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


wide  faces,  and  with  high-pressure  oil  lubrication  are  not  able  to  with- 
stand the  wear.  The  repeated  shock,  as  the  teeth  engage,  destroys 
them  quickly  after  the  axle  and  motor  bearings  are  worn  A  gradual 
engagement  of  teeth,  which  is  possible  with  special  gearing,  is  being- 
tried  out  in  high-speed  service  by  Oerlikon  locomotives  on  European 
railroads. 

Relation  of  speed  to  driver  diameter  is  now  considered. 

Observe  that  high-speed,  geared  motor  armatures,  500  to  1000  r.p.m., 
are  advantageous  because  they  decrease  the  weight  and  the  diameter  of 
the  motor.  Speeds  of  200  to  500  r.p.m.  are  required  for  gearless  motors. 
See  Armature  Speed  of  Motors,  under  Motor  Design,  Chapter  V. 


40        50        60 
Miles  per  Hour 


80        90        100 


FIG.  83. — DIAGRAM  SHOWING  RELATION  OF  REVOLUTIONS  PER  MINUTE  AND  MILES  PER  HOUR  TO 

DRIVER  DIAMETER. 


Driver  diameters  are  made  as  large  as  possible  to  increase  the  area  of 
the  rail  contact  to  decrease  the  intensity  of  pressure,  stress,  and  wear, 
and  the  maintenance  and  renewal  cost,  of  both  the  rail  and  the  drivers. 
Lower  surface  speed  of  journals  is  also  gained.  With  geared  and  crank 
types  of  locomotives,  some  motor  and  driver  restrictions  are  removed. 

Drivers  less  than  44  inches  in  diameter  are  not  practical  for  large 
gearless  locomotives.  New  York  Central  locomotives  with  44-inch 
drivers,  at  500  r.  p.  m.,  run  at  66  m.  p.  h.  It  would  not  be  practical  to 
build  a  larger  motor  of  this  type  for  slow-speed  freight  service;  for,  as 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES 


297 


shown  by  the  accompanying  diagram,  if  44-inch  drivers  are  used,  the 
speed  of  the  armature  would  be  low.  For  example,  with  250  r.  p.  m. 
or  33  m.  p.  h.,  the  diameter  of  the  motor  would  be  too  large  for  the 
drivers. 

New  Haven  gearless  passenger  locomotives,  with  62-inch  drivers,  at 
380  r.  p.  m.,  run  at  70  m.  p.  h.,  and  at  325  r.  p.  m.,  run  at  60  m.  p.  h. 

Driver  diameters  are  thus  involved  in  the  design  of  the  mechanical 
connections  between  the  armature  and  the  axle. 

DRIVER  DIAMETERS  USED  IN  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Kind  of 
service. 

Power 
h.p. 

Trailing 
tons. 

Balance 
speed,  m.  p.  h. 

Grade, 
p.c. 

Driver 
diameter. 

New  York  Central  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

2200 

435 

60 

o 

44" 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

Passenger.  .  .  . 

1080 

900 

16 

1.5 

62 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

Freight  

800 

1020 

9 

1.5 

42 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

Freight  

1100 

850 

26 

0 

50 

18.5 

1.5 

50 

Pennsylvania  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

2500 

550 

60 

0 

72 

New  Haven  41  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

960 

250 

70 

0 

63 

69  

Freight  

1396 

1500 

35 

0 

70 

Freight  

1350 

1500 

35 

o 

57 

71  

Freight  

1260 

1500 

35 

0 

63 

71  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

1260 

800 

45 

0 

63 

0200  

Switch  

600 

450 

26 

0 

63 

Bernese  Alps  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

2000 

280 

25 

2.7 

53 

Giovi  

Freight  

1980 

209 

28 

2.7 

42 

Grand  Trunk  

Passenger.  .  .  . 

720 

400 

25 

0 

62 

Freight  

720 

1000 

10 

2.0 

62 

Michigan  Central  

General  

1100 

900 

10 

2.0 

48 

Great  Northern 

General  

1900 

500 

15 

1  .7 

60 

Paris-Orleans    

Passenger.  .  .  . 

1200 

300 

30 

0 

49 

implon   

General  

1700 

440 

43 

0.7 

49 

Gearless  motors  mounted  on  locomotive  axles  have,  as  characteristic 
features  of  design,  simplicity  of  mechanical  and  also  electrical  construc- 
tion, high  efficiency,  very  heavy  dead  weight,  low  maintenance,  small 
diameter  of  drivers,  low  center  of  gravity,  and  high  track  maintenance. 
The  design  is  not  suitable  for  freight  service.  Gearless  operation,  while 
desirable,  requires  high  train  speed.  Peripheral  speeds  of  armatures 
are  less  than  the  train  speed,  in  feet  per  minute. 

Gearless  motors,  mounted  on  quills  surrounding  the  driver  axles  have 
a  higher  weight,  and  cost.  Suspension  of  the  stator  on  the  locomotive 
frames,  and  spring-mounting  of  the  armature,  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of 
motor  and  track  maintenance. 

Geared  motors  allow  either  a  partial  or  a  complete  spring-mounting 
of  the  motor,  and  with  ordinary  drivers,  a  much  higher  motor  speed, 
decreased  weight,  and  lower  cost. 


298          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Great  Northern  locomotives,  for  15  m.  p.  h.,  with  60-inch  drivers  have  a  driver 
speed  of  84  r.  p.  m.  The  gear  ratio  used  is  4.26,  making  the  speed  of  the  motor  358 
r.  p.  m.  at  full  load.  Gearing  is  placed  at  each  end  of  the  armature  shaft.  Armatures 
are  36  inches  in  diameter. 

Motor  cars  with  36-inch  wheels,  running  at  45  m.  p.  h.  maximum,  have  a  driver 
speed  of  420  r.  p.  m.  Gear  ratios  of  3  allow  a  small-diameter  armature  to  run  at 
1260  r.  p.  m. 

Geared  freight  locomotives  with  62-inch  drivers  running  at  35  m.  p.  h.,  or  186 
r.  p.  m.,  require  a  gear  ratio  of  2.3  to  3.0  in  order  to  get  a  light  weight,  geared  motor 
(New  Haven  freight);  but  if  the  maximum  speed  is  to  be  25  m.  p.  h.,  the  gearratio 
must  be  from  4  to  5  in  common  cases  (Grand  Trunk,  Spokane  &  Inland,  Michigan 
Central).  Quill  and  spring  connection  requires  large  drivers. 

Geared  motors  with  one  end  mounted  directly  on  the  axle  are  not  suitable  for 
high-speed  work,  because,  with  non-spring-borne  motors  the  power  exerted  by  con- 
cussion, l/2Mv2,  destroys  the  track. 

Crank  and  side -rod  constructions  are  not  a  recent  development  in  locomotive 
design. 

Stephen  D.  Field's  locomotive,  which  was  tried  on  the  Thirty-fourth  Street  branch 
of  the  New  York  Elevated  Railroad  in  1889,  had  two  coupled  axles  on  the  rear  or 
driving  truck,  as  in  an  Atlantic  type  steam  locomotive.  The  armature  of  the  motor 
had  an  extended  crank  which  was  connected  to  the  middle  of  the  side  rod.  The  effort 
exerted  was  absolutely  uniform.  MARTIN  AND  WETZLER,  "The  Electric  Motor," 
1889,  p.  p.  190  and  204;  Electrical  Engineer,  Dec.  9,  1891. 

North  American  locomotive,  designed  by  Sprague,  Hutchinson,  and  Duncan,  in 
1893,  had  the  motors  between  the  drivers,  and  side  rods  connecting  the  drivers,  but 
the  armatures  were  not  crank-connected. 

Valtellina  locomotives  of  1902  appear  to  have  been  next  to  follow  the  crank  and 
side-rod  construction,  including  the  use  of  Scotch  yoke.  See  description  of  Valtellina, 
Simplon  Tunnel,  and  Giovi  locomotives,  in  Chapter  IX. 

The  jackshaft  between  the  crank  rod  from  the  armature  shaft  and  the  side  rod 
became  a  necessity  to  allow  for  inequalities  in  the  elevation  of  the  track. 

Crank  and  side-rod  construction,  or  gears,  with  cranks  and  siderods,  with  or 
without  jackshafts,  has  these  advantages: 

1 .  Tractive  effort  is  increased  by  coupling  the  driving  axles.     Consult :  Dodd,  A.  I. 
E.  E.,  June,  1905;  Sperry,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1910.     In  case  one  motor  is  out  of  service 
the  adhesion  is  furnished  by  each  driver. 

2.  Center  of  gravity  is  high  and  this  is  an  advantage  in  relieving  the  strain  en  the 
head  of  the  rail  when  the  locomotive  rocks  or  cants  outward  in  rounding  a  curve. 

3.  Spring  supports  are  practical  for  the  armatures  and  fields  of  heavy  motors. 
The  dead  weight  per  axle  and  track  maintenance  are  reduced. 

4.  Limitations   of   space,    particularly  between   the  drivers,  are  removed,  and 
motor  design  may  be  perfected. 

5.  Distribution  of  weight  is  improved,  in  many  cases. 

6.  Number  of  motors  may  be  decreased,  from  three  or  four  to  two  or  three, 
which  affects  cost,  weight,  and  simplicity. 

7.  Motors  are  located  out  of  the  dust  and  dirt,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  enclose 
them.     Motors  may  then  be  made  independent  of  the  truck,  and  armatures  can 
readily  be  removed  without  dismantling  the  motor  or  taking  off  a  driving  wheel. 
Insulation  space  is  not  limited  when  large  motors  and  large  diameters  are  used;  and 
the  insulation  is  not  subjected  to  water  from  the  road-bed.     Higher  voltages  may  thus 
be  used  on  fields. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         299 

8.  Accessibility  is  obtained  for  quick  inspection  and  repair  work  on  motors,  to 
reduce  maintenance  cost. 

9.  Bearings  of  armatures  may  have  proper  proportions. 

10.  Air  gaps,  when  necessarily  small,  become  practical. 

11.  Efficiency,  power  factor,  and  torque  are  improved. 

12.  Design  of  jackshaft  (crankshaft)  is  such  that  the  motor  may  be  located  in 
about  any  advantageous  position  on  the  frames. 

13.  Side  rods,  standardized  for  steam  locomotives,  may  be  used. 

Disadvantages  of  crank  design  with  or  without  countershaft: 

1.  Side  rods,  countershafts,  and  cranks  are  heavy,  cumbersome;  and  increase  the 
friction,   and  are  objectionable  mechanically,   compared  with  geared  connections. 
Simplicity  is  sacrificed. 

2.  Strains  in  countershaft,  crank,  and  shaft  are  large. 

3.  Bearings  of  motor  and  countershaft  must  be  large,  and  motor  supporting 
frames  must  be  wide,  to  keep  armature  bearings  out  from  under  collectors  and  com- 
mutators.    Losses  occur  in  extra  bearings,  and  pounding  results  from  lost  motion. 

4.  Designs  of  railway  motors,  smaller  than  400-h.p.,  work  out  simpler  and  better, 
i.  e.,  the  side  rod  and  countershaft  are  not  necessary. 

5.  Heavy  slow-speed  motors  increase  the  weight  and  cost. 
Reference:  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  6,  1910;  Elec.  Journal,  Sept.,  1910. 


CRANK  AND  SIDE-ROD  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

No.  oi 
loco. 

Year 
built. 

Name 
of  Mfgr. 

Rated  J 
h.p. 

STo.  of 
cycles. 

Voltage 
used. 

No.  o 
motor 

f      Wt, 
s.  tons. 

New  York  Elevated. 

1 

1889 

Field.  .  . 

22 

0 

600 

1 

13 

Pennsylvania  

33 

1910 

West.  .  . 

2500 

0 

660 

2 

157 

Valtellina   .  .  . 

4 

1906 

Ganz  . 

1500 

15 

3,000 

2 

75 

Giovi  and  Savona.. 

40 

1909 

West..  . 

1980 

15 

3,000 

2 

/  <J 

67 

Simplon  Tunnel  

2 

1906 

Brown.. 

1100 

15 

3,000 

2 

70 

Simplon  Tunnel  

2 

1909 

Brown  . 

1700 

15 

3,000 

2 

76 

Oerlikon  . 

1 

1909 

Oer  

400 

15 

15.000 

2 

4fi 

Bernese-Alps  

1 

1910 

Oer  

2000 

15 

15,000 

2 

TrvJ 

97 

Bernese-Alps  

2 

1910 

A.E.G.. 

1600 

15 

15,000 

2 

103 

French  Southern.  .  . 

6 

1910 

A.E.G.. 

1600 

15 

12,000 

2 

94 

French  Southern.  .  . 

1 

1910 

West.  ..  . 

1600 

15 

12,000 

2 

89 

Baden  State 

10 

1909 

Siem 

780 

15 

10,000 

2 

71 

(Weisental  Ry.)-  • 

2 

1909 

Siem  .  .  . 

1050 

15 

10,000 

2 

98 

General  Electric  .  .  . 

1 

1909 

G.E.... 

800  ' 

15 

11,000    ; 

2 

125 

New  Haven  (freight) 

1 

1910 

West.  .  . 

1350 

25 

11,000 

2 

135 

St.  Polten-Mariazell 

17 

1910 

Siemens 

500 

25 

6,000 

2 

50 

Swedish  State  

13 

1911 

Siemens 

2000 

15 

15,000 

2 

110 

2 

1911 

Siemens 

1000 

15 

15,000 

2 

77 

Prussian  State  

10 

1911 

see  p.  355. 

15 

10,000 

2 

Mitten  wald  

6 

1911 

A.E.G. 

800 

15 

10,000    ! 

1 

64 

300  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

COST  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Electric 
system. 

Kind    of 
service. 

Year 
built. 

Wt. 
tons. 

Total 
h.p. 

Estimated 
cost. 

Per 
h.p. 

Per 
Ib. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

D.  C.... 

Freight.  .  . 

1903 

80 

800 

$19,000 

$23  .  75 

11.94 

New  York  Central.  .  .  . 

D.  C  ... 

Passenger. 

1905 

95 

2200 

27,000 

12.27 

14.2 

New  York  Central.  .  .  . 

D.  C.... 

Passenger. 

1908 

115 

2200 

33,000 

15.00 

14.3 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  .  .  . 

D.  C    . 

Passenger. 

1910 

157 

2500 

65,000 

26.00 

20.7 

Illinois  Traction  

D.C.... 

Freight.  .  . 

1908 

40 

360 

14,000 

38.90 

17.5 

Boston  &  Albany  .... 

D.C.... 

At  Boston 

Estimate 

34,650 

Milan-Varese  '.  .  . 

DC.... 

Freight.  .  . 

1902 

39 

640 

12,000 

18.75 

15.4 

Gait,  Preston  &  H  .  .  . 

D.C.... 

Freight.  .  . 

1911 

50 

400 

16,000 

40.00 

16.0 

Great  Northern  

3-P  .... 

General.  .  . 

1909 

115 

1700 

40,000 

23.53 

17.4 

Simplon  Tunnel  

3-P  .... 

General.  .  . 

1909 

68 

1700 

27,500 

16.20 

20.2 

New  Haven  

-P  

Passenger. 

1907 

102 

1000 

45,000 

45.00 

22.0 

New  Haven  

-P  

Freight.  .  . 

1909 

140 

1350 

60-.000 

44.44 

21.5 

New  Haven  

-P  

At  Boston 

Estimate 

42,500 

Boston  &  Maine  

-P  .  .  .  . 

General.  .  . 

1911 

130 

1380 

50,000 

36.23 

19.2 

Grand  Trunk  

-P  

General.  .  . 

1908 

66 

720 

26,500 

36.80 

20.1 

Ordinary  

-P  .  .  .  . 

Switcher.  . 

1911 

80 

600 

20,000 

33.33 

12  5 

Prussian  State  

-P  

General.  .  . 

Estimate 

18.3 

St.  Gothart  

-P  .  .  .  . 

General.  . 

Estimate 

28,000 

Cost  of  steam  locomotives  is  about  $15  per  h.  p.,  and  the  cost  per 
pound  varies  from  6.7  to  8.0  cents. 

Electric  locomotive  motor  rating  is  on  the  1-hour  basis;  with 
forced  draft  the  continuous  rating  is  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  1-hour 
rating.  When  reduced  to  cost  per  continuous  h.  p.,  the  cost  per  h.  p. 
and  per  pound  is  not  radically  different  with  different  modern  designs. 

The  cost  varies  with  the  state  of  the  art,  and  with  the  number  of 
locomotives  of  a  type  developed  which  have  been  sold.  The  cost  of  a  small 
switching  locomotive,  per  h.  p.  and  per  pound,  is  not  much  less  than  for 
*  a  heavy  locomotive  in  terminal  service  or  in  trunk-line  haulage. 

Reduction  in  cost  is  of  vital  importance  and  can  be  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  cheaper  materials,  steel  plate  and  rolled  shapes  in  place  of 
cast  steel,  less  labor  in  building  up  steel  parts,  and  standardization. 

LITERATURE. 
References  on  Characteristics  of  Electric  Locomotives. 

(See  references  at  the  end  of  Chapter  III  on  Physical  and  Financial  Advantages  of 

Electric  Traction.) 
Armstrong:  Comparative  Performance  of  Steam  and  Electric  Locomotives,  A.  I.  E.  E., 

Nov.,  1907,  p.  1643;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  16,  1904;  Nov.  16,  1907;  Ry.  Age,  Nov.  15, 

1907. 

Arnold:  Cost  of  Steam  and  Electric  Power,  New  York  Central,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 
Burch:  Electric  Traction  for  Heavy  Railway  Service,  Northwest  Ry.  Club,  Jan.,  1901 ; 

St.  Ry.  Rev.,  Jan.,  1901;  S.  R.  J.,  March  9  and  30,  1901. 
Darlington:  Application  of  Electric  Power  to  Railroad  Operation,  Elec.  Journal,  Feb. 

and  Sept.,  1910. 


CHARACTERISTIC  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES         301 

DeMuralt:  Heavy  Traction  Problems  in  Electrical  Engineering,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June, 
1905,  p.  525;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  1907,  p.  114. 

Murray:  Data  on  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907;  Cost  of  Maintenance, 
Steam  and  Electric,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1907,  p.  1680. 

Potter:  Developments  in  Electric  Traction,  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Jan.,  1905;  S.  R.  J., 
Jan.  28,  1905;  May  3,  1905;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 

Proceedings  New  York  Railroad  Club,  Electric  Railroad  Discussions,  Sept.,  1907; 
March,  1908-9-10-11. 

Stillwell:  Electric  Motor  vs.  Steam  Locomotive,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907;  S.  R.  J., 
March  16,  1907,  p.  457. 

Wilgus:  Steam  versus  Electricity,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.,  1904;  Financial  Results  from  Elec- 
trification, New  York  Central,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Feb.,  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  March  7,  1908. 

References  on  Locomotives  for  Freight  Haulage. 

Valatin:  Heavy  Electric  Railroading,  E.  W.,  Nov.,  1905,  p.  860. 

Leonard:  Why   Steam   Locomotives   must  be   Replaced   by   Electric   Locomotives, 
E.  W.,  Jan.  7,  1905,  p.  27;  S.  R,  J.,  Jan.  27,  1906;  Ry.  Age,  Jan.,  1905,  p.  185. 
Armstrong:  Electricity  vs.  Steam  for  Heavy  Haulage,  S.  R.  J.,  May  6,  1905,  p.  820. 
Lamme:  Alternating  Current   for  Heavy  Railway  Service,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  6,  1906. 
See  technical  descriptions  of  freight  locomotives,  which  follow. 

References  on  Locomotive  Design. 

Gibbs:  Electric  Locomotives,  International  Ry.  Congress,  1910;  Ry.  Age,  March  25, 
1910,  p.  829;  E.  R.  J.,  March  26,  1910;  June  3,  1911,  p.  960. 

Westinghouse :  Electrification  of  Railways,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  July,  1910;  Electric  Journal, 
July  and  August,  1910;  E.  R.  J.,  July  2,  1910,  p.  12. 

Storer  and  Eaton:  Electric  Locomotive  Design,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1910. 

Eaton:  Electric  Journal,  Oct.  and  Dec.,  1910,  March,  1911. 

Dodd:  Weight  Distribution  on  Electric  Locomotives  as  Affected  by  Motor  Suspen- 
sion and  Drawbar  Pull.  Types  illustrated.  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 

McClellan:  Motors  in  Steam  and  Electric  Practice,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 

See  editorial  in  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  7,  1911,  p.  4. 

References  on  Side -rod  Construction  for  Electric  Locomotives. 

Field's  locomotive:  MARTIN  AND  WETZLER:  "The  Electric  Motor,"  1888. 

For  Valtellina,  Simplon  Tunnel,  Giovi,  New  Haven,  Pennsylvania  R.R.,  Oerlikon, 

General  Electric,  etc.,  see  technical  descriptions  which  follow. 
Pittsburg  Street  Railway,  Side-rod  Trucks,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  14,  1907;  Oct.  15,  1910. 
Motor  Mounting  on  Locomotive:  E.  R.  J.,  Apr.,  1910,  p.  667,  and  Oct.  15,   1910,  p. 

835. 
Motor  Suspension:  See  "Development  of  Motor  Design,"  Chapter  V. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 


Direct-current  Locomotives  : 

No. 

Wheel  order. 

Year. 

H.P. 

Tons. 

Page. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.R 

5 

0-4-4-0 

1895 

1080 

96 

303 

Buffalo  &  Lockport  R.R  
Bush  Terminal  R.R  

5 

2 
2 
4 

0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 

1903 
1910 
1898 
1904 

800 
1100 
640 
360 

80 
92 
38 
40 

304 
306 
307 

308 

Philadelphia  &  Reading  Ry  
Hoboken  Shore  R  R 

1 
4 

0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 

1904 

1898 

200 
400 

20 
64 

309 
309 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R.  R.  R.  .  . 

Michigan  Central  R.  R  
Pennsylvania  R.R.: 
Experimental  on  Long  Island  .  . 
New  York  Terminal  Division.  .  . 
Gait,  Preston  &  Hespler  Ry 

35 
12 

6 

2 
33 
2 

2-8-2 
4-8-4 
0-4-4-0 

0-4-4-0 
4-4-4-4 
0-4-4-Q 

1906 
1908 
1910 

1907 
1910 
1910 

2200 
2200 
1100 

640 
2500 
400 

95 
115 

100 

97 
157 
50 

310 
310 

318 

321 
322 
329 

Illinois  Traction  Company  
North-Eastern  Ry.,  England  
Metropolitan  Ry  ,  England 

20 
6 
10 

0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 

1907 
1904 
1905 

960 
640 
800 

60 
55 
52 

330 
331 
332 

Paris-Orleans  Ry.,  France 

8 

0-4-4-0 

1900 

1000 

55 

332 

Rombacher-Huette  Ry.,  France  .  . 

3 
3 

0-4-4-0 
0-4-4-0 

1904 
1906 

1000 
640 

61 
62 

332 
334 

Literature  on  Other  Direct-current  Locomotives,  335. 

References  to  Detailed  Drawings  of  Direct-current  Locomotives,  336. 


302 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES. 

IN  GENERAL. 

The   number   of   electric   locomotives   which   use   direct -current  at 

about  600  volts,  which  the  author  has  obtained  by  correspondence  and 
from  printed  lists,  in  America  is  357,  and  in  Europe  is  112,  of  which  52 
are  on  the  City  and  South  London  Railway. 

The  number  of  electric  locomotives  on  railroads  which  use  three- 
phase  current  in  America  is  4,  and  in  Europe  56. 

The  number  of  electric  locomotives  which  use  single-phase  current 
in  America  is  90,  and  in  Europe  is  about  134. 

The  technical  descriptions  which  follow  cover  only  the  most  important 
and  typical  installations.  The  nature  of  the  facts  is  of  importance. 

BALTIMORE  &  OHIO  PASSENGER,   1895. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  in  1895,  placed  in  service  5  gearless 
locomotives,  between  the  Baltimore  station  yards  and  Waverly,  3.7 
miles,  including  the  Baltimore  Belt  line  tunnel,  7200  feet  long.  About 
7  miles  of  track  are  electrified.  Grades  average  1.00  per  cent,  but  the 
ruling  grade  is  1.5  per  cent.  Curves  included  seven,  from  5  to  11  de- 
grees. The  locomotives  are  still  doing  good  work. 

The  service  for  which  the  locomotives  were  designed  was  for  hauling 
freight  and  passenger  trains  over  the  above  route,  grades,  and  curves. 
Three  stops  are  made  by  the  passenger  trains  in  the  3.7-mile  run.  About 
21  passenger  trains  are  now  hauled  up  the  grades  per  day,  but  trains 
run  down  without  help  from  the  locomotives.  The  speed  up-grades  is 
about  16  m.  p.  h.  The  average  passenger  train,  including  steam  and 
electric  locomotive,  weighs  990  tons. 

Two  trucks  are  used,  each  with  a  wheel  base  of  6  feet  10  inches.  The 
total  wheel  base  is  23  feet  2  inches.  The  weight  on  four  pairs  of  60-inch 
drivers  is  96  tons.  The  locomotive  length  is  35  feet. 

Motor  equipment  consists  of  four  General  Electric  AXB-70,  600-volt 
direct-current  motors,  rated  1440  h.  p.  per  locomotive.  In  order  to 
reduce  the  locomotive  speed,  the  motors  were  designed  with  6  poles  and 
each  pair  of  motors  was  connected  permanently  in  series.  The  rating 
with  motors  in  series  is  1080.  (G.  E.  bulletin  4390  gives  the  rated  h.  p.  as 
720.)  Gearless  armatures  are  used,  spring-suspended  on  a  quill  surround- 
ing the  axle.  The  field  is  spring-supported  on  the  frame,  and  centered 
around  the  armature  quill  by  means  of  bearings.  The  torque  of  the 
armature  is  transmitted  from  radial  arms  on  the  armature  shaft  to  the 
spokes  in  the  drivers,  thru  rubber  compression  blocks  located  at  the  ends 

303 


304  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

of  the  radial  arms;  the  arrangement  is  desirable  since  it  compensates  for 
variation  in  track  alignment  and  provides  a  flexible  connection.  See 
Figures  47,  48. 

Tests  show  that  the  96-ton  locomotive  starts  an  1870-ton  train  from 
rest  against  such  a  grade  as  to  require  a  tractive  force  of  63,000  pounds, 
or  32  per  cent,  of  the  locomotive  weight.  The  drawbars  are  stretched, 
and  the  train  accelerated  to  12  m.  p.  hr.  without  slipping  the  drivers. 


FIG.  84. — BALTIMORE  &  OHIO  RAILROAD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE  USED  SINCE  1895. 

The  dynamometer  car  records  of  drawbar  pull  show  that  the  amplitude 
of  vibrations  is,  under  similar  conditions,  considerably  less  than  that  with 
the  changing  crank  angle  of  steam  locomotives. 

In  design,  these  5  locomotives,  built  in  1895,  were  too  fast  for  freight 
service.  It  was  found  that  the  locomotive  wheel  base  was  short,  and 
the  weight  was  concentrated.  Operating  results,  for  over  16  years, 
have  been  excellent.  These  locomotives  were  the  first  heavy  railroad 
locomotives  in  America.  Their  success  was  remarkable  and  was  of 
great  importance  historically. 

BALTIMORE  &  OHIO  FREIGHT,  1903. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  in  1903,  purchased  5  additional  locomo- 
tives for  freight  service  at  Baltimore.  Each  weighs  80  tons  and  is  rated 
800  h.  p.  Two  locomotives  are  used  per  train. 

The  service  for  which  the  1903  locomotives  were  designed  was  to  haul 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        305 

2300-ton  freight  trains  at  a  speed  of  10  m.  p.  h.;  1800-ton  freight  trains 
at  12  m.  p.  h.;  and  500-ton  passenger  trains  at  35  m.  p.  h.  on  the  level. 

Specifications  for  the  1903  locomotives  required  that  two  units 
should  work  together  normally,  and  be  capable  of  handling  a  1500-ton 
train,  including  the  steam  locomotive,  but  excluding  the  electric  loco- 
motive, on  a  maximum  grade  of  1.5  per  cent,  at  10  miles  per  hour,  and  at 
higher  speeds  on  lighter  grades.  The  locomotive  was  to  have  sufficient 
capacity  to  maintain  this  service  hourly,  running  loaded  on  the  up-grade 
and  returning  light. 

Weight  of  locomotive  unit  is  160,000  pounds,  all  on  drivers.  The 
adhesion  at  25  per  cent,  is  40,000  pounds  or  80,000  for  the  pair.  The 


FIG.  85. — BALTIMORE  &  OHIO  RAILROAD  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVES  OF  1903. 

grade,  friction,  and  acceleration  require  this  maximum  drawbar  pull,  and 
weight  for  tractional  effort.  The  weight,  80  tons  per  unit,  is  distributed 
over  4  sets  of  42-inch  drivers.  The  total  and  the  rigid  wheel  base  of 
each  unit  is  14  feet  63/4  inches,  and  the  wheel  base  of  two  units 
is  44  feet  23/4  inches. 

Tractive  effort  at  working  load  and  at  8.5  m.  p.  h.  for  two  units  is 
70,000  pounds.  These  locomotives  haul,  on  an  average,  28  freight 
trains  per  day  with  an  average  weight  of  1980  tons,  on  the  above  grades. 

Motor  equipment  consists  of  4  motors  per  80-ton  locomotive  unit, 
type  G.  E.-65  B,  rated  200  h.  p.  at  625  volts.  Gearing  ratio  is  81  to  19. 
Sprague-G.  E.  type  M-C.  controllers  are  used  to  handle  two  units. 

Operation  of  these  freight  locomotives  has  been  successful. 

BALTIMORE  &  OHIO,   1910. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  in  March,   1910,  placed  in  service  two 
additional  geared  freight  locomotives. 
20 


306 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  service  required  that  850-ton  freight  and  occasionally  500-ton 
passenger  trains  should  be  hauled  on  the  level,  at  26  and  30  m.  p.  h.; 
respectively,  and  up  the  11/2  per  cent,  grade  at  15.5  and  20  m.  p.  h. 

Specifications  required  that  with  two  units  the  drawbar  effort  up  to 
15  m.  p.  h.  was  to  exceed  90,000  pounds. 


FIG.  86. — BALTIMORE  &  OHIO.     FREIGHT  UNIT  OF  1910. 


46000 


-feooo 


46000 


FIG.  87. — BALTIMORE  &  OHIO  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,  1910. 

Two  used  at  Baltimore.      92-ton,  1100-h.  p.,   direct-current,   600-volt.      Four  motors.      Gear  ratio 
3  . 25.      Forced  ventilation.      Freight  service. 

Motors  are  four  G.  E.-209,  275-h.p.,  forced  ventilated,  geared  type 
similar  to  those  on  the  Michigan  Central  locomotives,  to  be  described. 
The  gear  ratio  is  3.25  and  gears  are  mounted  on  each  wheel  hub. 
Four  motors  weigh  21  tons.  See  motor  drawings,  Figure  43. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        307 

Trucks  are  two,  4-wheeled,  permanently  linked  together  with  a  heavy 
hinge,  which  allows  the  two  trucks  to  support  and  guide  one  another. 
3  tresses,  in  pushing  and  hauling,  are  transmitted  thru  the  truck  framing. 
The  trucks  are  similar  to  those  of  the  1909  Michigan  Central  articulated 
locomotive,  described  later  in  great  detail.  Rigid  wheel  bases  are  9  feet 
6  inches;  total  wheel  base  is  27  feet  6  inches;  drivers  are  50  inches. 
Journals  are  7  1/2x14.  The  two  platform  center  pins  have  a  slight 
longitudinal  sliding  motion. 

The  operator  works  in  the  center  of  the  cab,  where  he  has  the  best  com- 
mand of  all  apparatus,  a  fair  view  of  the  train  behind  and  of  a  switchman 
at  the  coupler. 


The  service  of  the  12  locomotives  per  annum  amounts  to  about 
200,000  locomotive  miles,  the  hauling  of  16,000,000  tons,  or  of 
60,000,000  ton-miles,  including  electric  locomotives,  and  a  total  train- 
miles  of  66,000.  The  locomotives  work  only  on  the  up-grade. 

References  on  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Locomotives. 

1895:  96-ton,  S.  R.  J.,  July,  1895;  pp.  461  and  827;  March  14,  1903;  Elec.  Engineer, 

Nov.  5,  1895..  March  4,  1896.     Tests,  E.  W.,  March   7,  1896.     Motors,  S.  R. 

J.,  March  14,  1903;  June  25,  1904. 
1903:  160-ton,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  22,  1903;  June  25,  1904;  Elec.  Review,  April  26,  1896; 

S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906;  G.  E.  Bulletin  No.  4390.     A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.  20,  1909, 

Davis,  in  discussion  of  Dr.  Hutchinson's  paper. 

1910:  92-ton,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  26,  1910;  G.  E.  Review,  Dec.,  1910,  p.  534. 
See  Michigan  Central  locomotives,  which  are  similar. 

BUFFALO  &  LOCKPORT. 

Buffalo  &  Lockport  Railway  Company,  a  subsidiary  of  the  Inter- 
national Traction  Company,  has  operated  two  electric  locomotives 
since  1898  in  freight  service.  The  road  runs  from  Lockport  to  North 
Tonawanda,  N.  Y.,  14  miles,  and  was  leased  from  the  Erie  Railroad  for 
999  years.  Electric  passenger  service  is  furnished  by  motor-car  trains. 

Locomotives  are  of  the  two  swivel-truck-type.  They  were  designed 
to  haul  10  cars,  or  a  450-ton  trailing  load  at  14  m.  p.  h.  Locomotives 
have  frames  of  8-inch  channels,  13-foot  truck  centers,  6-foot  truck-wheel 
base,  36-inch  drivers,  a  length  of  32  feet,  and  a  weight  of  38  tons.  Motors 
are  four  G.  E.-55,  rated  160-h.  p.  each.  A  3.28  gear  ratio  is  used.  Each 
pair  of  motors  runs  in  series  on  a  600-volt  direct-current  circuit. 

Reference.    S.  R.  J.,  Sept.,  1898,  p.  535.     See  motors,  Figure  30. 

BUSH  TERMINAL  RAILROAD. 

Bush  Terminal  Railroad  of  South  Brooklyn  since  1904  has  employed 
a  50-ton  locomotive  for  switching  at  its  extensive  docks  and  warehouses. 


308          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  88. — BUFFALO  AND  LOCKPORT  FREIGHT  UNIT.     Two  USED  SINCE  1838. 


FIG.  89. — BUSH  TERMINAL  RAILROAD  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        309 

Two  swivel  trucks  are  used',  with  equalized  side-bar  frames  similar  to 
those  in  general  use  for  coal-tender  trucks  of  steam  locomotives.  The 
bolsters  are  carried  rigidly  on  the  side  frames,  the  weight  being  trans- 
mitted thru  one  semi-elliptic  spring  on  each  side.  Axles  are  6-inch, 
drivers  are  33-inch.  Rigid  wheel  bases  are  6  feet  6  inches;  total  wheel 
base  22  feet;  and  total  length  30  feet. 

Motors  consist  of  four  90-h.  p.,  2-turn,  direct-current,  500-volt  units, 
with  a  2.47  gear  ratio.  A  pantograph  trolley  is  used  to  prevent  frequent 
reversals,  in  switching  service. 

In  1907,  and  in  1911,  locomotives  of  the  same  type  were  purchased. 
These  are  40-ton  machines  with  the  same  size  of  motor.  The  gear  ratio 
is  3.53  and  the  drivers  36  inches.  Weight  of  electrical  equipment  is 
14  tons. 

Performance  characteristics  for  the  1904  machine  show  a  tractive 
effort  of  20,000  pounds  at  9  m.  p.  h.,  with  800  amperes  at  500  volts,  and 
8000  pounds  at  12  m.  p.  h.  with  450  amperes;  and  for  the  1907  locomotive, 
a  tractive  effort  of  16,800  pounds  at  8  m.  p.  h.,  with  625  amperes  at  500 
volts,  and  12,000  pounds  at  9  m.  p.  h.,  with  475  amperes. 

Reference.     G.  E.  bulletins  4390  and  4537;  G.  E.  Review,  Nov.,  1907. 

PHILADELPHIA  &  READING. 

Philadelphia  &  Reading  Railway  in  1904  placed  an  electric  locomotive 
in  service  on  its  7-mile  branch  road  from  Cape  May  Point  to  Sewell 
Point,  New  Jersey,  for  freight  and  passenger  service.  The  locomotive 
was  built  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works. 

Weight  of  locomotive  is  20  tons,  all  on  drivers.  Frames  are  of  steel 
channels,  heavily  braced.  The  length  over  end  sills  is  23  feet.  Two 
swivel  trucks  are  used,  each  with  a  6-foot  base.  Truck  centers  are  12 
feet.  Drivers  are  30-inch. 

Motors  are  4,  Westinghouse,  38-B.,  50-h.p.,  geared  68  to  14.  Con- 
trol is  Westinghouse,  type  K-14.  Automatic  and  straight  air  are  used. 

Reference.     S.  R.  J.,  Description  and  photograph,  Nov.  5,  1904,  p.  841. 

HOBOKEN  SHORE  R.  R. 

Hoboken  Shore  Railroad  since  1898  has  operated  an  extensive  freight 
terminal  at  Hoboken,  N.  J.  There  are  10  miles  of  electrically  operated 
single  track.  The  freight  handled  comes  from  the  Lackawanna,  Erie, 
West  Shore,  Pennsylvania,  and  Lehigh  Valley  roads.  It  is  collected  and 
distributed  to  industrial  sidings,  freight  warehouses,  and  to  extensive 
steamship  docks  on  the  Hudson  River. 

Four    geared,   swivel-truck,   direct-current,   electric  locomotives  are 


310 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


used/    The  service  consists  of  switching  and  shunting  100  to  150  cars 
per  10-hour  day.     Mileage  per  locomotive  per  day  averages  130. 

The  G.  E.  1898  locomotive  has  two  McGuire  trucks,  40-inch  drivers 
10,000-pound  drawbar  pull  at  8  m.  p.  h.,  weighs  28  tons,  and  is  rated 
560  h.  p.     A  4-wheeled  G.  E.  locomotive,  built  in  1900,  is  no  longer  used. 

The   Westinghouse    1906   locomotive   has    Baldwin   trucks,    33-inch 
drivers,  15,000-pound  drawbar  pull  at  6  m.  p.  h.,  weighs  64  tons,  and  is 


FIG.  90. — HOBOKEN  SHORE  FREIGHT  SWITCHING  LOCOMOTIVE. 
64-ton,  400-h.  p. .Westinghouse  unit  used  since  1906. 

rated  400  h.  p.  This  is  a  modern  unit.  It  hauls  800-ton  trains  up  1  1/2 
per  cent,  grades  and  around  sharp  curves. 

The  G.  E.  1911  locomotive  has  American  trucks,  42-inch  drivers,  and 
weighs  80  tons. 

C.  de  Bevoise,  Manager,  states  that  the  repairs  and  renewals  on 
these  locomotives  during  the  last  three  years  have  been  $55  for  a  new  pair 
of  wheels,  and  $12  for  brushes  and  commutator  turning. 

Reference.     E.  W.,  Jan.  8,  1898;  Elec.  Review,  July  2,  1910. 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL. 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad,  since  Dec.,  1906,  has 
operated  35  electric  locomotives,  and,  in  1908,  added  12  locomotives, 
making  the  total  number  47.  All  New  York  Central  trains  in  and  out 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        311 


of  the  Grand  Central  Station  have  been  electrically  operated  since  July 
1,  1907. 

Specifications  of  contract  with  General  Electric  Co.,  required  that: 

Cars  weighing  450  tons  be  hauled  from  Grand  Central  Station  to  Croton,  34 
miles,  in  60  minutes;  there  to  have  a  20-minute  layover,  and  then  return  to  Grand 
Central  Station  with  a  similar  train,  making  one  stop  in  each  straight  trip. 

Cars  weighing  335  tons  (Empire  State  Express)  be  hauled  over  the  same  distance, 
34  miles,  in  44  minutes,  then  to  have  a  60-minute  layover,  then  to  return  to  Grand 
Central  Station  with  a  similar  train,  then  to  have  a  layover  of  60  minutes,  and  to 
keep  this  service  up  continually. 

Cars  weighing  300  tons  be  hauled  over  the  same  distance,  34  miles,  in  60  minutes, 
making  3  stops,  with  a  layover  at  the  end  of  each  34  miles,  of  60  minutes;  and  this 
cycle  to  be  operated  continually. 

Two  locomotives  were  to  haul  a  total  train  weight,  including  locomotives  of 
875  tons  at  a  maximum  speed  of  65  miles  per  hour.  Temperatures,  measured  by 
thermometers,  to  be  within  A.  I.  E.  E.  limits.  Acceleration  rate  to  be  to  40  m.  p.  h. 
in  121  seconds,  or  0.33  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.;  braking  to  be  at  1.5  m.  p.  h.  p.  s. 

The  service  for  which  the  locomotives  were  designed  was  for  passenger 
work  at  the  New  York  terminal.  Trains  are  now  hauled  north  from  the 
Grand  Central  Station,  in  terminal  and  switching  service,  on  the 


FIG.  91. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  LOCOMOTIVE. 
Drawing  of  proposed  locomotive,  1905. 

Harlem  Branch,  to  the  Mott  Haven  storage  yards,  a  distance  of  5.1 
miles;  in  express  service,  to  High  Bridge  on  the  Hudson  Division,  a  dis- 
tance of  7.1  miles;  and  in  express  service  on  the  Harlem  Division,  to 
North  White  Plains,  a  distance  of  24  miles.  The  run  on  the  last  division 
is  for  light  trains.  The  service  is  not  trunk-line  work,  since  the  dis- 
tances are  short.  The  locomotives  are  able  to  work  in  excess  of  their 
rating,  since  they  have  ample  time  to  cool  off.  At  all  times,  including 
the  heaviest  service  for  the  Hudson-Fulton  celebration,  October,  1909, 


312 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


and  on  July  4,  1910,  there  were  more  electric  locomotives  than  were 
needed  for  the  work. 

The  design  of  the  locomotives  is  due  to  Mr.  Batchelder  of  the  General 
Electric  Company,  who  created  a  gearless  machine. 

"The  previously  accepted  principle  of  fixity  of  relation  between  field 
and  armature  was  abandoned,  the  latter  being  mounted  directly  on  the 
axle  and  the  fields  being  carried  upon  and  as  an  integral  part  of  the  loco- 
motive frame,  supported  by  its  springs  and  hence  moving  freely,  irre- 
spective of  the  armature.  Gears  and  axle  bearings  are  dispensed  with, 
and  the  acme  of  simplicity  of  motor  construction  reached.  The  armature 
of  course  could  be  spring  borne."  Sprague,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907. 

The  gearless  motor  design  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  us£d  in  1897  for  the 
Paris-Lyon-Mediterranean  electric  locomotive.  See  detailed  drawings'  in  E.  W., 
Feb.  4,  1899. 

The  wheel  arrangement,  the  base,  and  the  locomotive  weight  have 
been  changed  in  design,  as  noted  in  the  next  table. 

MODIFICATIONS  IN  NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE 

DESIGN. 


Tons 
total. 

Tons  on 
drivers. 

Wheel 
base. 

Wheel 
class. 

Year. 

Reference  or  notes  on 
modifications. 

85 

67 

27 

2-6-2 

1904 

Wilgus,  S.R.J.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  584. 

85 

65 

27' 

2-6-2 

1904 

Sprague,  S.R.J.,  Oct.  8,  1904. 

95 

69 

27 

2-6-2 

1904 

S.R.J.,  Nov.  19,  1904. 

95 

68 

27 

2-6-2 

1906 

G.E.  bulletin  4390. 

100 

70 

27 

2-6-2 

1907 

S.R.J.,  May  13,  1905,  p.  867. 

Heater,  added  to  35  locoomotives. 

G.E.  bulletin  4537. 

105 

71 

29 

4-6-4 

1908 

Four  truck  wheels  added.     S.R.J., 

Dec.  19,  1908,  p.  1620. 

115 

72 

36 

4-6-4 

1909 

Change  in  wheel  base  and  frame  for 

12  new  locomotives.     Drive-wheel 

base,  13  feet,  not  changed. 

The  speed  for  which  the  locomotives  of  the  2-6-2  wheel  arrangement 
were  designed  was  60  m.  p.  h.,  but  the  locomotives  were  not  safe  at  or 
beyond  that  speed,  even  on  the  good  track  and  curves  in  the  New  York 
Central  electric  zone.  The  locomotives  showed  true  nosing  characteristics, 
at  high  speed  until,  in  1908,  the  2-wheel  radial  pony  trucks  were  changed 
to  4-wheel  swivel  bogey  trucks,  or  to  the  4-6-4  wheel  arrangement.  Too 
much  motive  power  was  concentrated  on  the  13-foot  rigid  wheel  base. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES       313 

The  total  wheel  base  was  increased  from  27  to  36  feet.  Care  was  taken  to 
keep  the  side-motion  friction  plates  adjusted,  to  limit  the  nosing  effect. 
A  disastrous  wreck  occurred  in  March,  1907,  when  two  locomotives  were 


FIG.  92. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  LOCOMOTIVE. 
Longitudinal  section  of  the  1906  type. 


hauling  a  train  at  high  speed,  and  since  that  time  two  locomotives  have 
not  been  used  to  haul  one  train. 

The  speed  is  now  limited  by  the  operating  rules  to  45  m.  p.  h.  on 
straight  track  and  30  m.  p.  h.  on  curves. 


FIG.  93. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,  1908. 

Motors  consist  of  four,  GE-84-A,  gearless,  600-volt  units  per  loco- 
motive, rated  762  amperes  each  on  the  1-hour  rating.  The  accelerating 
current  is  830  amperes.  The  locomotive  rating  is  2200  h.  p.  at  40  m.  p.  h. 


314 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


and  20,500  pounds  tractive  effort  with  44-inch  drivers.  The  continuous 
rating  is  given  as  1166  h.p.  by  Sprague,  1200  h.p.  by  Hutchinson,  and 
920  h.  p.  by  Gibbs.  Forced  ventilation  is  not  yet  used. 


FIG.  94. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,   1906. 

The  armature  is  placed  directly  upon  the  axle.  The  magnetic  frames,  carrying 
two  pole  pieces  per  motor,  are  part  of  the  truck  frame.  The  poles  have  nearly 
vertical  faces  and  the  armature  has  a  large  free  vertical  movement  in  a  practically 
uniform  clearance,  without  striking  the  poles. 


FIG.  95. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 

Weight  of  the  motors  is  37,700  pounds,  plus  11,900  pounds  for  the  magnet  yoke, 
which  is  also  the  mechanical  frame  of  the  locomotive,  making  the  total  motor  weight 
49,600  pounds.  To  this  is  to  be  added  18,400  pounds  for  control  equipment,  rheo- 
stats, and  wiring,  and  4300  for  air  compressor.  Total  electrical  weight,  36  tons  or 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES      315 


about  31.4  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight,  115  tons.  Each  armature  and  8.5-inch 
axle  weigh  7640  pounds.  The  core  is  29  inches  in  diameter  and  19  inches  wide. 
This  dead  weight  is  not  spring-mounted,  but  it  is  not  unbalanced,  as  in  the  drivers 
of  a  steam  locomotive.  The  total  weight  per  driver  axle  is  36,000  pounds.  The 
dead  weight  per  axle  is  13,000  pounds,  to  be  compared  with  7000  to  13,000  pounds 
for  steam  locomotives. 


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FIG.  06. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,   1908-1909. 

Forty-seven  used  on  New  York  Division  in  passenger  service.     115-ton,  2200-h.  p.,  direct-current, 

600-volts.     4  geailess  motors.     Axle  mounted.     Natural  ventilation. 

Gearless  motors  in  this  passenger  locomotive  service  embody  sim- 
plicity, strength,  high  efficiency,  low  maintenance  cost,  ease  of  inspection, 
and  facility  in  making  repairs.  The  armature  with  its  wheels  and  axle 
can  be  removed,  by  lowering  it,  without  disturbing  the  fields.  The 
motor  is  neither  waterproof  nor  enclosed,  yet  it  does  not  hold  water  as  in 
some  enclosed  types  with  forced  ventilation. 

Center  of  gravity  of  the  locomotive  was  at  first  44.4  inches  above  the 
rails;  with  the  addition  of  the  four  leading  wheels,  it  is  now  about  40 
inches  above  the  rails.  The  locomotive  mass  cannot  swing,  but  must 
follow  the  rapid  variations  in  the  track,  and  the  vertical  and  side  springs 
which  are  used  cannot  ease  the  blow  on  the  track.  The  cost  of  track 
and  curve  maintenance  may  therefore  be  much  higher  than  usual. 

Tests  on  No.    6000,  95-ton;  8-coach  train,  336  tons,  total  431  tons. 

Nov.  12,  1904:  Accelerating  rate  0.33  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  required  1200  kw. 
at  motor;  voltage  was  730;  speed  reached  63  m.  p.  h.  in  280  seconds. 

Apr.  29,  1905:  Locomotive  and  one  42-ton  coach  attained  a  speed  of 
79  miles  per  hour.  Acceleration  rate  with  6  coaches  was  0.4  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.; 
voltage  not  specified. 

Sept.  30,  1905:  Acceleration  of  a  433-ton  train,  to  50  m.  p.  h.,  with 
600  volts  pressure,  was  at  the  rate  of  0.43m.  p.  h.  p.  s. 


316 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


October,  1905:  Endurance  test  of  50,000  miles,  hauling  a  train  of  200 
to  400  tons,  over  a  6-mile  track.     Maintenance  expense,  $0.014  per  mile. 

COST  OF  OPERATION,  STEAM  AND  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES.     WILGUS. 


Item. 

Steam  locomotive. 

Electric  locomotive. 

- 
Switching. 

Transfer. 

Road. 

Switching. 

Transfer. 

Road. 

Supplies  

$8.06 
5.34 
7.61 

$1.12 
0.35 
0.52 

$2.03 
0.28 
0.46 

$6.88 
5.25 
4.40 

$1.16 
0.31 
0.28 

$1.37 
0.31 
0.34 

Wages  
Interest,  dep.  and 

repairs. 
Total  

21.01 

1.99 

2.77 

16.53 

1.75 

2.02 

COST  PER  YEAR  FOR  SERVICE. 


Steam  locomotive. 


Electric  locomotive. 


-item. 

Cost. 

Rate. 

Amount. 

Cost. 

Rate. 

Amount. 

Interest             .  . 

$15,000 

4  25% 

$637  00 

$30,000 

4  25% 

$1275  00 

Depreciation  .... 

5.00 

750.00 

5.00 

1500.00 

Repairs  

1842.00 

704  00 

Handling  and 

1231  00 

200  00 

inspection. 
Total 

4,460  00 

3,679  00 

Based  on  actual  observations  running  over  two  to  three  years. 

Tests  for  above,  September  and  October,  1907.     Wilgus,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March,  1908. 

PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Current 
amperes. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort  Ibs. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  and  conditions. 

4000 

37.0 

28,800 

2840 

Four  motors  in  multiple. 

3050 

40.0 

20,500 

2200 

One-hour  h.p.  2200. 

2000 

48.0 

11,200 

1440 

Volts,  600. 

1500 

57.0 

6,700 

1000 

Continuous  h.p.,  1000. 

1250 

63.0 

5,000 

840 

Drivers  44-inch. 

1000 

73.0 

3,750 

730 

G.E.  bulletins  4390  and  4537. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES 


317 


Comparison   of  New  York  Central  electric  locomotives  with  steam 
locomotives  of  a  corresponding  age  and  type: 


Greater  daily  ton-mileage  with  electric  locomotive 25 

Saving  in  locomotive  repairs  about 60 

Saving  in  locomotive  repairs  and  fixed  charges 19 

Saving  in  dead  time  for  repairs  and  inspections 18 

Saving  in  locomotive  ton-mileage  in  hauling  service 6 

Saving  in  locomotive  ton-mileage  in  switching  service 11 

Saving  in  locomotive  ton-mileage  in  road  service 16 

Net  saving  in  cost  of  hauling  service 12 

Net  saving  in  cost  of  switching  service    21 

Net  saving  in  cost  of  road  service 27 

Net  saving  of  terminal  and  yard  operation,  August,  1907 13 


FIG.  97. — NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  SEVEN-CAR  TRAIN. 


"  In  switching  service,  the  economy  of  electric  traction  lies  in  savings  for  supplies, 
and  in  lower  unit  fixed  charges  and  repairs  due  to  less  lost  time  for  repairs  and  care. 

"In  slow-speed  hauling,  the  advantages  lie  in  the  lower  unit  fixed  charges  and 
repairs  of  the  electric  locomotive,  due  to  its  ability  to  do  more  work  while  busy,  and 
to  less  lost  time  for  repairs  and  care. 

"High-speed  road  service  shows  advantages  for  electric  traction  in  all  three 
items;  supplies,  wages,  and  fixed  charges  and  repairs.  The  small  18  per  cent  increase 
in  current  consumption  for  the  greater  speed  of  road  service,  as  compared  with  haul- 
ing service,  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  165  per  cent,  increase  in  coal  consumption  for 
steam  locomotives. 

"  The  handling  and  inspection,  including  fixed  charges  and  maintenance  of  land, 
structures,  boiler,  engine,  and  pumping  plant  for  steam  locomotives  cost  $3.37  per 
day,  while  the  same  items  for  the  electric  locomotive  which  requires  no  roundhouse 
nor  pumping  plant  to  wash  out  flues,  etc.,  but  with  its  inspection  sheds,  cost  but 
$0.55  per  day. 


318  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

"  Opportunities  for  large  economies  lie  in  the  thoro  training  of  motormen  in  the 
manipulation  of  their  controllers,  a  very  simple  problem  as  compared  with  the 
difficulties  of  teaching  both  the  engineer  and  firemen  on  steam  locomotives  to  per- 
form their  duties  so  as  to  result  in  fuel  economy."  Wilgus:  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March,  1908. 

Economic  results  also  noted  by  Vice-President  Wilgus: 

"The  net  results  of  electrical  operation  over  steam,  for  the  conditions  existing  on 
the  New  York  Central,  would,  after  including  all  elements  of  cost  of  additional  plant, 
show  a  saving  in  the  summer  months  of  from  12  to  27  per  cent.,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  service,  while  even  a  larger  saving  might  be  expected  under  winter 
conditions;  that  because  of  less  cost  of  maintenance  of  electric  equipment  and  less 
idle  time  in  the  repair  shops,  the  greater  cost  of  extra  charges  and  depreciation  for  the 
system  was  not  only  neutralized,  but  a  net  saving  of  19  per  cent,  on  repairs  and  fixed 
charges  over  steam  equipment  was  effected;  that  electric-locomotive  inspection  and 
lighter  repairs,  as  compared  with  coaling,  watering,  drawing  fires,  etc.,  of  steam  loco- 
motives showed  a  saving  in  time  in  favor  of  e  ectricity  of  more  than  4  hours  per 
day,  equal  to  18  per  cent. ;  and  that  the  electric  locomotive,  when  busy,  was  a  much 
more  nimble  and  efficient  machine  than  the  steam  locomotive,  showing  an  increase 
in  daily  ton-mileage  of  25  per  cent.  The  question  of  locomotive  weight  is  a  large 
factor  in  a  comparison  of  relative  economies  in  handling  passenger  traffic  by  steam  and 
by  electricity,  and  in  the  switch  service  at  the  Grand  Central  terminal  65  per  cent, 
of  the  total  steam  ton-mileage  was  due  to  locomotive  or  dead  weight,  while  the  electric 
locomotive  percentage  was  but  54  per  cent."  Martin,  U.  S.  Census,  1907. 

Mileage  of  electric  locomotives  in  1910  approximated  1,100,000 
miles,  or  only  64  miles  per  day  per  locomotive  owned.  The  suburban 
passenger  service  is  handled  largely  by  motor-car  trains,  the  mileage 
of  which  in  1908  was  3,500,000  car-miles. 

References  on  New  York  Central  Locomotives. 

Potter  and  Arnold:  Steam  Locomotive  Tests,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 

Proposed  Locomotives:  S.  R.  J.,  June  4,  1904. 

Controversy  on  System  and  Cost:  Mr.  Westinghouse,  Mr.  Sprague,  and  others,  S.  R.  J., 

and  E.  W.,  Oct.  and  Dec.,  1905;  Ry.  Gazette,  Dec.  22,  1905,  p.  579. 
Electric  Locomotive  Tests:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  19,  1904;  Jan.  21,  1905;  May  13,  1905. 
Locomotive  Catechism  and  Operating  Rules:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  565. 
Wilgus:  Steam  versus  Electric  Power,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.,  1904;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1907. 
Locomotive  Data:  Ry.  Age,  June  30  and  Nov.  18,  1904;  Jan.  26,  1906. 
Accident  and  Cause:    S.  R.  J.,  March   16  and  30,  1907;  Scientific  American,  March 

April,  and  May,  1907;  Shearing  of  Spikes,  E.  W.,  March  16,  1907,  p.  539. 
Lister:  Handling  of  Equipment,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  June  3,  1910. 

MICHIGAN  CENTRAL. 

Michigan  Central  Railroad  since  July,  1910,  has  used  six  100-ton 
electric  locomotives  between  the  Windsor,  Ontario,  yards  and  the 
Detroit  yards.  A  double-track  tunnel  under  the  Detroit  River,  with 
grades  of  1.4  and  2.0  per  cent,  for  2000  feet  at  each  end  of  the  tunnel, 
connects  these  yards.  The  length  of  the  electric  zone  is  6,  and  the 
mileage  is  19. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES 


319 


Specifications  called  for  locomotives  for  freight  and  passenger  service 
in  the  tunnel,  and  for  switching  service  at  the  terminal  yards.  Two 
locomotives  were  to  haul  an  1800-ton  trailing  train  thru  the  yards  and 
tunnels  and  up  a  4000-foot,  2  per  cent,  grade  at  10  m.  p:  h.,  then  after  a 
layover  of  15  minutes  to  repeat  this  trip,  and  so  on  continually  without 
undue  heating  of  motors. 

Design  is  of  the  articulated  type  with  two  4-wheeled,  coupled  trucks, 
48-inch  drivers,  a  rigid  wheel  base  of  9.5  feet,  and  a  total  base  of  27.5  feet. 
The  trucks  are  not  independent,  but  form  a  single  articulated  running  gear. 


FIG.  98. — MICHIGAN^CENTRAL  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1910. 

i 

"The  system  of  spring  suspension  is  of  the  locomotive  type,  the  weight  being 
carried  on  semi-elliptic  springs  resting  on  the  journal  box  saddles.  The  system  of 
equalization  by  which  these  springs  are  connected  is  interesting.  The  A  end  of  the 
running  gear,  or  what  may  be  called  the  forward  truck,  is  side-equalized,  the  two 
springs  on  each  side  being  connected  together  through  an  equalizer  beam.  This 
equalizes  the  distribution  of  weight  between  the  two  wheels  on  one  side,  giving  to  this 
truck  a  2-point  support,  and  consequently  leaving  it  in  a  condition  of  unstable 
equilibrium  as  regards  tilting  stresses — that  is,  stresses  tending  to  tip  the  truck  for- 
ward or  backward.  The  B  end  of  the  running  gear,  or  what  may  be  called  the  rear 
truck  of  the  locomotive,  is  cross-equalized,  the  two  springs  on  the  rear  axle  being 
connected  together  through  an  equalizer  beam.  The  other  two  springs  on  this  truck 
are  independent  and  a*re  connected  directly  to  the  truck  frame.  This  results  in  a 
3-point  suspension  on  the  rear  truck,  leaving  it  in  a  condition  of  stable  equilibrium, 
capable  of  resisting  stresses  in  any  direction,  whether  rolling  or  tilting.  The 
trucks  are  coupled  together  by  a  massive  hinge,  so  designed  as  to  enable  the  rear 
truck  to  resist  any  tilting  tendency  of  the  forward  truck.  This  hinge  combines  the 
trucks  into  a  single  articulated  running  gear,  having  lateral  flexibility  with 


320 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


vertical  rigidity.  Thus  the  running  gear  has  what  may  be  called  a  compound 
point  suspension,  while  the  forward  and  rear  trucks  together  form  an  articulated 
frame  having  a  3-point  suspension,  consisting  of  the  2-point  support  of  the  forward 
truck  and  the  independent  equalization  of  the  rear  truck. 

The  draft  rigging  consists  of  a  standard  M.  C.  B.  vertical  plane  coupler,  with  yoke, 
springs,  and  follower  plates,  designed  to  comply  with  the  railroad  company 's  specifi- 
cations!" E.  R.  J.,  June  19,  1909. 


FIG.  99. — MICHIGAN  CENTRAL  RAILROAD.     ELEVATION  OF  1910  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Motors  per  locomotive  are  4,  direct-current,  600-volt,  400-ampere 
G.E.  209-A,  commutating-pole  units.  One-hour  rating  is  275  h.  p.  each, 
with  a  forced  ventilation,  at  2  1/4  inches  water-gage  pressure,  of  400  cubic 
feet  per  minute.  The  continuous  rating  is  about  123  h.  p.  Design  of 
motor  embraces  4  main  poles,  interpoles,  a  3/  16-inch  air-gap,  an  armature 
diameter  of  25  inches,  a  core  length  of  11.5  inches,  with  forty-one 


FIG.    100. — MICHIGAN    CENTRAL   RAILROAD.     ELECTRIC   LOCOMOTIVE    AT   DETROIT   RIVER   TUNNEL 
HAULING  1400-TON  FREIGHT  TRAIN. 

2x5 /8-inch  slots,  for  five  1-turn  coils  per  slot,  and  .8x. 08-inch  conductors. 
Commutator  diameter  is  22.5  inches,  segments  205,  brush  studs  2,  and 
brushes  three  2  1/4x2  1/2x1  I/ 16-inch  per  stud.     Pinions  are  placed  at 
each  end  of  the  armature  shaft  and  there  is  a  4.37  reduction  ratio. 
Efficiency  of  motor  including  gear  loss,  at  12  m.  p.  h.,  390  amperes, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES       321 

and  600  volts,  is  86  per  cent.;  it  raises  to  a  maximum  of  88  per  cent,  at 
14  m.  p.  h.  and  lowers  to  83  per  cent,  at  10.5  m.  p.  h.  Resistance  of 
motor  at  75°  C.  is  0.1  ohm.  See  motor  drawings,  Figure  43. 

Controllers  are  Sprague-General  Electric.  Two  or  more  locomotives 
are  controlled  from  either  end  of  any  cab.  Acceleration  provided  is 
particularly  uniform,  to  prevent  breaking  the  drawbars  on  ordinary  50- 
car  freight  trains.  The  motors  are  used  4  in  series,  2  in  series  and 
2  in  parallel,  or  4  in  parallel.  There  are  9  resistance  steps  in  series,  8  in 
series-parallel,  and  7  in  parallel. 

Weight  of  armature  is  3000;  magnet  frame,  3000;  4  main  poles  and 
spools,  1000;  4  interpoles  and  spools,  500  pounds;  motor  complete, 
10,200;  and  with  gear  case  11,600  pounds;  electrical  equipment,  32  tons; 
dead  weight  per  axle,  7  tons.  Locomotive  weight,  100  tons. 


PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  MICHIGAN  CENTRAL 
LOCOMOTIVES. 


Current               Speed 
amperes.              m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort  Ib. 

Power 
H.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

2400                     10.7 

56,000 

1600 

Forced  ventilation. 

2100                     11.0 

48,000 

1410 

Volts  600. 

1600                     11.8 

35,000 

1100 

One-hour  h.p.  1100. 

1200                     13  0 

24,000 

830 

1000                     14.0 

18,800 

700 

Drivers  48-inch. 

900                     14.5 

16000 

620 

Gearratio  4.37. 

835                    15  0 

14,400 

575 

720                    16.0 

11,500 

490 

Continuous  h.p.  490. 

550                    18  0 

7  200 

345 

440                     20  0 

4,900 

260 

400                     21.0 

4,000 

225 

Four  G.E-209  motors. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  1910  locomotives  use  this  motor  and  gear,  and  50-inch  drivers. 

References:  Drawings  in  E.  W.,  April  18,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  May  18,  1907;  March  28, 
1908;  June  19,  1909;  Jan.  14  and  21,  1911. 


PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD— EXPERIMENTAL. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  in  1905  and  1907  ordered  from  the 
Westinghouse  Company  direct-current  locomotives  No.  10001  and  No. 
10002,  a  geared  and  a  gearless  type  respectively.  They  were  at  first 
used  on  the  Long  Island  Railroad  and  on  the  West  Jersey  and  Seashore 
Railroad,  for  testing  purposes,  in  freight  and  passenger  haulage,  and  also 
in  high-speed  service.  The  design  was  a  symmetrical  swivel  truck  type. 

21 


322 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Weight  of  the  geared  unit  was  87  tons,  and  of  the  gearless,  97  tons. 
Rigid  wheel  base,  8.5  feet;  total  wheel  base,  26  feet;  drivers  56-inch. 

Motors  were  two  per  locomotive,  direct-current,  600-volt,  rated  300 
and  320  h.  p.  The  gearless  motor  weight  was  11,500  pounds  and  the 
armature  weight  5300  pounds.  Natural  ventilation  was  used. 


FIG.   101. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  EXPERIMENTAL  LOCOMOTIVE  OP  1905. 

On  test,  at  speeds  above  45  m.  p.  h.,  the  two-swivel-truck  wheel 
arrangement  was  not  safe,  and  track  destruction  was  evidenced.  Tests 
were  continued  with  unsymmetrical  trucks.  See  alternating-current 
locomotive,  page  357. 

References.     S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906,  and  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  602,  plate  XXI. 

PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD,   1910. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  placed  in  service  in  1910  at  its  New 
York  Terminal  Division,  24  direct-current,  157-ton,  4-4-4-4  type  loco- 
motives. Cabs,  running  gear,  and  mechanical  parts  were  built  by  the 
Company,  while  the  electrical  equipment  was  Westinghouse.  In  1911, 
nine  duplicate  locomotives  were  placed  in  service. 

The  electric  zone  in  which  these  locomotives  run  extends  12  miles 
east  from  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  thru  two  tunnels  to  the  terminal  in 
Manhattan,  thence  on  east  4  miles  and  thru  two  tunnels  to  Long  Island 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES 


323 


City  and  to  Sunnyside  terminal  yards  beyond.  The  New  York  Connecting 
Railroad  will  make  connections  to  the  New  Haven  road  via  the  Harlem 
River  yards.  Montauk  Point  trains  between  the  New  York  terminal 
and  points  25  miles  east,  on  Long  Island,  are  handled  by  electric  loco- 
motives; while  motor-car  train  service,  thru  two  other  tunnels  between 
Manhattan  and  Long  Island,  is  handled  by  the  Long  Island  Railroad. 
Motor-car  train  service  between  Newark,  or  Manhatten  Transfer,  and 
Jersey  City,  over  Pennsylvania  tracks,  is  handled  by  the  Hudson  and 
Manhattan  Railroad.  Sunnyside  yards  have  73  miles  of  tracks. 

The  service  includes  the  handling  by  electric  locomotives  of  about 
88  thru  passenger  trains  per  day  in  the  above  electric  zone. 

Specifications  outlined  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  locomotive 
committee,  George  Gibbs,  A.  W.  Gibbs,  D.  F.  Crawford,  and  A.  S.  Vogt, 
called  for  a  2-motor,  double  American-type  articulated  locomotive, 
which  would  start  and  accelerate  a  550-ton  trailing  load  (9  Pullmans)  on  2 


FIG.   102. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD   157-TON  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1910. 

per  cent,  tunnel  grades.  It  was  to  have  a  guaranteed  tractive  effort  of 
60,000  pounds  for  one-half  minute  and  50,000  pounds  for  two  minutes. 
(On  test  a  dynamometer  between  the  locomotive  and  a  train,  with  some 
brakes  set,  showed  a  drawbar  pull  of  79,200  pounds  or  39  per  cent,  of 
the  weight  on  the  drivers.)  The  normal  speed,  with  load  on  the  level, 
was  to  be  60  m.  p.  h.,  yet  the  locomotive  was  to  be  safe  at  80  m.  p.  h., 
for  use  on  a  New  York-Philadelphia  run.  Tests  called  for  acceleration 
of  trains  on  a  2  per  cent,  grade  with  one  motor  cut  out.  Controllers 
were  required  to  carry  as  high  as  7000  amperes  at  600  volts. 

Weight  of  the  locomotive  is  314,000  pounds  of  which  200,000  pounds, 
or  64  per  cent.,  are  carried  by  4  sets  of  72-inch  drivers,  and  114,000 
pounds  by  4  sets  of  36-inch  bogie  wheels. 


324          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


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D  D 


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FIG.  103. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1910. 

Thirty-three  used  at  New  York  terminal.     157- ton,  2500-h.  p.,  direct-current,  660- volts.     Two 
motors,  side-rod  type.     Crank  diameter  26  inches.     Natural  ventilation.     Passenger  service. 


FIG.  104. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD.    FRONT  ELEVATION  OP  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES       325 

In  general  the  locomotive  is  built  in  two  sections,  with  two  symmetri- 
cal running  gears,  joined  at  the  middle  with  a  permanent  coupling  of 
twin  drawbars  and  friction  draft  gears  so  designed  that  the  leading  half 
serves  to  guide  the  trailer,  and  opposes  any  buckling  action  of  halves. 

Mechanical  connections  are  made  by  means  of  rods  between  cranks 
on  the  ends  of  the  armature  shaft  of  the  motor  and  cranks  on  a  jackshaft, 
which  is  mounted  on  the  frames  in  the  same  plane  as  the  driving  axles. 


FIG.  105. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD.     RUNNING  GEAR  OF  LOCOMOTIVE. 
The   two   motors   are   mounted   on    the   truck   frames. 

Cranks  are  necessary,  with  the  great  length  of  the  armature  shaft  used. 
The  fixed  distance  between  the  center  line  of  the  jackshaft  and  the  motor 
is  7  feet  2  inches.  The  jackshaft  cranks  connect  to  cranks  on  the  drivers 
by  means  of  6-foot  side  rods.  The  cranks  are  in  quartered  positions, 
and  counterbalanced.  Connecting  side  rods,  which  run  from  the  crank 
to  the  two  drivers,  have  the  adjustable  heads  employed  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania class  E-3  steam  locomotive. 

Trucks  are  two,  of  the  articulated  type.     Truck  wheel  bases  are  6  feet 
7  inches;  rigid  driver  wheel  bases,  7  feet  2  inches;  wheel  base  of  each  half, 


326          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

23  feet  1  inch;  total  wheel  base,  55  feet  1 1  inches.  Locomotive  length  over 
all  is  65  feet. 

The  center  of  gravity  is  64  inches  above  the  rail. 

Frames  are  of  cast  steel  and  of  sufficient  strength  to  allow  the  engine 
to  be  raised  by  jacks  applied  at  fixed  points,  with  all  pedestal  binders 
removed.  The  side  frames  are  broad,  and  furnish  bases  for  the  feet  of 
the  electric  motor  frames,  which  fit  over  the  heavy  flanged  top  members  of 
the  side  frames.  The  frames  are  proportioned  for  a  bump  equivalent  to 
the  static  load  of  500,000  pounds  (150,000  pounds  applied  on  the  center 
line  of  draft  cylinders  and  350,000  pounds  applied  on  the  center  line  of 
platform  buffers)  which  is  to  produce  no  stress  in  the  frames  exceeding 
12,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Motors  consist  of  two  direct-current  interpole  units  per  locomotive.  The 
1-hour  rating  on  600  volts  and  1350  amperes  is  1000  h.  p.  with  natural  ventilation; 
on  660  volts  and  1525  amperes  is  1250  h.  p.;  and  the  continuous  rating  on  660  volts 
and  1070  amperes  is  800  h.  p.  Motors  are  guaranteed  to  handle  the  tunnel  and 
terminal  service  and  train  weights  on  the  grade,  with  given  layover  periods.  Two 
motors  can  develop  4000  h.  p.  for  30  minutes.  The  intermittent  character  of  the 
service  calls  for  a  root-mean-square  all-day  load  of  1600  amperes  at  400  volts,  at 
which  load  the  rise  in  temperature  will  not  exceed  60°  C. 

The  armature  is  56  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  core  is  23  inches  wide.  The  speed 
at  60  m.p.h.  is  280  r.p.m.  The  armature  core  is  so  mounted  on  the  spider  that  in  case 
of  a  short  circuit  or  flash-over,  between  the  brush  holders,  which  would  act  as  an 
electric  brake  on  the  armature,  the  core  will  slip  on  an  adjustable  clutch  on  the  arma- 
ture spider,  and  prevent  the  destruction  of  crank  pins  or  locomotive  driving  mechan- 
ism. Bearings  do  not  extend  under  the  commutator  or  under  the  armature  windings, 
and  caps  may  be  lifted  vertically.  The  center  line  of  the  motor  armature  is  25  1/2 
inches  above  the  cab  floor,  and  93  1/2  inches  above  the  rail,  and  thus  the  motor  is 
secure  from  snow,  dirt,  and  water.  Space  limitations  are  largely  removed  and  the 
design  possesses  excellent  mechanical  and  electrical  features.  The  motor  shaft 
extends  well  across  the  width  of  the  cab  giving  room  for  ample  bearing  length. 
The  motor  frames  are  cast-steel  shells,  divided  horizontally.  Natural  ventilation  is 
used.  Each  motor  weighs  complete,  with  the  crank,  45,000  pounds  and  the  armature 
weighs  10,950  pounds.  See  figure  49. 

Controllers  of  the  electro-pneumatic  switch  type,  i.  e.,  actuated  by 
air  from  the  brake  compressor  and  operated  by  electro-magnets,  are 
placed  at  each  end  of  the  cab.  The  main  power  does  not  pass  thru  the 
controllers  or  the  cab.  Three  speeds  are  called  for  in  control,  a  slow 
speed  for  switching  operations,  half  speed,  and  full  speed.  The  bridging 
scheme  is  used  for  passing  from  series  to  multiple  connection.  Motor 
fields  are  reversed  to  change  the  direction  of  motion. 

Field  control  is  used  on  the  two  motors  in  addition  to  the  series- 
multiple  grouping,  and  a  large  saving  is  thus  effected  in  resistors.  During 
acceleration  the  power  consumption  is  reduced  to  55  per  cent,  of  what  it 
would  be  without  field  control.  The  design  of  the  poles  is  such  that 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES     327 

each  is  wound  in  2  sections,  the  full  field  being  shunted  for  high  speed. 
The  change  from  full  field  to  normal  field  increases  the  speed  65  per  cent, 
and  reduces  the  tractive  effort  39  per  cent.,  the  motor  horse  power  being 


FIG.   106. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD   LOCOMOTIVE  AND  EIGHT-CAR  TRAIN. 


FIG.   107. — LOCOMOTIVE   HAULING  THE   NEW   YORK-CHICAGO,   18-HOUR,   "PENNSYLVANIA   SPECIAL." 

at  1000.  A  motor  load  of  1250  h.  p.  is  developed  with  the  normal  field 
without  appreciable  sparking;  and,  when  running  at  70  m.  p.  h.,  on  725 
volts,  with  normal  field,  the  opened  and  closed  circuits  caused  by  gaps 
in  the  third  rails  do  not  cause  spitting  at  the  brushes. 


328 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Switches  and  control  devices  must  handle  very  heavy  current  inputs, 
commonly  7000  amperes  at  660  volts  and  in  emergency  as  high  as  9000 
amperes.  Power-plant  switchboards  seldom  handle  such  heavy  currents 
and  they  are  never  operated  so  many  times  as  on  a  locomotive.  The 
efficiency  of  these  switches,  which  are  able  to  rupture  the  entire  current, 
is  remarkable.  Altho  the  noise  somewhat  resembles  the  report  of  a 
pistol,  there  is  hardly  a  flash  on  the  arcing  tips. 

PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PENNSYLVANIA 

LOCOMOTIVES. 

Volts,  600;  drivers,  72-inch;  air  gap,  9/16-inch;  crank  diameters,  26  inches;  motors 
in  parallel;  transmission  losses  not  included.  Data  from  Westinghouse  publication; 
Electric  Journal;  articles  by  George  Gibbs,  J.  L.  Davis;  and  other  sources. 


Speed 
m.p.h. 

Current 
amperes. 

Power 
h.p. 

Efficiency 
p.c. 

Tractive  effort 
pounds. 

Field 
winding. 

0 

7000 

79,200 

Full. 

24 

6400 

4400 

85.0 

69,000 

Full. 

25 

5700 

4000 

87.0 

60,000 

Full. 

26 

4700 

3360 

89.0 

48,000 

Full. 

31.5 

2700 

2000 

92.2 

24,000 

Full. 

36 

2050 

1540 

93.0 

16,000 

Full. 

40 

4200 

3100 

92.0 

29,400 

Normal. 

44 

3500 

2600 

93.0 

22,000 

Normal. 

50 

2800 

2120 

93.5 

16,000 

Normal. 

52 

2650 

2000 

93.5 

14,600 

Normal. 

60 

2100 

1600 

93.5 

10,000 

Normal. 

70 

1700 

1280 

93.0 

7,000 

Normal. 

76 

1500 

1120 

92.5 

5,500 

Normal. 

Operating  voltage  is  660,  on  which  there  is  10  per  cent,  greater  speed  and  power. 

Service  during  1910  has  shown  the  following: 

Work  on  the  tunnel  grades  is  severe,  and  at  high  speed  the  air  resistance  in  the 
long  tubes  is  excessive. 

Locomotive  loads  of  10  cars  in  switching  and  storage  service,  and  13  cars  in 
regular  passenger  trains  have  been  hauled. 

Clutches  between  the  armature  core  and  the  spider  of  the  motor  are  set  to  slip 
at  3500  amperes  per  motor,  and  when  they  have  slipped  they  have  caused  no  delay. 

Acceleration  often  requires  2700  amperes. 

The  rear  half  of  the  locomotive  does  not  seem  to  articulate  well  with  the  front 
half.  Some  action  tends  to  lift  the  rear  half  from  the  tracks. 

In  acceleration  the  wheels  seem  to  spin  readily  on  the  rear  half. 

Vibration  of  the  entire  locomotive  is  excessive,  and  has  caused  a  great  deal  of 
breakage  at  wire  terminals,  couplings,  and  unions;  loosening  of  the  tightest  bolts 
and  nuts;  breaking  of  rheostat  grids;  loosening  of  contactor  fingers;  shaking  off  of 
train  line  control  jumpers;  and  opening  of  joints  at  heavy  electrical  connections. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        329 

Jackshaft  design  has  not  been  satisfactory.  The  weight  of  the  counterbalance 
has  been  increased,  but  the  jackshaft  persists  in  pounding.  The  Jackshaft  bearings 
and  linings  have  also  given  trouble. 

Smooth  running  has  not  been  obtained.  The  locomotives  are  known  as  rollers 
and  pitchers  and  have  many  of  the  qualities  of  modern  steam  locomotives  in  heavy 
high-speed-service. 

References.    . 

E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  6,  1909;  Ry.  Age,  Nov.  5,  1909. 
Scientific  American,  Dec.  18,  1909. 
Kirker:  Electric  Journal,  Sept.,  1910. 
Gibbs:  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911,  p.  960. 


FIG.   108. — GALT,  PRESTON  &  HESPLER  LOCOMOTIVE,  1910. 

GALT,  PRESTON  &  HESPLER. 

Gait,  Preston  &  Hespler  Railway  locomotive  is  a  good  representative 
light-weight,  inexpensive  unit  of  the  two-swivel-truck  type  with  four 
100-h.p.,  50-ton,  geared,  600-volt,  direct-current  motors,  for  light 
freight  train  service  between  small  cities.  Scores  of  similar  locomotives 
are  used  by  interurban  railways. 

ILLINOIS  TRACTION. 

Illinois  Traction  Company  has  built  about  6  locomotives  per  year  since 
1907  for  its  freight  service  in  Illinois  where  it  has  about  560  miles  of  track. 

The  locomotives  are  of  the  2-truck,  swivel  type,  and  resemble  a 
common  baggage  car.  They  weigh  40  tons  to  GO  tons,  and  have  a  length 


330 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


of  31  to  34  feet.  Eight  36-inch  drivers  are  used.  Trucks  and  motors  arc 
purchased,  but  the  locomotive  frames  are  built  by  the  company.  The 
frames  generally  consist  of  six  parallel  10-inch  40-pound  I-beams,  which 


FIG.   109. — GALT,  PRESTON  &  HESPLER  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  1030-TON  TRAIN. 

are  continuous  from  bumper  to  bumper.  The  body  framing  is  of  struc- 
tural steel  shapes,  and  supports  a  turtle-back  roof.  Details  follow  the 
specifications  of  the  M.  C.  B.  Association,  in  the  matter  of  roof,  mounts, 
sliding  doors,  steps,  footholds,  couplers,  draft  gear,  wheels,  axles,  pilots, 


FIG.   110. — ILLINOIS  TRACTION  COMPANY  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1910. 

Six  used  in  freight  service  on  St.  Louis  Division.     60-ton,  960-h.  p.,  direct-current,  600  volts. 
Four-geared  motors,  natural  ventilation. 

automatic  air  brakes,  train  pipes,  etc.  Truck  wheel  bases  are  7  feet  2 
inches,  and  truck  centers  of  19  feet  are  used.  The  inside  of  the  loco- 
motive is  fairly  free  from  apparatus,  and  is  loaded  with  merchandise. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES         331 

Motors  are  direct-current  600-volt.  For  the  older  locomotives,  there 
are  four  90-  to  150-h.  p.  motors.  Six  locomotives  built  in  1910  have 
4  G.E.  66-C,  240-h.  p.  motors,  geared  for  slow  speed,  and  controlled  by 
Sprague-G.E.  18-point  controllers,  with  39  contactors. 

References.  Description,  drawings,  and  photographs,  S.  R.  J.,  March  16,  and 
July  6,  1907;  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1910,  p.  646. 

NORTH-EASTERN  RAILWAY. 

North -Eastern  Railway,  Newcastle,  England,  since  1904  has  used  six 
locomotives  which  displaced  steam  locomotives  for  freight  traffic. 


FIG.   111. — NORTH-EASTERN  RAILWAY,  ENGLAND,  ELECTRIC  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE. 

The  service  and  specifications  require  each  locomotive  to  be  capable  of 
handling  a  335-ton  train  on  a  level  at  14  m.  p.  h.  and  of  starting  a  166-ton 
train  on  a  4  per  cent,  grade  and  running  up  this  grade  at  9  . 5  m.  p.  h.  The 
electric  locomotives  are  of  the  double  bogie  type  with  central  cab. 

Frames  are  of  steel  section  with  cast-iron  blocks  to  bring  up  the  weight. 
Side  soles  are  12-inch  girders;  center  longitudinal  girders  are  two  8-inch 


332  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

channels,  and  ends  are  15-inch  channels.  Head  stocks  are  of  8x15- 
inch  oak.  The  bolster  is  formed  by  two  6x5-inch  girders,  of  1-inch  sec- 
tion, held  on  upper  and  lower  sides  by  3/4-inch  plates. 

Trucks  are  of  steel-plate  frame,  in  accordance  with  English  railway 
practice,  strengthened  with  steel  angles,  and  gussets  with  swinging  bolster. 
The  latter  is  supported  on  two  nests  of  coil  springs  and  is  provided  with 
cast-steel  wearing  plates,  cast-steel  center  and  side-bearing  plates.  Side 
frames  are  supported  on  axle  boxes  by  heavy  laminated  springs. 

Motors  are  4,  a  direct-current  type,  600-volt,  160-h.  p.,  with  2-turn 
armatures,  and  have  a  3.28  gear  ratio. 

Weight  is  55  tons,  all  on  eight  36-inch  drivers.  Length  is  38  feet 
and  the  truck  pivoted  centers  are  20  feet  6  inches.  Wheel  base  is  6  feet 

6  inches. 

Reference.     S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  675  with  photograph. 

METROPOLITAN— LONDON. 

Metropolitan  Railway  of  London  has  used  10  electric  locomotives  for 
hauling  the  Great  Western  trains  thru  the  northern  part  of  the  Circle,  and 
for  conveying  its  freight  and  passenger  trains  since  the  year  1905. 
The  locomotives  are  used  to  haul  170-ton  passenger  trains  at  36  m.  p.  h., 
and  275-ton  freight  trains  at  27  m.  p.  h. 

The  framing  resembles  that  on  the  North-Eastern.  Two  trucks  are 
used,  each  with  a  7-foot  6-inch  wheel  base.  The  truck  centers  are  17  feet 
4  inches.  Drivers  are  36  inches.  Total  weight  is  52  tons. 

Motors  per  locomotive  are  4,  each  200  h.p.,  direct-current,  600- 
volt,  but  rated  250  h.  p.  with  forced  draft  at  4  to  6  ounces  pressure. 

Reference.     S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  26,  1905;  Sept.  7,  1907. 

PARIS-ORLEANS  RAILWAY. 

Paris -Orleans  Railway  of  France,  a  steam  road,  began  the  use  of  8 
electric  'locomotives  in  1899,  first  on  a  2.4-mile  tunnel  section,  and  in 
1904  on  a  15-mile  section  between  Paris  and  Juvisy.  Other  sections 
have  since  been  added. 

The  first  locomotives  were  55-ton,  35-foot,  of  the  2-bogie  truck  type 
with  4  sets  of  49-inch  drivers.  Truck  centers  were  16  feet;  truck  bases 

7  feet  10  inches,  and  the  total  wheel  base  23  feet  10  inches. 

Three  61-ton  locomotives  of  the  " baggage  carrying"  type  with  18- 
foot  6-inch  truck  centers  were  added  in  1904. 

.Service  conditions  require  the  locomotive  to  haul  220-ton  trains  at  a 
schedule  speed  of  43  to  48  m.  p.  h.  and  at  a  maximum  speed  of  62  m.  p.  h. 
The  balance  speed  on  the  level  with  a  300-ton  trailing  load  is  32  m.  p.  h. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES        333 


FIG.  112. — PARIS-ORLEANS  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  AUSTERLITZ  STATION,  1899. 


FIG.  113. — PARIS-ORLEANS  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE.     TYPE  USED  SINCE  1899. 
Elevation  and  plan  of  55-ton  unit. 


334 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors  on  each  locomotive  are  four  G.E.-65,  or  250-h.  p.,  575-volt, 
direct-current.  The  armature  core  is  23  1/2  inches  in  diameter  by  12 
inches  long.  The  motors,  which  weigh  8855  pounds  each,  are  mounted 
with  one  end  on  the  axle  and  nose  supported  on  the  truck  transom; 
and  a  2.23  gear  ratio  is  used.  Weight  of  the  electrical  equipment  is  39 
per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  the  locomotive. 

DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES,  2000- VOLT. 

Rombacher-Huette  Company  of  Maizieres,  Lorraine,  France,  has 
used  3  Siemens-Schuckert  2000-volt,  direct-current,  freight  locomotives, 
since  1906.  The  road  is  9  miles  long  and  connects  the  Moselheutte  blast 
furnaces  with  iron  mines  at  Ste.  Marie. 

The  service  calls  for  the  handling  of  3000  tons  of  iron  ore  per  day 
over  a  mountainous  road.  The  ore  is  hauled  up  grades  averaging  21/2 


FlG.     114. ROMBACHER    HuETTE    RAILWAY,    MAIZIERES,    FRANCE.       FREIGHT    LOCOMOTIVE. 

per  cent,  for  2  miles,  then  a  level  stretch  of  2  miles  and  then  a  down- 
grade averaging  21/2  per  cent,  for  5  miles.  Ruling  grades  for  loaded 
trains  are  3  per  cent.  The  curves  are  severe  and  require  slow  running. 
The  trip  requires  one  hour.  Cars  weigh  14  tons  empty  and  48  tons 
loaded.  Trains  weigh  about  300  tons. 

Locomotive  weight  is  62  tons,  on  4  sets  of  49-inch  drivers.  There 
are  two  4- wheel  bogie  trucks  on  15-foot  9-inch  centers,  and  wheel  bases 
of  8  foot  6  inch. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES     335 

The  power  system  used  is  as  follows :  Three-phase  current  is  generated 
and  transmitted  at  5700  volts,  and  afterward  converted  to  direct  current. 
Three-phase  traction  was  not  used  because  it  required  complicated 
overhead  construction,  and  a  large  number  of  substations.  Single-phase 
traction  at  6000  volts  would  have  been  a  disadvantage,  because  the 
line  was  short;  and  because,  with  the  meter  gage  used,  and  the  long 
commutator  and  the  shorter  effective  core  length,  a  sufficiently  large 
geared  motor  could  not  be  placed  below  the  locomotive  platform. 

Substations  are  located  at  each  end  of  the  line,  and  each  contains  a  synchronous, 
three-phase,  880-h.  p.,  375-r.  p.  m.  motor  driving  a  600-kw.,  2000-volt,  direct-current 
generator.  Special  care  was  given  to  the  insulation  of  the  commutator  of  the  gener- 
ator and  motor;  and  brush  holders  are  set  in  compartments  and  insulated  from 
the  brush  rocker,  which  in  turn  is  insulated  from  the  frame.  Commutating  poles  are 
provided.  In  the  switch  gear  at  the  station  and  on  the  locomotives  the  air  spaces 
provided  are  large.  Blow-out  coils  send  the  arcs  at  the  fingers  outward  along  con- 
tacts arranged  in  the  form  of  horns.  Automatic  cut-outs  and  fuses  have  reliefs  thru 
the  roof  to  give  a  free  exit  for  the  arc.  Oil  switches  could  not  be  used,  because  of 
the  surging  which  would  be  produced  in  the  high-tension,  continuous-current  system 
by  the  rapid  extinction  of  the  arc  in  the  oil.  Magnetic  blow-outs  use  horn  extinguish- 
ers, and  the  arc  is  broken  at  two  points,  well  removed  from  the  contact  blades. 

A  short-circuit  switch  is  provided  in  the  cab,  as  on  some  American  locomotives, 
for  earthing  the  current  collector,  for  the  double  purpose  of  protecting  men  who  may 
be  inspecting  or  repairing  the  electrical  equipment  and  to  short-circuit  the  main  line 
in  case  an  arc  in  the  internal  wiring,  or  in  the  motor,  becomes  uncontrollable. 

Motors  consist  of  four  160-h.p.,  1000-volt,  4-pole,  interpole,  geared 
units,  permanently  connected  in  groups  of  2  in  series.  Motors  have  61 
slots  and  183  segments.  At  160-h.  p.  rating,  torque  is  1700  pounds,  speed 
is  620  r.  p.  m.,  amperes  are  125,  and  motor  efficiency  is  91  per  cent. 
Reference.  Railway  Gazette,  London,  October  and  November,  1907. 

St.  Georges  de  Commiers  a  la  Mure,  France,  a  similar  electric  freight 
road,  20  miles  long,  was  built  in  1903. 

The  system  is  the  direct-current,  2400-volt,  Thury,  3-wire,  2-trolley. 
Locomotives  weigh  55  tons  and  haul  thirteen  44-ton  cars  up  2.75  per 
cent,  grades.     There  are  four  125-h.p.,  600-volt,  nose-suspended  motors 
per  locomotive.     Electric  braking  is  used. 
Reference.      S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  31,  1903.     See  750-  to  2000-volt  roads,  Chapter  IV. 

LITERATURE. 

References  to  other  Direct-Current  Locomotives. 

Havana  Central  R.  R.:  40-ton,  E.  W.,  April  15,  1909. 

Boston  Elevated  Ry.:  S.  R.  J.,  March  2,  1907. 

Canadian  Pacific  R.  R.:  Hull-Aylmer  Div.,  freight,  E.  E.,  Oct.  7,  1896. 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit:  S.  R.  J.,  March  23,  1907,  p.  488;  Oct.  1,  1910;  Ry.  Age,  Nov. 

11,  1910. 
Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley:  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  4,  1906. 


336 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Toledo  &  Indiana  R.  R.:  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  4,  1906. 

Indiana  Union  Traction:  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  12,  1908,  pp.  637  and  747. 

Chicago  City  Railway:  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  21,  1908;  E.  T.  W.,  Nov.  14,  1908. 

Kansas  City  and  Westport:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  16,  1907. 

Portland,  Oregon,  Railway:  7  locomotives,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  21,  1907. 

Northern  Electric  Ry.,  Cal.:  E.  R.  J.,  June  10,  1911,  p.  1011. 

Pacific  Electric  Ry.:  Los  Angeles,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  10,  1908,  p.  827. 

General  Electric:  Catalog  No.  4537,  Sept.,  1907;  No.  3287,  Jan.,  1905;  No.  9139,  Aug., 

1905;  No.  4390,  Oct.,  1904;  No.  4851,  June,  1911. 

Westinghouse  Electric  Circular:  No.  7045,  of  1906;  1510  of  1910;  1517  of  1911. 
Westinghouse  and  General  Electric  Data,  E.  R.  J.,  July  2,  1906,  p.  12. 

Central  London:  Forty  48-ton,  680-h.  p.,  E.  W.,  July  21,  1900;  Aug.  16,  1902,  p.  229. 

City  and  South  London:  S.  R.  J.,  June,  1899;  Aug.  16,  1909,  p.  229. 

Norwegian:  Electric  Review,  Nov.  13,  1909. 

France:  DuBois,  S.  R.  J.,  May  20,  1905,  p.  911. 

Paris-Lyons  Mediterranean:  600-h.  p.  loco,  drawings,  E.  W.,  Feb.  4,  1899. 

Vienna  City:  520-h.  p.;  1500- volt,  d.  c.,  3-wire,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  3,  1906. 

See  1200-  to  2000-volt  railway  references,  pp.  129  and  130,  Chapter  IV. 


REFERENCES  TO  DETAILED  DRAWINGS  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  Locomoti 


Maker. 


Location. 


References. 


Baltimore  &  Ohio  96 

G  E 

Baltimore 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  03  .... 

G.E  

.    Baltimore  

G.E.  Bulletin  4537,  1907,  p.  12. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  10  .... 

G.E  

.    Baltimore  

G.E.  Review,  Dec.,  1910. 

Bush  Terminal  

G.E  

.  !  Brooklyn  

G.E.  Bulletin  4537,  1907,  p.  14. 

Brooklyn  Rapid  T  

Co  

.    Brooklyn  

S.R.J.,  March  23,  1907,  p.  489. 

Boston   Elevated  

Co  

.    Boston  

March  2,  1907,  p.  388. 

New  York  Central  

G.E  

.    N.  Y.  Terminal.  . 

A.I.E.E.,  May,  1907,  p.  748. 

* 

G.E.  Bulletin  4537,  1907,  p.  6. 

S.R.J.,  Dec.  19,  1908,  p.  1620. 

Michigan  Central  

G.E  

.    Detroit  

G.E.  Bulletin  4537,  p.  9. 

Pennsylvania  R.R  

West,  .  .  . 

.    N.  Y.  Terminal.. 

Ry.  Age  Gaz.,  Nov.  5,  1909. 

Illinois  Traction  

G.E  

.    Illinois  

E.R.J.,  Oct.  8,  1910. 

Pacific  Electric  

West.  .  .  . 

.    Los  Angeles  

E.R.  Rev.,  July  27,  1907. 

Northern  Elec.,  Cal  

West.  .  .  . 

.    Sacramento  .... 

E.R.J.,  June  10,  1911,  p.  1011. 

Metropolitan  

T.H  

.    London  

S.R.J.,  Aug.  26,  1905;    Sept.  7,  1907. 

Paris-Orleans  

G.E  

.    France  

Paris  -Lyons-M  

.    Paris  Terminal.  . 

E.  W.,  Feb.  4,  1899,  p.  146. 

Rombacher-Huette  

Siemens  . 

.    France  

Ry.  Gaz.,  Oct.  and  Nov.,  1907. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  DIRECT-CURRENT  LOCOMOTIVES     337 


This  page  is  reserved  for  additional  references  and  notes  on  direct-current 
locomotives. 


22 


CHAPTER  IX. 
TECHNICAL   DESCRIPTION  OF   THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 
LIST  OF  THREE-PHASE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railway. 

Mile- 
age. 

Year 
opend. 

No.  of 
loco. 

Power 
h.p. 

Wt. 
tons. 

Sets  of 
drivers. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Gear 
ratio. 

Volt- 
tage. 

No.  of 
cycles. 

Lugano,  Italy.  .  .  . 

5 

1896 

1 

25 

5 

2-33" 

9 

4.0 

500 

40 

Gornergrat  

6 

1898 

1 

160 

11 

Rack.  .  . 

4 

12.0 

500 

40 

Jungfrau:  

10 

1898 

3 

180 

13 

Rack.  .  . 

5 

500 

38 

2 

240 

14 

5 

12.6 

500 

38 

Stansstad- 

14 

1898 

3 

150 

16 

Rack... 

3-6 

5.0 

750 

33 

Engleberg. 

Burgdorf-Thun 

25 

1899 

2 

170 

32 

24 

3.00 

750 

40 

Interurban. 

1 

300 

33 

2-48" 

11 

1.88 

750 

40 

Siemens  Works  .  . 

1904 

1 

1000 

44 

6-35" 

2.13 

10000 

50 

Italian  State: 

Valtellina  Line 

70 

1902 

2 

900 

52 

4-55" 

19 

Crank 

3000 

15 

1904 

2 

1200 

69 

3-59" 

38 

Crank 

3000 

15 

1906 

2 

1500 

69 

3-59" 

40 

Crank 

3000 

15 

Giovi  Line,  Genoa 

26 

1909 

20 

1980 

67 

5-42" 

28 

Crank 

3000 

15 

Savonna  Line.  .  . 

16 

1909 

10 

1980 

67 

5-42" 

28 

Crank 

3000 

15 

Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel 

5 

1910 

10 

1980 

67 

5-42" 

28 

Crank 

3000 

15 

Zossen  Tests  

6 

1903 

1 

1000 

100 

6-49" 

120 

No  gear 

10000 

50 

(motor  cars)  .  .  . 

6 

1903 

1 

1000 

85 

6-49" 

120 

No  gear 

10000 

50 

Port  Stanley, 

27 

1905 

2 

130 

20 

4-36" 

30 

3.27 

1100 

25 

London,  Canada 

Swiss  Federal. 

Simplon  Tunnel. 

14 

1907 

2 

1100 

70 

3-61" 

43 

Crank 

3000 

16 

1909 

2 

1700 

76 

4-49" 

43 

Crank 

3000 

16 

Santa  Fe,  Spain.  . 

15 

1908 

5 

320 

30 

2 

16 

Gear 

5500 

25 

Great  Northern: 

Cascade  Tunnel. 

7 

1909 

4 

1700 

115 

4-60" 

15 

4.26 

6600 

25 

References  to  detailed  Drawings  of  Three-phase  Locomotives,  353. 


338 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES. 

The  technical  descriptions  of  three-phase  locomotives  which  follow 
do  not  include  the  small  units  used  in  the  first  five  roads. 

SIEMENS-SCHUCKERT. 

Siemens-Schuckert  Works,  in  1904,  built  a  large  3 -phase,  50-cycle, 
44-ton  locomotive,  for  experimental  work.  See  accompanying  illus- 
tration. 

The  locomotive  had  two  bogie  trucks,  on  the  axles  of  which  were  four 
6-pole,  250-h.  p.  geared  motors.  A  2.13  gear  ratio  was  used.  Drivers 
were  36-inch.  The  potential  between  each  of  3  trolleys  was  10,000  volts. 


FlG.     115. SIEMENS-SCHUCKERT    LOCOMOTIVE    OF     1904. 

Three-phase,  11,000-  to  1000-volt,  1000-h.  p.,  geared  type. 


VALTELL1NA  RAILWAY. 

Valtellina  Line  of  the  Italian  State  Railway,  between  Lecco,  Sondrio, 
and  Chiavenna,  uses  electric  locomotives  for  500-ton  freight  trains,  and 
motor  cars  for  6-coach  passenger  trains.  About  60  per  cent,  of  the  route 
has  2  per  cent,  gradients,  tunnels,  and  sharp  curves. 

The  system  is  the  15-cycle,  3000-volt,  three-phase;  and  the  road,  which 
has  70  miles  of  track,  is  fed  from  a  4200-kw.  water  power  plant,  thru 
nine  300-kw.  transformer  substations. 

339 


340 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  electrical  equipment,  built  by  Ganz  &  Company,  follows: 

Two    600-h.  p.,  52-ton,  0-4-0  locomotives  ordered  in  1902. 

Two  1200-h.  p.,  69-ton,  2-6-2  locomotives  ordered  in  1904. 

Two  1500-h.  p.,  69-ton,  2-6-2  locomotives  ordered  in  1906. 

Ten  300- to  600-h.  p.,  32-  to  58-ton  motor  cars,  ordered  in  1902. 

The  1902  locomotives,  with  2  swivel  trucks  and  4  pairs  of  drivers, 
are  used  for  freight  service.  They  have  one  economical  speed,  18.6 
miles  per  hour.  Drawbar  pull  is  rated  11,000  pounds.  There  are  four 
14-pole,  128  r.p.m.,  150-h.p.,  gearless,  axle-mounted  motors  per  locomo- 
tive. Motors  weigh  22  tons,  or  42  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight. 

The  1904  locomotives  have  3  driving  axles  and  2  pony  axles.  There 
are  two  economical  speeds,  37.0  and  18.3  m.p.h.,  and  the  rated  draw- 
bar pull  is  7000  to  12,000  pounds. 


FIG.  116. — ITALIAN  STATE  RAILWAY, — VALTELLINA  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1906. 
Three-phase,  15-cycle,  2-motor  unit.     Total  rated  horse  power  1500  at  40  m.p.h.     Weight  69  tons. 

Motors  are  two  600-h.  p.  twin  units,  mounted  in  pairs  on  one  shaft  between  the 
second  and  third  and  between  the  third  and  fourth  axles;  and  drive  the  axles  thru  a 
Scotch  yoke,  crank,  and  side  rods.  The  3  pairs  of  drivers  are  coupled  and  there  is 
no  danger,  with  varying  loads  on  the  individual  motors,  that  one  of  the  driving  axles 
will  slip.  Motor  and  driving  gear  are  spring-mounted  and  completely  counter- 
balanced. Control  is  so  arranged  that  at  half  speed  the  rotors  of  the  2  primary  3000- 
volt  motors  feed  the  stators  of  the  two  400- volt  motors  connected  in  cascade  relation 
with  the  first  motors,  which  are  placed  on  the  same  shaft.  Each  pair  of  motors  has 
a  1-hour  rating  of  900  h.  p.  At  full  speed  the  2  pairs  of  motors  have  a  1-hour  rating 
of  1200  h.  p.  Width  of  motors  is  51  inches,  and  diameter  is  68  inches.  Weight  of  two 
600-h.  p.  primary  motors  is  36,800  pounds  and  of  secondary  motors  18,800  pounds; 
total  55,600  pounds  or  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight,  which  is  139,000  pounds. 
Distance  between  cranks  along  the  axle  is  78  inches;  distance  between  axle  bear- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        341 

ings  along  axle  is  57  inches ;  distance  between  motor  bearings  along  axle  is  34  inches ; 
width  of  motor  is  51  inches;  diameter  of  motor  is  68  inches. 

Specifications  for  the  1904  locomotive  required  it  to  accelerate  a 
448-ton  train  at  0.34  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.,  and  to  start  a  448-ton  train  on  a  0.3 
per  cent,  grade,  and  bring  it  up  to  a  speed  of  18.6  m.  p.  h.  every  2  minutes 
for  1  hour,  without  excessive  heating;  and  further  that  the  motors  on  10- 
hour  shop  test,  at  rated  speed  and  load,  should  not  have  a  temperature 
rise  in  any  part  exceeding  60°  C.  above  the  surrounding  air.  A  100  per 
cent,  overload  was  specified  for  200  seconds,  and  also  a  50  per  cent,  over- 
load for  60  minutes,  without  40°  C.  rise  above  the  surrounding  air. 

Design  of  1904  locomotives  calls  for  one  fixed  middle  axle,  which  is 
journaled  in  the  main  frames.  The  other  two  driving  axles  have  a  range 


FIG.   117. — VALTELLINA  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1906. 


of  side  movement  of  about  one  inch.  The  locomotive  has  leading  and 
trailing  pony  axles  each  of  which  has  a  radial  movement,  and  one  of  them 
also  has  a  lateral  movement  at  the  bolster.  The  fixed  wheel  base  runs 
from  the  middle  driving  axle  to  the  bolsters  at  the  middle  of  the  front 
truck.  The  truck  design  results  in  great  freedom  of  adjustment  and 
smooth  running  at  curves.  The  cranks  of  the  two  motors  are  connected 
at  each  end  of  the  motor  by  a  yoke,  which  again  is  connected  to  the  crank 
of  the  middle  driving  axle,  but  the  bearing  on  this  crank  has  a  free  ver- 
tical movement  in  the  rod. 

The  1906  locomotives  have  the  driving  axles,  the  pony  axles,  and  the 
connections  used  for  the  1904  locomotives.  There  are,  however,  three 
economical  speeds,  in  place  of  two. 


342 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors  are  two,  a  1200-h.p.  and  a  1500-h.p.  At  full  speed  only  one 
motor  is  used  and  the  locomotive  is  then  rated  at  1500  h.  p.  The  relation 
of  drawbar  pull  to  speed  is  quoted  as : 

Two  motors,  cascade  relation,  16  m.p.h.,  14,500  pounds. 
One  12-pole,  1200-h.p.,  26  m.p.h.,  motor  12,100  pounds. 
One  8-pole,  1500-h.p.,  40  m.p.h.,  motor  12,100  pounds. 
Two  motors  cannot  be  operated  together  at  full  speed. 


DATA  ON  VALTELLINA  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Locomotives  ordered  in 

1902 

1904 

1906. 

Number  ordered  

two 

two 

two 

Wheel  arrangement 

0-4-4-0 

2-6-2 

2-6-2 

H.  p.  rating  at  each  speed, 
in  m.  p.  h. 

Full  speed  of  motor,  in  r.p.m. 
Pairs  arid  diam.  of  drivers.  . 
Pairs   and   diam.    of   truck 
wheels. 
Wheel  base,  total  
Wheel  base,  rigid  

600  @  18.3  mph. 

128 
four   55" 
none 

21  '-8" 
6'-7" 

900  @  18.  3  mph. 
1200@37.0mph. 

225 
three  59" 
two  33 

31'-10" 
16'-  1" 

.  .  .  .  @16  mph. 
1200@25  mph. 
1500@40   mph. 
225 
three  59" 
two  33 

31  '-2" 
15'-5" 

Weight,  total  tons       

52 

68 

69 

Weight  on  drivers,  tons.  .  .  . 
Weight  of  motors,  tons.  .  .  . 

52 
22 

47 

27.8 

47 
27.3 

References  on  Valtellina  Locomotives,  Italian  State  Railway. 

WILSON  AND  LYDALL:  Vol.  I,  p.  347;  Vol.  II,  p.  54,  for  duplex  motors  on  1904  loco. 
Locomotive  Tests:  S.  R.  J.,  March  11,  1905;  Aug.  5  and  25,  1905;  Electrical  World, 

Vol.  46,  pp.  221  and  766,  1905;  S.  R.  J.,  May  2  and  30,  1903,  p.  663  and  788. 
Hammer:  Descriptive,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1901. 
Waterman  and  Muralt:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905;  Nov.,  1909. 

Kando:  Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  deutscher  Ingenieure,  Jan.,  1905  and  Jan.,  1909. 
Valatin:  Speed  Control,  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  6,  1907,  p.  575;  weight  factor,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  4, 

1908;  Elektrische  Kraftbetriebe  and  Bahnen,  1907,  heft  6. 

GIOVI  RAILWAY. 

Giovi  Railway,  an  Italian  State  Railway,  between  Genoa,  Piedmont, 
and  Lombard,  in  1909  installed  electric  power  for  the  section  between 
Genoa  and  Pontedecimo,  13  miles  of  double  track. 

The  system  is  the  15-cycle,  3000-volt,  three-phase. 

Equipment  was  furnished  by  the  Italian  Westinghouse  Company,  and 
includes  20  locomotives  for  the  Giovi  Line;  also  20  locomotives  for  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        343 

Savonna-Ceva  Line,  about  12  miles  west  of  Genoa;  and  10  locomotives 
for  the  Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel. 

The  locomotives  haul  1100  cars  per  day  over  the  route  and  grades. 
The  tonnage  is  twice  that  previously  sent  over  this  double  track  line. 
The  service  is  stated  to  be  the  heaviest  railroad  freight  traffic  in  the 
world  hauled  by  electric  locomotives. 

Power  station  now  contains  two  6000-kv.a.  steam  turbines  driving 
15-cycle,  13,000-volt  alternators,  and  a  water  rheostat  which  can  auto- 
matically absorb  a  maximum  of  4000  kw.,  if  regenerated  energy  is  not 


FIG.  118. — ITALIAN  STATE  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE.     GIOVI  LINE,  1909. 

absorbed  in  useful  work.  There  are  four  3000-kw.  step-down  trans- 
former substations  along  the  12.5-mile  line,  which  reduce  the  voltage 
to  3000. 

In  general  there  are  two  990-h.p. ,  225  r.p.m.  motors  per  locomotive  and 
two  locomotives  per  train.  The  locomotives  have  2  speeds — 14.5  and 
28  m.p.h.  There  are  5  coupled  axles,  and  the  drivers  on  the  middle 
axle  are  without  flanges.  Front  and  rear  axle  have  an  0.8-inch  lateral 
movement.  The  two  motors  are  placed  over  and  between  the  axles, 
nearest  the  middle  of  the  locomotive  and  are  crank-connected  to  the 
side  rods,  thru  Scotch  yokes. 

Specifications  for  the  1909  Giovi  locomotive  follow: 

Weight  was  not  to  exceed  67  tons ;  but  the  mechanical  construction  was  to  carry 
an  additional  25  per  cent,  if  required  for  adhesion  for  heavier  trains  than  specified. 


344 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Trains  to  weigh  418  tons  exclusive  of  the  locomotives. 

Locomotives  to  be  used  in  pairs,  one  at  each  end  of  the  train.    ' 

The  road  over  which  the  locomotives  were  to  be  tested  and  used  to  be  12.5  miles 
long.  The  grades  to  average  2.70  per  cent,  for  a  distance  of  6.5  miles,  the  ruling  grade 
to  be  3.50  per  cent,  for  several  miles,  and  a  2.90  per  cent,  g  ade  for  2.6  miles  in  one 
tunnel.  .  Curves  to  have  a  540-foot  minimum  radius. 

Speed  on  the  up-grades  to  be  28  m.p.h.,  and  in  regeneration  on  the  down-grades 
to  be  14  m.p.h.  Acceleration  to  28  m.p.h.  to  be  carried  out  in  200  seconds,  or  at  the 
rate  of  0.14  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  Acceleration  to  14  m.p.h.  with  one  locomotive  hauling 
440  tons  trailing  load,  on  a  0.3  per  cent,  grade,  and  540-foot  radius  curve,  to  be 
made  30  times  per  hour.  Time  for  acceleration  or  for  deceleration  to  be  2  minutes. 


268OO   26800 


26800 


268OO    2680O 


FIG.   119. — ITALIAN  STATE  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE.     GIOVI   LINE,   1903. 

Giovi  Line.     67-ton,  1980-h.  p.,  3-phase,  15-cycle,  3000-3000-volt  motors  for  side-rod  connection. 
Forced  ventilation.     Freight  service. 

Running  time  for  12.5  miles,  at  28  m.p.h.,  to  be  27  minutes;  for  the  return  54 
minutes;  for  the  layover  59  minutes;  round  trip  140  minutes. 

Temperature  after  8.5  round  trips  or  20  hours'  run  with  418-tons  trailing  load, 
with  forced  draft,  followed  by  one  round  trip  without  forced  draft,  was  not  to  rise 
75°  C.  by  resistance  (not  by  thermometer). 

(Note:  Power  required  on  the  2.7  per  cent,  up-grade  is  (418  +  67  +  67)  X  (54  +  6) 
X  28/375  or  2475  h.p. ;  and  on  3.5  per  cent,  up-grade  is  3134  h.p.  Power  on  the  level, 
at  full  speed,  is  only  247  h.p.) 

Motors  have  double  frames,  the  outer  of  which  is  built  into  the  main 
locomotive  frame  and  has  for  its  function  only  the  maintenance  of  the 
air  gap  independent  of  changes  in  position  of  the  locomotive  frame 
members.  The  outer  frame  takes  the  thrust  of  the  connecting  rods. 
The  motor  is  entirely  spring  mounted,  on  four  spiral  springs,  two 
on  each  side  of  the  motor  axle  boxes.  The  motors  are  slipped  into 
place,  in  their  outer  frames,  from  below.  A  motor  can  be  removed  in 
two  hours.  Two  motors  weigh  27  tons.  See  Figure  50. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        345 

Motors  are  of  the  three-phase  slip-ring,  8-pole  type.  Each  is  rated  by 
the  Italian  Westinghouse  engineers  at  nearly  1000  h.  p.  for  1  hour  or 
720  h.  p.  continuous  on  forced  draft,  based  on  75°  C.  rise,  determined  by 
resistance  measurements.  Motors  have  partly  closed  slots  for  protection 
of  windings  in  the  rotor  and  stator.  These  slots  are  filled  with  a  flexible 
insulating  compound  (which  at  times  gets  into  the  air  gap). 

Control  is  by  means  of  the  concatenated  scheme.  The  rotor  or  second- 
ary of  the  first  motor  delivers  a  very  low  voltage  to  the  primary  of  the 
second  motor.  The  secondary  of  the  second  motor  is  then  connected 
to  a  compressed-air-controlled  water  rheostat,  the  gradual  change  in 


FIG.   120. — ITALIAN  STATE  RAILWAY. — GIOVI  LINE. 
Locomotives  and  440-ton  train  on  3 . 5  per  cent,  grade. 

which  provides  smooth  acceleration.  In  order  to  change  from  parallel  to 
concatenated  connections  or  to  reverse  the  direction  of  motor,  a  small 
3000-volt,  air-break  switch  is  used  to  open  the  main  circuit.  Change 
is  then  made  in  the  contact  mechanism  or  connections,  so  that  arcing 
does  not  occur  at  the  controller  contacts. 

Multiple  control  is  arranged,  yet  the  current  in  any  one  motor  is 
limited  and  locomotives  with  widely  different  wheel  diameters  and  loads 
are  used  together.  The  pushing  locomotive  can  then  carry  the  larger  load, 
as  is  frequently  desirable.  The  current  to  a  locomotive  is  limited  by  the 
addition  of  resistance,  automatically  inserted  in  the  secondary  of  the 
motor  by  the  action  of  induction  regulators,  relays,  and  compressed  air 
which  change  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  rheostats  connected  in  the 
secondary  circuits  of  the  motors.  Interlocks  are  arranged  for  compressed- 
air-operated  switches,  trolley,  and  rheostats.  Bow  trolleys  with  rolling 
contact  were  found  to  be  suitable  for  the  low  speeds. 


346  ELECTRIC  TRACTON  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

References. 

Kando:  Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  deutscher  Ingenieure,  1909,  p.  1249,  abstracted  in 

E.  W.,  Aug.  11,  1910.     Sprecht:  Elec.  Journal,  Dec.,  1908. 
London  Electrical  Engineering,  Feb.  9,  1911. 
E.  R.  J.,  April  8,  1911,  p.  631. 

SWISS  FEDERAL  RAILWAY. 

Simplon  Tunnel  Line  from  Brig  in  Switzerland  to  Iselle  in  Italy  was 
completed  and  placed  in  service,  with  electric  locomotive  traction,  in 
July,  1907.  This  12.3-mile  tunnel  thru  the  Alps  is  the  longest  in  the 
world.  The  grade  is  0.7  per  cent,  thru  one-half,  and  0.2  per  cent,  thru 
the  other  half  of  the  tunnel.  The  tunnel  is  very  hot  and  moist,  but  it  is 
ventilated  by  means  of  fans,  the  air  having  a  velocity  of  7  m.  p.  h. 


20160 


31360 


336OO 


336  OO 


20160. 


FIG.   121. — Swiss  FEDERAL  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE,   1907. 

Two  used  on  Sirnplon  Tunnel.     70-ton,  1100-h.  p.,  3-phase,  16-cycle,  3000-3000-volt  motors  for 
side-rod  connection.     Mixed  service. 

Water  power  is  used  for  electric  train  haulage  and  comes  from  two 
central  stations  having  a  total  capacity  of  2700  h.  p. 

The  system  used  is  the  16-cycle,  three-phase,  with  3000  volts  on  the 
contact  line,  and  also  on  the  stator  of  the  motors. 

Each  locomotive  has  two  motors  with  cranks  on  the  rotors  which 
connect  thru  Scotch  yokes  to  the  driver  side  rods. 

Two  class  2-6-2  locomotives,  built  in  1907,  each  have  two  550-h.  p. 
slip-ring  type  motors,  the  control  of  which  is  by  pole  changing  in  the 
primary  and  resistance  in  the  rotor  or  secondary.  The  speed  is  21  or 
43  miles  per  hour. 

Two  class  0-4-4-0  locomotives,  built  in  1909,  each  have  two  850-h.  p. 
squirrel-cage  type  motors,  the  control  of  which  is  by  varying  the  voltage 
to  the  stator.  The  speed  is  16,  21,  33,  or  43  m.  p.  h.  Leading  and  trailing 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        347 

axles  are  surrounded  by  hollow  axles  which  allow  some  lateral  movement, 
and  thus  the  use  of  pilot  axles  is  avoided. 

Locomotive  design  for  the  two  1909  locomotives  shows  a  radical 
improvement.  Experience  had  taught  that  four  speeds  were  quite 
necessary.  Collector-ring  rotors  were  avoided  on  account  of  the  limita- 
tions of  shaft  space  and  core  width,  ancl  the  awkwardness  of  this  high- 
voltage,  current-collecting  device.  Cascade  control  was  not  considered 
advantageous;  on  the  contrary,  it  was  cumbersome  and  complicated. 
The  ideal  three-phase  motor  was  apparently  not  the  bar-wound  armature, 
with  collector  rings,  and  complicated  connections. 


C-fc-Wfc-4-0  —  f 
i         I 
1 

5-7  > 

i          i                   x 
p  fi    f. 

«—  5-7  » 

" 

i        ' 
i 

1 

. 

38-3 

, 

38080         38080 


38060 


35080 


FIG.   122. — Swiss  FEDERAL  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE,   1909. 

Two  used  at  Simplon  Tunnel.     76-ton,  1700-h.  p.,  3-phase,  16-cycle,  3000-3000-volt  motors  for 
side-rod  connection.     Mixed  service. 

Squirrel-cage  rotors  were  simple  and  rigid  and  had  a  minimum  num- 
ber of  parts  to  get  out  of  order.  They  were  adopted  for  the  1909  loco- 
motives. It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the  squirrel-cage,  low-resistance 
rotors  have  a  low  starting  torque,  but  the  windings  were  designed  with 
5  times  the  ordinary  resistance  to  give  sufficient  starting  torque. 

Specifications  for  the  latest  or  1909  locomotives: 

Drawbar  pull  to  exceed  13,000  pounds  when  running  at  40  to  50  m.  p.  h.  and  to 
exceed  5,500  pounds  at  a  speed  of  20  to  25  m.  p.  h.,  even  should  the  normal  voltage 
of  3000  drop  to  2700.  (Drawbar  pull  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  voltage.) 

Locomotives  to  be  capable  of  bringing  a  train  of  a  total  weight  of  448  tons  of 
2009  pounds  from  rest  to  a  speed  of  20  m.  p.  h.  in  55  seconds  on  the  level;  to  bring  a 
total  weight  of  280  tons  from  rest  to  a  speed  of  40  m.  p.  h.  in  110  seconds;  and  to  be 
capabl?  of  starting  from  rest  with  a  total  train  weight  of  280  tons  on  a  2  per  cent, 
grade  with  certainty  under  all  conditions. 


348 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors,  starting  resistance,  and  all  electrical  details  to  be  proportioned  to  enable 
a  train  having  a  total  weight  of  448  tons  to  be  accelerated  from  rest  to  20  m.  p.  h. 
at  least  30  consecutive  times,  at  intervals  of  2  minutes,  on  curves  of  not  more 
than  600-feet  radii,  and  with  a  gradient  of  not  more  than  0.3  per  cent.,  without 
any  part  of  the  equipment  sustaining  injury  from  undue  stress  or  overheating. 

Motors  after  a  continuous  run  of  10  hours  at  rated  load,  at  either  working  speed, 
to  have  a  temperature  rise  in  any  part  of  the  motor,  including  the  bearings,  not  to 
exceed  60°  C. ;  and  after  a  continuous  run  of  1  hour  at  50  per  cent,  overload,  or  200 
seconds  at  100  per  cent,  overload,  the  temperature  rise  was  not  to  exceed  40°  C. 

Motor  torque  and  speed  are  varied  by  changing  from  16  to  12,  8,  or  6  poles; 
and  with  16  poles  the  drawbar  pull  is  a  maximum.  The  absolute  torque  is  varied  by 
regulating  the  voltage  impressed  upon  the  rotor.  At  the  instant  of  starting  the  max- 
imum energy  is  lost  in  heat  in  the  rotor,  while  at  full  speed  only  a  part  of  this  loss 


FIG.  123. — Swiss  FEDERAL  RAILWAY,  SIMPLON  TUNNEL  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 
Three-phase,  3000-volt,  16-cycle  units.     Brown,  Boveri  &  Co. 


exists.  The  starting  torque  is  proportional  to  the  loss  in  the  rotor  circuits,  and  can 
be  obtained  by  using  a  large  resistance  and  small  current  as  in  the  collector  ring  rotor, 
or  by  using  a  large  current  and  small  resistance.  The  latter  scheme  is  used.  The 
rotor  resistance  is  placed  between  the  bars  and  the  short-circuiting  ring,  and  so 
arranged  that  temperatures  of  250°  C.,  or  an  increase  in  resistance  of  about  50  per 
cent.,  may  be  used  under  necessary  circumstances.  The  loss  in  the  stator  winding 
is  somewhat  larger  than  in  a  collector  ring  type  of  motor.  In  other  words  efficiency 
is  sacrificed  for  simplicity  in  the  design  and  maintenance. 

Parallel  operation  of  different  locomotives  is  not  difficult.  The  maximum  wear 
of  the  drivers,  with  electric  braking,  is  1.37.5  inches  or  about  3  per  cent.,  and  the 
squirrel-cage  motors  are  designed  for  about  7  per  cent,  full-loaded  slip. 

Service  reaches  a  maximum  of  24  trains  per  day  each  way.  It  requires  700  h.  p. 
more  to  run  in  the  tunnel  than  in  the  open. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        349 

SIMPLON  TUNNEL  LOCOMOTIVE  DATA. 

Locomotives  ordered  in 1907  1909 

Number  ordered 2  2 

Wheel  order 2-6-2  0-8-0 

Wt.  of  passenger  cars 326  392 

Wt.  of  freight  cars 448  730 

H.  p.  rating  at  16 . 1  m.  p.  h 1300 

21.7 800  1100 

32.2 1300 

43.5 1100  1700 

R.  p.  m.  of  motor,  full  speed 240  320 

No.  of  axles,  total « 5  4 

Pairs  and  diam.  of  drivers 3-64 . 5"  4-49 . 0" 

Wheel  base  total 31'-11"  26'-3" 

Wheel  base  rigid 16'-  I"  5'-7" 

Wt.  of  electric  motors,  tons 25 .0  27 . 5 

Wt.  of  transformers 0  6.6 

Wt.  of  lighting  set  and  compressors 8.0  5.0 

Wt.  of  mechanical  parts 37 . 0  37 . 0 

Wt.  of  locomotive,  total 69 . 0  76 . 0 

Wt.  of  locomotive  on  drivers 50 . 0  76 . 0 

Wt.  on  each  set  of  drivers * 16.6  19. 1 

H.  p.  per  ton,  full  speed 15.9  22 . 4 

Ratio  drawbar  pull  to  weight  on  drivers  in  starting,  per  cent.. .  35.5  34.5 

DRAWBAR  PULL  AT  DRIVERS  IN  POUNDS. 

Lo3omotive  of  1907  rated  1100  h.  p.  at  44  m.  p.  h. 

Number  of  poles 16  16  8 

Miles  per  hour standstill  21 .73  43 . 47 

Pull  on  the  level 17,610  13,000  8,370 

Pull  on  2.5  %  grade 17,610  9,480  5,080 

Locomotive  of  1909  rated  1700  h.  p.  at  44  m.  p.  h. 

Number  of  poles 16                 16                   12  8  6 

Miles  per  hour standstill           16 . 46             21 . 73  32 . 91  43 . 47 

Pull  on  the  level 26,  400      24,800            21,800  16,320  13,250 

Pull  on  2.5  %  grade 26,  400      21,200            18,050  12,350  9,470 

References  on  Simplon  Tunnel  Locomotives. 

S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906;  E.  W.,  Oct.  27,  1906;   Elec.  Review,  'Nov.  13,  Dec.  4,  1909. 
Schweizerische  Bauzeitung,  Oct.,  1909. 
Zeitschrift  des  Vereines  deutscher  Ingenieure,  Jan.,  1909,  p.  993. 

GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY. 

Great  Northern  Railway  has  four  115-ton,  3-phase  electric  locomotives. 
They  were  ordered  June,  1907,  delivered  February,  1909,  and  placed  in 
full  service  during  July,  1909. 

The  service  is  trunk-line  freight  and  passenger-train  haulage  thru  a 
tunnel  in  the  Cascade  mountains.  The  tunnel  is  14,400  feet  long  and 
has  a  1.7  per  cent,  grade.  The  route  is  4  miles  long;  and  the  mileage  is  6. 


350 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Power  is  derived  from  a  water  power  plant  on  the  Wenatchee  River, 
25  miles  west  of  the  tunnel.  A  600-foot  dam  runs  diagonally  across  the 
river.  The  water  is  led  to  the  power  house  by  means  of  a  wood  stave 
pipe  11,000  feet  long  and  8  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  The  head  is  140 
feet.  Generators  consist  of  three  2000-kw.,  3-phase,  25-cycle  units. 

Transmission  line  length  is  30  miles.  The  voltage,  which  is  33,000, 
is  stepped  down  at  the  tunnel  to  6600  volts  for  use  on  the  double  trolley. 

Trucks  for  the  locomotives  were  designed  for  low  speeds  on  grades, 
15  m.  p.  h.  They  are  of  the  articulated  or  hinged  type,  with  4  drivers  on 


FIG.   124. — GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE,   1909. 

Four  used  at  Cascade  Tunnel.     116-tons,   1700-h.  p.,  3-phase  units.     25-cycle,  6000-volt  line. 

Four  500- volt  geared  motors. 


each  half  of  the  running  gear,  and  there  are  no  guiding  wheels.  The  hinged, 
sections  are  designed  to  guide  each  other  on  curves.  Trucks  are  equal- 
ized to  distribute  the  stresses  over  the  springs  and  to  eliminate  twisting 
stresses  in  the  truck  frame  and  running  gear.  The  truck  design  is 
described  on  page  319.  The  rigid  wheel  base  is  11  feet,  and  the  total 
wheel  base  31  feet  9  inches.  Drivers  are  60-inch. 

The  framing  is  made  of  annealed  steel  castings.  Sides  are  trussed, 
and  end  frames  and  bolsters  are  steel  castings  of  the  box  girder  type 
designed  for  buffing  stresses  of  500,000  pounds.  Bolsters  are  hollow  and 
form  part  of  the  air  duct  for  the  motor  ventilation.  The  cab  is  carried 
on  center  pins  on  each  bolster.  One  of  the  center  pins  provides  for  a 
longitudinal  variation  in  the  distance  between  truck  centers  on  curves. 

Transformers    on    each   locomotive    are   two    400-kw.,    three-phase. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        351 

They  reduce  the  voltage  from  6000  to  500.  These  transformers  and  the 
motors  are  cooled  by  a  motor-driven  fan  which  furnishes  9400  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  at  2-ounce  pressure. 

Motors  are  four  3-phase,  25-cycle,  120-ampere,  8-pole,  500-volt, 
of  the  slip-ring  type  units,  rated  475  h.p.  for  1  hour  when  supplied  with 
1500  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  at  2-ounce  pressure.  The  diameter  of 
the  armature  is  35  3/4  inches,  and  the  width  is  16  1/4  inches.  Gear 
ratio  is  4.26,  and  double  gearing  is  used  between  the  358  r.  p.  m.  rotor 
and  the  axle.  Maximum  power  factor  is  86.  Air-gap  is  1/8  inch. 

Horse  power  rating  per  motor  is  as  follows: 


Time  in  hours. 

Cooling 
method. 

Air 
c.f.m. 

Volts  to 
motor. 

Power 
h.p. 

Note 
No. 

One  hour,  75°.  .  .  . 
One  hour,  75° 

Natural  j 
Forced 

0 
0 
1500 

500 
625 
500 

425 
475 

1 
1 

Continuous,  75°.  . 
Continuous,  75° 

Natural. 
Forced 

0 
1500 

625 
500 
500 

550 
250 
375 

2 
3 
1 

Continuous,  40°  .  . 

Forced 

1500 

625 
500 

400 
260 

2 

2 

Tractive  effort  at  375  h.p.  is  9350  pounds;  at  475  h.p.  is  11,875  pounds. 
Note  1.  C.  T.  Hutchinson  data  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909,  p.  1285. 
Note  2.  E.  F.  W.  Alexanderson  data  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909,  p.  1342. 
Note  3.  G.  E.  bulletin  4851,  June,  1911. 
Transformers  have  a  3-hour  rating  of  400  kv.a.  with  forced  draft. 

Motor  control  is  by  means  of  a  variation  of  resistance  in  the  rotor 
circuit.     Two  motors  are  used  in  first  starting  and  four  while  running. 
Weight  of  locomotive  in  pounds  is: 

Two  trucks 81,500 

One  cab 30,000 

Four  motors,  425-h.   p.  each .'....  59,800 

Two  transformers,  400-kw.  each 20,800 

Compressors  and  blowers 7,100 

Control  equipment 13,400 

Miscellaneous 17,400 

Total  weight 230,000 

Weight  per  axle  57,500  pounds;  dead  weight  per  axle,  18,500  pounds. 

Service  consists  of  the  haulage  of  about  3  passenger  and  3  freight 
trains  each  way  per  day.  Trailing  tons  for  freight  trains  exclusive  of 
3  electric  locomotives  are  1750;  and  for  passenger  trains  exclusive  of  2 
electric  locomotives  are  775  tons.  Annual  locomotive  mileage  is  50,000. 


352          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

This  was  the  first  three-phase  locomotive  equipment  in  America. 
The  installation  is  radically  different  from  the  installations  made  by 
Ganz,  Brown-Boveri,  Westinghouse,  and  Oerlikon  in  the  following: 

1.  Trolley  contacts  are  used  in  place  of  pantographs  or  bows,  with  cylinders  or 
sliders.  Trolley  wheels  are  held  to  be  a  nuisance.  The  changing  of  6  trolleys  at  the 
end  of  each  short  run,  and  in  the  dark  at  night,  is  a  nuisance.  A  simple,  wide  panto- 
graph could  be  substituted  for  the  contact  wheels.  Catenary  construction,  parallel 
to  the  trolleys,  was  not  used  to  support  the  trolley  in  the  switch  yards.  The  over- 
head pan  switch  design  used  is  unsatisfactory  and  is  a  source  of  annoyance  and 
danger,  even  at  the  slow  speed.  See  Figures  175  and  176. 


FIG.  125. — GREAT  NORTHERN  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  TRAIN,  1909. 
Two  electric  locomotives  hauling  an  ordinary  11-coach  train  and  steam  locomotive. 

2.  Twenty-five  cycles  have  been  tried.     If  15  cycles  had  been  adopted,  two  loco- 
motives per  freight  train  might  have  been  used  in  place  of  three. 

3.  Two  transformers  are  located  on  each  locomotive,  in  place  of  in  a  substation 
at  the  side  of  the  road. 

4.  The  locomotive  has  only  one  running  speed. 

5.  Slip-ring  motors  with  brush  contacts  are  used  in  place  of  simple  high-resistance, 
squirrel-cage  motors. 

6.  Geared  motors  are  used.     The  length  along  the  shaft,  available  for  collector 
rings  and  for  the  gear  teeth,  is  much  restricted. 

7.  Motors  are  hung  on  an  axle  and  on  a  cross  bar,  as  in  trolley  cars.     The  center 
line  of  the  motors  is  below  the  center  line  of  the  axle.     The  dead  weight  per  axle  is 
18,500  pounds.     The  track  repairs  are  high. 

8.  The  electric  system  was  laid  out  for  long-distance  mountain-grade  railroad 
service.     The  locomotives  cannot  be  used  for  such  service  without  a  radical  change 
in  the  design. 

Service  with  steam  locomotives  in  the  Cascade  tunnel  was  described 
by  Hutchinson  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  November,  1909: 

"Trains  east  bound  from  the  Pacific  coast  were  from  1400  to  1500  tons  trailing 
load  with  two  Mallet  compound  engines.  At  the  west  end  of  the  tunnel,  at  the  foot 
of  the  grade,  all  trains  were  stopped,  fires  were  hauled  and  cleaned,  the  engine  took  on 
a  special  high-grade  coal,  new  fires  were  built,  the  engines  remained  in  the  yard  for  an 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        353 

hour  or  more,  coking  these  fires  in  order  to  get  rid  of  superfluous  gas.  The  train  was 
divided  so  that  two  Mallets  took  1,000  tons  (up  the  1.7  per  cent,  grade).  When 
weather  conditions  were  bad  it  was  almost  impossible  to  get  trains  thru  the  tunnel. 
Sometimes  it  was  necessary  to  wait  2  or  3  hours  after  the  passage  of  a  train  before  it 
was  safe  to  send  a  second  train  thru.  Frequently  the  steam  pressure  of  the  rear 
Mallet  would  fall  from  200  pounds  to  70  pounds  or  less,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of 
maintaining  fires  on  account  of  the  exhausted  condition  of  the  air  in  the  tunnel." 

Operating  results  with  electric  traction  have  been  reported  as  both  favorable  and 
unfavorable.  The  system  is  new  and  time  will  be  required  to  fit  the  electric  loco- 
motive to  the  service  on  this  steam  road. 

The  railway  company,  having  found  that  electric  locomotives  could  haul  much 
more  than  that  for  which  they  are  guaranteed,  proceeded  to  overload  the  motors, 
and  the  tonnage  in  each  train,  thereby  effecting  certain  economies  at  the  expense  of 
the  electric  service.. 

In  going  down  grades  the  motors  automatically  reverse  their  function  and  return 
power  to  the  line,  and  thus  brake  the  train  without  the  application  of  mechanical 
brakes.  The  air  brakes  are  held  in  reserve. 

"  With  electric  locomotives  the  operation  on  a  heavy  grade  becomes  as  simple  as 
on  a  level;  the  enginemen  and  trainmen  feel  much  greater  confidence  in  the  electric 
locomotives  and  consequently  the  mountain  division  ceases' to  be  a  terror  to  them." 
Hutchinson. 

References  on  Great  Northern  Railway  Locomotives. 

General  Electric  bulletin  4537,  Sept.,  1907;  G.  E.  Review,  Aug.  and  Sept.,  1910. 

E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  28,  1907;  Oct.  31,  1908;  Nov.  20,  1909. 

Elec.  World,  Oct.  31,  1908. 

R.  R.  Age  Gazette,  Jan.  15,  1909;  Dec.  3  and  24,  1909. 

Hutchinson:  Paper  and  discussion,  proceedings  of  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 

Slichter:  Design  of  Controllers,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.  1909,  p.  1338. 


References  to  Detailed  Drawings  of  Three-phase  Locomotives. 


Name  of  locomotive  Maker.  Location. 


References. 


Italian  State West Giovi  Line j  Zeitschrift,  1909,  p.  12. 

Swiss  Federal Brown Simplon,  1907 .  .  .    Zeitschrift,  1909,  p.  3. 

Swiss  Federal Brown Simplon,  1909  ...    A.I.E.E.,  July,  1910,  Eaton  &  Storer. 

Italian  State Ganz Valtellina S.R.J.,  April  6,  1907,  p.  579. 

Great  Northern G.E Cascade  Tunnel.  .    E.R.J.,  Nov.  20,  1909. 

|  G.E.  Bulletin  4537,  1907,  p.  13. 


23 


CHAPTER  X. 
TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Outline. 
LIST  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES,  SINGLE-PHASE  25-CYCLE. 


Name  of  railroad. 

No.  of 
loco. 

Name  of 
builder. 

No.  of 
motors. 

Total 
h.p. 

Wt. 

tons. 

Dr 
Pr. 

ivers. 
Diam. 

Gear 
ratio. 

Trolley 
voltage. 

Westinghouse      Inter- 

2     '  !  West.  . 

3 

675 

63 

3 

60" 

5.28 

6,600 

works. 

Pennsylvania    experi-           1          West.  ...           2 

920 

70 

2         72 

Zero 

11,000 

mental. 

New      York,      Newj       35          West  4 

960 

96 

4         62 

Zero 

11,000 

Haven  &  Hartford. 

6       !  West.  ...           4 

960 

102           4 

62 

Zero 

1          West  4 

1260 

136           4         63 

2.32 

1 

West..               2 

1350 

135 

4         57 

Crank 

1          West.  ...           8 

1396 

116 

4   i  

15        :  West.  ...           4 

600 

80 

4 

63 

Gear 

Windsor,  Essex  &  L.  S. 

1        ;  West.  .  .  .  j          4 

400 

35 

4 

36 

6,600 

Spokane     &     Inland 

6          West.  ...           4 

500 

50           4 

36 

4.24 

6,600 

Empire.                                    8          West.  .  .  . 

4 

680 

72           4 

50 

5.65           6,600 

Grand  Trunk  Ry., 

Sarnia  Tunnel  

6       |  West..  ..           3 

675 

66 

3 

62 

5.31 

3,300 

Rock  Island  Southern. 

1          West.  .  .  . 

4 

500 

60 

4 

42 

11,000 

Boston  &  Maine  

3          West  4 

1340 

130 

4         63 

4.14 

11,000 

2          West  4 

1340 

130 

4         63 

2.32 

Illinois     Traction 

1          G.E  

4 

600 

50 

4         44 

4.95 

3,300 

(repulsion  motors) 

Swedish  State:                      f  1 

West  

2 

300 

28 

2 

42" 

3.88 

18,000 

Stockholm   Div  .... 

I  1 

West.  .  .  . 

4 

460 

40 

4 

44           5.27 

h 

Siemens  . 

3 

330 

51 

3         43           5  .  00 

Thurnshcivn-Ijokkeii 

3             W«at 

4 

160 

22 

4 

1  1  ,000 

Norway.                                  3        '  Siemens  . 

4 

160 

Tergnier-Anizy,                        3          Wo«f 

2 

80 

3,300 

France. 

Prussian  State: 

fl          A.E.G.. 

3 

1050 

65           4 

55 

4.15            6,000 

Oranienburg  -j  1        !  A.  E.G.  .  . 

2 

600       :  .  .  .  . 

2.36      ; 

[  1           Siemens  .            3 

1050 

66           3 

Geared 

St.  Polten-Mariazell..  .          17 

Siemens  . 

500 

50 

6         33 

2.90 

6,000 

Frieburg  '          1 

Oerlikon.            4 

600 

4.00 

Albtal  Ry.  : 

Karlsruhe-Herrenalb           4 

A.E.G...           4 

340 

35 

4 

36 

6.10 

8,000 

Brembana  Valley, 

Bergamo-Bianco  .  .           5 

West.  . 

4 

300 

.... 

4.66 

6,000 

Rome-Castellana  .  .               3          West.  ...           4 

160 

6,600 

4           Siemens  . 

4 

160 

Naples-Piedemonte  .  . 

2 

A.E.G...           4 

320 

11,000 

354 


LIST  OF  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES,  SINGLE-PHASE,  15-CYCLE. 


No.  of       Name  of 
Name  of  railroad.         IOCQ          Builder. 

No.  of       Total       Wt. 
Motors.        h.p.        tons. 

Drivers. 
Gear 

Trolley 
voltage 

ratio, 
pair.       diam. 

Pennsylvania 

1          West  

2 

920 

76 

4 

72"        Gear- 

11,000 

10003  experimental. 

less. 

Visalia  Electric  

1          West  

4 

500 

47 

4 

36          3  .  89 

3,300 

General  Electric.  .  .  . 

1          Gen.  Elec  . 

2 

800         125 

3 

49          Crank 

11,000 

Shawinigan  Falls.  .  .  . 

1           Gen.  Elec  . 

4 

600           50 

4 

36           4  .  95 

6,600 

Swiss  Federal: 

j 

Seebach-Wet- 

1           Leonard  .  . 

4             400 

52 

4 

3.50 

15,000 

tingen   experi- 

1          Oerlikon.  . 

2             500 

45 

4 

40           3  .  08 

mental. 

1        i  Siemens  .  . 

6           1350 

83 

3                            3   75 

Bavarian  State: 

2           Siemens  .  . 

2             350 

2        :                    5  00 

5,500 

Murnau-Oberam- 

mergau. 

Prussian  State: 

1          A.  E.G... 

1 

1900 

Crank 

10,000 

Magdeburg- 

1          A.E.G.... 

1 

1000           77 

4        :      63          Crank 

Leipzig. 

1          A.E.G  

1        1      800           64 

4             41          Crank 

2           Brown.  .  .  . 

2           1600 

4             69          Crank 

1          Bergmann. 

1        i    1500 

Crank 

1          Oerlikon.  . 

1 

800 

1          Siemens  .  . 

1           1100 

1           Siemens  .  . 

1           1800 

1          Siemens  .  . 

2           2500 

Baden  State: 

Wiesental  (Basel 

10          Siemens  .  . 

2           1050           71 

3 

47           4.15 

10,000 

-Zell). 

1          A.E.G  

2           1130 

Bernese  Alps  

1          Oerlikon.  . 

2           2000 

97 

6 

54       IC.&G. 

15,000 

1          A.E.G.... 

2           1600 

103 

4 

50       ;  Crank 

Budapest-  Waitzen  .  .          4          Siemens  .  . 

4             480 

10,000 

French  Southern..  .  .         6          West  

2           1600 

89 

3 

C.&G. 

12,000 

1          A.E.G.... 

2           1600 

94 

3 

Crank 

1          Brown.  .  .  . 

2           1600 

Crank 

Swedish  State:                  13        '••  Siemens  .  . 

2           2000      '  

Crank 

15,000 

Kiruna-                             2          Siemens  .  . 

1           1000      !  

Crank 

Riksgransen. 

Mittenwald,  Austria.        6          A.  E.G.  .  .  . 

1             800           64 

4 

41          Crank 

10,000 

Rjukon,    Norway...         3          A.  E.G.  .  .  . 

4        i      500           44 

4             39          Gear 

10,000 

2          A.  E.G.  .  .  . 

2 

250      !  

Gear 

Vienna-Pressburg,  .  .         3          A.  E.G.  .  .  . 

3 

800      ; 

Gear 

10,000 

2          A.  E.G..  .  . 

5             600       

Gear 

Rhatische  Mtn  3         

600       

10,000 

8         

300      | 

Literature. 

References  on  Detailed  Drawings  of  Single-phase  Locomotives,  399 

355 


CHAPTER  X. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE -PHASE   LOCOMOTIVES. 
IN  GENERAL. 

The  technical  descriptions  which  follow  are  for  the  most  important 
and  typical  installations. 

WESTINGHOUSE  INTERWORKS  RAILWAY 

Westinghouse  Inter  works  Railway,  at  East  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  used  the 
first  single-phase  railway  locomotive  in  America.  It  was  built  in  1905 
for  freight  switching  work,  at  10  miles  per  hour. 


FIG.  126. — FIRST  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVE  IN  AMERICA,  1905. 

Two  locomotive  units,  Nos.  8  and  9,  were  used  in  pairs.  Each  weighed 
63  tons,  had  3  motors,  3  pairs  of  60-inch  drivers,  and  three  8-inch  axles, 
spaced  on  6-foot  4-inch  centers,  on  one  truck. 

Motors  were  a  single-phase,  25-cycle,  8-pole,  geared  type,  with  forced 

356 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        357 

ventilation.  The  capacity  of  each  was  225  h.  p.  A  5.28  gear  ratio  was 
used.  The  6600  volts  on 'the  trolley  were  reduced  by  a  transformer  to 
from  140  to  325  volts  for  the  motors.  The  motor  armatures  were  quill- 
supported  on  the  axle,  and  the  motor  frames  were  spring-suspended 
from  the  locomotive  body.  Efficiency  and  power  factor  were  .866  and 
.865  respectively  at  normal  load,  and  .865  and  .955  at  half  load. 

Tests  at  the  yards  showed  a  normal  drawbar  pull  of  48,500  pounds, 
and  from  65,000  to  97,000  with  sand,  before  slipping  occurred,  or  up  to 


_ZOOOO_ 

"loo 


- — 13Secr 


(S  I 


33^ 


--31  Sec. 


FIG.    127. — TEST   CURVES    SHOWING   DRAWBAR    PULL   EXERTED    BY    WESTINGHOUSE    SINGLE-PHASE 

ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Equipped  with  six  225-h.  p.,  single-phase  railway  motors,  having  a  5.3  gear  ratio.      Diameter  of 

drivers,  60  inches.     Weight  of  50-car  train,  1162  tons:  weight  of  locomotive,  126  tons;  total  weight, 

1288  tons.      Brakes  set  on  the  four  rear  cars. 


38  per  cent,  of  the  weight  on  drivers.  Dynamometer  records  were  made 
while  hauling  a  train  with  a  total  weight  of  1288  tons.  Other  tests  showed 
an  acceleration  rate,  during  the  first  40  seconds,  of  0.25  m.  p.  h.  p.  s., 
while  hauling  an  818-ton  train.  See  accompanying  curves. 

References. 

E.W.,  May  20,  1905,  p.  925;  drawings,  June  3,  1905,  p.  1045;  S.  R.  J.,  May  20,  1905, 
and  June  3,  1905,  pp.  923  and  999;  Electric  Journal,  Vol.  II,  July,  1905, 
pp.  359  and  764. 

PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD,  SINGLE -PHASE. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company  had  the  Westinghouse  Company 
build  a  locomotive  known  as  10003,  in  1909,  for  use  in  experimental  work 
on  Long  Island,  to  determine  the  mechanical  and  electrical  requirements 
for  Pennsylvania  Railroad  locomotives  at  its  New  York  terminal. 

Specifications  called  for  a  passenger  locomotive  of  the  AUantic  type, 
a  maximum  drawbar  pull  of  24,000  pounds,  a  weight  of  70  tons,  and  a  rating 
of  about  1000  h.p.,  for  use  on  a  single-phase,  11,000-volt  line,  to  haul 
a  400-ton  trailing  load  at  60  m.  p.  h.  on  level  track.  It  was  also  to  be 


358 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


suitable  for  speeds  up  to  80  m.  p.  h.,  and  the  haulage  of  trains  on  2  per 
cent,  grades  in  terminal  service. 

Weight  of  the  locomotive  on  four  72-inch  drivers  is  50  tons,  and  on 
four  36-inch  pony  truck  wheels  is  20  tons. 

Frames  are  those  of  an  Atlantic  type  locomotive,  with  cast-steel 
members,  sills  and  cross  girders.  Frames  are  placed  outside  of  the 
wheels.  Truck-wheel  base  for  the  drivers  is  7  feet  6  inches;  for  the  pony 
truck  6  feet  2  inches;  total  for  each  half  locomotive  is  20  feet  7  inches; 
total  for  the  two-part,  articulated  locomotive  56  feet  2  inches. 

Motors  are  single-phase,  1 5-cycle,  275-volt,  gearless  types,  provided 
with  forced  ventilation.  The  1-hour  rating  is  460  h.  p.  and  the  con- 


FIG.   128. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD.     EXPERIMENTAL  LOCOMOTIVE,   1909. 
Two  single-phase  460-h.  p.,  gearless,  quill-mounted  motors.     Atlantic  type  locomotive,  No.  10,003. 

tinuous  rating  with  forced  ventilation  is  378  h.  p.  Each  armature 
weighs  9350  pounds.  The  motor  weight,  about  19,500  pounds,  is  spring- 
supported.  The  armatures  are  flexibly  connected  to  the  drivers  in  the 
same  way  as  the  passenger  locomotives  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford,  to  be  described.  No  provision  is  made  for  direct-cur- 
rent operation.  A  transformer  which  reduces  the  trolley  voltage  of 
11,000  volts  is  carried  under  the  floor,  but  over  the  pony  trucks,  where 
it  is  entirely  out  of  the  way.  A  25-cycle  locomotive  built  for  the  same 
work,  speed,  and  grades  would  have  required  three  motors  of  approxi- 
mately the  same  dimensions  and  would  have  increased  the  weight  of  the 
locomotive  from  70  tons  to  92  tons,  and  the  cost  probably  30  per  cent. 
The  transformers  alone  would  have  cost  less,  but  the  control  equipment 
would  have  cost  enough  more  to  counterbalance  this  item. 

Tests  showed  that  the  locomotive  could  carry  100  per  cent,  overload 
in  current  for  several  minutes  at  a  time,  when  hauling  a  train  with  the 
brakes  set;  and  there  was  practically  no  sparking  at  the  commutator. 

Tests  were  also  made  to  compare  several  types  of  electric  locomotives, 
including  the  Pennsylvania  experimental  direct-current  locomotives 
already  described,  and  steam  locomotives  of  many  types,  to  determine 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        359 

the  best  electrical  and  mechanical  constants.  Tests  on  track  pounding, 
nosing,  safety  in  high-speed  service,  and  on  overhead  construction  were 
conducted  on  a  grand  scale.  These  tests  furnished  the  basis  for  the 
adoption  of  the  present  157-ton  Pennsylvania  electric  locomotives,  used 
for  the  New  York  terminal  service. 

References. 

S.  R.  J.,  June  29.  July  20,  Oct.  26,  1907. 

Storer:  A.  I.  E.  Ev  June  1907,  pages  1390  and  1405. 

Gibbs:  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911,  p.  960. 


FIG.   129. — PENNSYLVANIA  RAILROAD.     EXPERIMENTAL  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  TRAIN,   1909. 
Single-phase  gearless  motors. 

SPOKANE  &  INLAND  EMPIRE. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad  ordered  from  Westinghouse 
Company  six  500-h.p.  locomotives  and  eight  680  h.p.  locomotives  in 
1906,  1907,  and  1909,  for  ordinary  freight  service  between  Spokane 
and  Colfax,  or  Moscow,  points  80  and  90  miles  apart.  The  single-phase, 
6600-volt,  25-cycle  system  is  used. 

The  500-h.p.  locomotives,  which  weigh  52  tons  on  4  pairs  of  38- 
inch  drivers,  have  4  motors  with  a  4.25  gear  ratio. 

The  680-h.p.  locomotives,  which  weigh  72  tons  on  4  pairs  of  50- 
inch  drivers,  have  4  motors  with  a  4.65  gear  ratio.  Tnese  locomo- 
tives are  rated  on  a  continuous  tractive  effort  of  16,000  .pounds  and 
are  guaranteed  to  be  able  to  run  up  2  per  cent,  grades  indefinitely  without 
overheating.  A  tractive  effort  of  36,000  pounds  is  used  in  emergencies. 

Motors  were  at  first  artificially  cooled  by  fans  on  the  motor  shaft; 
but,  with  the  series  motor  characteristics,  the  cooling  effect  decreased  as 
the  load  increased.  Forced  ventilation  from  independent  motors  is  used. 


360          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  130. — SPOKANE  AND  INLAND  EMPIRE  RAILROAD  LACOMOTIVE,   1906. 


FIG.  131. — SPOKANE  AND  INLAND  EMPIRE  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        361 


FIG.   132. — SPOKANE  AND  INLAND  EMPIRE  RAILROAD  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE,   1910. 
One  of  eight,  72-ton,  680-h.  p.,  geared,  single-phase  units. 

PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  680-H.  P.  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort,  Ib. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

4800 

.805 

8.0 

39,600 

845 

Gear  ratio  4.  65. 

4000 

.835 

9.6 

30,000 

770 

Drivers  50-inch. 

3600 
3320 
2840 

.840 
.860 
.880 

10.6 
11.6 
13.5 

25,500 
22,200 
17,200 

720 
680 
616 

Voltage  6600/220. 
One-hour  rating,  680  h.p. 

2560 
2000 

.895 
.927 

15.0 
19.0 

14,400 
8,800 

560 
445 

Continuous  rating,  560. 

1400 

.960 

27.0 

4,200 

300 

Motors,  4  No.  151. 

NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  Company  has  used  35 
single-phase  locomotives,  built  by  the  Westinghouse  Company,  since 
July,  1907  and  41  since  1908,  for  passenger  service  between  the  Grand 
Central  Station  at  New  York  City  and  Stamford,  Connecticut,  on  34 
miles  of  4-track  road.  The  company  has  running  rights  over  the 
tracks  of  the  New  York  Central  from  the  New  York  City  terminal  to 


362 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Woodlawn,  a  distance  of  about  12  miles  from  the  terminal,  and  is  com- 
pelled to  use  the  660-volt,  direct-current  system  in  this  section.  Beyond, 
the  11,000-volt,  single-phase,  25-cycle  system  is  used. 

Specifications  required  that  each  passenger  locomotive  should  be  able 
to  handle  a  200-ton  train  (which  was  formerly  the  average  weight  of  75 
per  cent,  of  the  local  trains)  in  the  most  severe  schedule,  on  a  time-table 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  local  express,  making  40  second  stops  every 
2.2  miles,  and  a  schedule  speed  of  over  26  m.  p.  h.  The  locomotive  was 


FIG.  133. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD.     DRAWING  FOR  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE,  1907. 

to  haul  this  train  at  65  to  70  m.  p.  h.,  and  250-ton  thru  express  trains  at 
60  m.  p.  h.  A  300-  to  500-ton  train  was  to  be  operated  at  high  speeds  by 
coupling  two  locomotives  and  operating  them  on  the  multiple-unit  plan. 

Guarantees  on  the  locomotive  were  that  it  would  have  sufficient 
capacity  to  handle  a  200-ton  trailing  load  in  continuous  local  service; 
a  250-ton  trailing  load  in  local  service  as  far  as  Port  Chester,  25.6  miles; 
and  a  300-ton  trailing  load  in  express  service,  to  New  Rochelle,  16.6  miles. 
The  New  Haven  locomotives  were  designed,  primarily  for  express  service. 
See  proceedings  of  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1908,  p.  1693. 

In  service,  one  New  Haven  locomotive  handles  easily  a  load  of  300 
tons,  and  360  tons  have  been  hauled  when  necessary.  One  locomotive 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        363 

ordinarily  handles  a  6-car  train,  making  all  the  stops  from  Grand  Central 
Station  to  either  New  Rochelle  or  to  Stamford  and  two  locomotives 
ordinarily  handle  a  6-  to  10-car  train  making  all  stops.  Local  trains  of 
7  to  8  cars  between  Woodlawn  and  New  Rochelle  make  stops  every  1.4 
miles.  Express  trains  of  9  to  12  cars  hauled  by  two  locomotives  make 
12  stops  between  Woodlawn  and  Stamford,  33.4  miles.  Express  trains 
do  not  use  the  average  power  required  by  local  trains  with  their  local 
service  stops.  Double  heading  is  required  on  from  15  to  25  per  cent,  of 
the  New  Haven  trains. 

Locomotive  frames,  of  steel,  36  feet  long,  were  built  by  Baldwin. 
The  longitudinal  members  of  the  frame  are  deep  plate  girders  reinforced 
at  the  top  by  channels  and  at  the  bottom  by  heavy  angles  and  plates. 


FIG.  134.— NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD.    PASSENGER  MOTOR  TRUCK  AND  GEARLESS  MOTOR. 

The  transoms  are  riveted  to  the  frames,  and  braced  by  gusset  plates 
riveted  to  the  bottom  flanges  of  two  sets  of  channels.  The  drawbar  effort 
is  transmitted  thru  the  bolsters,  center  pins,  and  the  side  frames  to  deep 
box  girders  joining  the  end  frames. 

Two  trucks  of  the  swivel  pattern  are  mounted  on  62-inch  drivers. 
The  truck  centers  are  14  feet  6  inches.  The  truck  wheel  base  is  8  feet. 
Center  bearings  are  18  inches  in  diameter.  Weights  on  the  journals 
are  carried  by  semi-elliptic  springs. 

Pony  wheels  added  to  each  locomotive  in  1908  improved  the  riding- 
qualities  and  the  safety  at  high  speeds.  The  total  wheel  base  was 
increased  100  inches.  The  pony  truck  wheels  are  33  inches  in  diameter 
and  are  carried  on  an  extension  frame  rigidly  bolted  to  the  main  truck 
frame,  without  a  bolster.  To  provide  radial  movement  of  the  pony 
truck  wheels,  a  bevel  brass  wedge  is  placed  over  the  journal  box  of  the 
pony  truck  which  allows  journal  box,  axle,  and  wheels  to  move  laterally 


364 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


between  the  pedestal  jaws  of  the  frames;  but  in  so  doing,  they  are  met 
by  the  resistance  in  a  bearing  plate  above  the  journal  box.  When  the 
pony  truck  wheels  move  sidewise  they  lift,  thru  the  bevel-bearing  wedge, 
all  the  weight  carried  by  the  equalizer  bars,  and  this  tends  to  restore 
the  pony  truck  wheels  to  their  normal  central  position. 

Weight  of  the  first  locomotive  built  was  89  tons,  altho  the  estimated 
weight  was  76  tons.  The  additional  weight  put  into  the  locomotive, 
including  5  tons  of  third-rail  and  direct-current  apparatus,  mechanical 


FIG.   135. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE,   1909. 

parts,  steam  heaters,  fuel  oil,  and  2  pony  trucks,  has  brought  the  weight 
up  to  102  tons,  of  which  77  tons  are  on  drivers. 

Motors  are  of  the  compensated,  single-phase,  series  type.  Four  are 
used,  each  of  240-h.  p.,  1-hour  capacity  and  200-h.  p.  continuous  capacity 
on  forced  draft.  On  direct  current  the  rating  is  about  50  per  cent, 
higher.  Voltage  for  motors  is  220  on  alternating  current,  and  300  on 
direct  current,  see  illustration,  Figure  44. 

Speed  of  the  motors  on  rated  load  is  220  r.  p.  m.  and  of  locomotive  is 
40.5  m.  p.  h.  The  maximum  speed  of  the  locomotive  is  about  75  m.  p.  h. 
Commutator  speed  at  60  m.  p.  h.  is  only  3000  f.  p.  m.  Forced  ventilation 
is  used  for  cooling  and  to  keep  out  the  dirt. 

Frames  and  fields  are  split  horizontally.  There  are  no  projecting 
poles.  Field  windings  are  uniformly  distributed. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        365 

Armatures  are  gearless  and  are  not  mounted  on  the  shaft  but  are 
built  up  on  a  quill  thru  which  the  axle  passes,  with  a  5/8-inch  clearance. 

Motor  mounting  is  well  arranged.  The  field  frame  is  mounted  on 
bearings  which  surround  the  armature  quill.  The  field  is  suspended 
from  the  frame  of  the  locomotive  by  means  of  four  1  1/4-inch  rods, 
and  only  1000  pounds  of  the  field  weight  is  carried  on  the  quill.  The 
motor  frame  is  anchored  to  the  truck,  both  above  and  below  the  axle  by 
these  rods,  which  permit  vertical  or  side  motion  but  prevent  excessive 
bumping  strains.  The  entire  weight  of  the  motor  is  carried  on  springs. 


25OOO      38500 


38500 


3&500 


38500       25000 


FIG.  136. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  RAILROAD  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 

Forty-one  used  on  New  York  Division  in  passenger  service.     102-tons,  960-h.  p.,  1-phase,  11,000- 

220-volt  motors.     Gearless,  quill-mounted  type. 


Armature  connection  to  the  driver  is  by  means  of  a  spider  at  the  ends 
of  the  quill,  from  which  spider  7  round  pins  project  parallel  to  the  shaft 
into  corresponding  pockets  in  the  hub  of  the  drivers.  Around  each  pin 
is  placed  a  coil  spring  about  8  inches  in  diameter,  consisting  of  10  turns, 
progressively  eccentric,  of  I/ 2x1 /2-inch  steel.  These  springs  are  con- 
tained between  2  steel  bushings,  the  smaller  of  which  slips  over  the 
pin  and  the  larger  fits  in  the  pocket  in  the  wheel.  They  carry  the  entire 
weight  of  the  motor  and  transmit  the  torque  of  the  motor.  A  vertical 
movement  of  about  3/4  inch  is  allowed  for  track  variation.  Hammer 
blow  from  the  armature,  on  uneven  track,  is  avoided.  Pulsating  torque 
is  prevented  by  the  spiral  springs.  Additional  springs  placed  outside 
of  the  driving  pins  steady  the  side  play. 

Connections  and  control  of  motor  circuits  are  simple.  The  4 
armatures  are  arranged  in  2  groups,  and  2  armatures  are  connected 
permanently  in  series  and  controlled  as  a  unit.  During  direct-current 
acceleration  the  2  motor  units  are  connected  in  series  and  then  in  parallel. 
During  alternating-current  acceleration,  each  motor  receives  power  for 
different  speeds  by  variable  voltage  from  a  step-down  transformer,  no 
resistance  being  used.  The  double  control  equipment  is  a  handicap. 


366 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


On  direct  current  the  fields  are  in  series  with  their  respective  arma- 
tures, and  they  are  shunted  for  high  speed;  on  alternating  current  the 
fields  of  the  motors  are  placed  in  parallel  to  decrease  the  field  reactance 
and  also  the  magnetism  per  armature  ampere.  (The  reactance  varies  as 
the  square  of  the  number  of  field  turns  on  the  field,  while  the  strength 
of  the  field  varies  directly  as  the  number  of  field  turns). 


FIG.  137. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  FOUR-CAR  TRAIN. 

CHART  ON  LOCOMOTIVE  PERFORMANCE. 
Passenger  Locomotives  on  New  York  Division.     New  York  to  Stamford. 


A.-C.  performance. 

D.-C.  performance. 

Speed  in  miles  per  hour. 

Speed  in  miles  per  hour. 

Control  steps. 

Control  steps. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

I 
5.    !    6. 

Amperes 

Series. 

Shunt  1. 

Shunt  2. 

Multiple. 

per  motor. 

3 

13 

24 

31 

37 

2000 

19 

24 

33 

45 

O 

19 

28 

35 

40 

1800 

20 

25               35 

46 

4 

14 

24 

32 

39 

45 

1600 

21 

26              37 

47 

9 

20 

30 

37 

43 

49 

1400                22              28 

40 

49 

17 

26 

35 

42 

48 

55 

1200 

23 

30 

44 

51 

25 

33 

42 

49 

55 

62 

1000 

25 

34 

49 

54 

29       37 

47 

54 

60 

67 

900 

26 

36               52 

56 

35 

43 

52 

60 

67 

74 

800 

27 

39 

56                 58 

40 

49 

59 

67 

74 

81 

700 

29 

42 

61 

62 

46 

56 

66 

75 

83 

92 

600 

32 

45 

67 

67 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        367 

Charts  on  locomotive  performance  are  placed  in  the  front  of  each 
passenger  locomotive,  over  the  controller.  A  glance  at  the  control  step 
and  at  the  ammeter  gives  the  running  speed. 

In  alternating-current  performance  the  speed  for  local  and  express 
trains  is  nominally  60  m.  p.  h.,  but  the  writer  has  repeatedly  observed 
speeds  up  to  72  miles  per  hour  when  lost  time  was  being  regained. 
Control  step  No.  6  is  commonly  used  and,  with  a  6-coach  train,  about 
1000  amperes,  corresponding  to  62  m.  p.  h.,  is  an  ordinary  reading. 

In  direct-current  performance,  30  m.  p.  h.  is  the  speed  allowed  by  the 
New  York  Central  rules,  between  the  Grand  Central  terminal  at  Forty- 
fourth  Street  and  Ninetieth  Street,  or  in  passing  any  stat'on;  and  45 
m.  p.  h.  is  the  maximum  speed  allowed  in  the  direct-current  zone.  Con- 
trol step  marked  No.  2  is  used  for  maximum  speed,  and  the  meter  reading 
is  commonly  1200  to  1100  amperes.  The  full  speed  for  which  the  motors 
were  designed  is  not  used,  due  to  the  speed  restrictions  imposed. 


PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort,  Ib. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

4000 
3000 
2400 
2260 
2200 

.725 
.810 
.842 
.860 
.868 

21.0 
30.5 
38.3 
40.5 
41   5 

19,700 
13,300 
9,800 
8,900 
8,600 

1100 
1080 
1000 
960 
950 

Four  gearless  motors,  No.  130. 
Voltage  11000/220. 
Series-parallel  operation. 
One-hour  rating,  960  h.p. 

2000 

.890 

45  0 

7,400 

890 

1720 
1600 

.915 
.926 

51.5 
55.0 

5,900 
5,200 

800 
760 

Continuous  rating,  800  h.p. 

1400 
1200 

.940 
937 

61.0 

68  7 

4,200 
3  200 

680 
585 

Drivers  62-inch. 

1000 

.970 

77.5 

2400 

495 

Operating  notes  for  service  on  the  New  York  Division: 

Summer  schedule  calls  for  about  166  trains  per  week-day,  and  the  autumn 
schedule  calls  for  136. 

Electric  locomotive  miles  per  engine  failure  were  14,000,  to  be  compared  with 
steam  locomotive  miles  per  engine  failure  of  6250. 

Average  miles  per  month  per  locomotive  owned  exceeds  4000.     See  page  280. 

The  commutators,  while  black,  are  in  a  very  good  condition.  Brushes  make 
from  22,000  miles  on  an  average,  and  34,000  miles  as  a  maximum.  Commutators 
average  about  95,000  locomotive  miles  between  turnings. 

Tire  wear  is  the  principal  reason  for  taking  locomotives  out  of  service.  Curves 
on  the  New  York  division  are  many  and  severe. 

Water  on  the  track,  from  high  winds  and  tides,  has  at  times  damaged  the  wiring. 
One-fifth  of  the  locomotives,  on  several  occasions  during  1908  and  1909,  were  com- 


368 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


pelled  to  run  thru  water  20  inches  deep,  for  long  distances  at  full  speed.  The  salt 
water  in  the  motor  casings  and  ducts  could  have  been  dried  out  by  the  application 
of  the  lowest  alternating  current  voltages  if  the  alternating  current  had  been  avail- 
able; but  the  trouble  occurred  on  the  660- volt,  direct-current,  third-rail  section,  and 
the  wiring  of  first  motor  of  the  four  in  the  series  would  ground. 


FIG.  138. — Two  NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  IS-CAR  TRAIN. 

Inspection  of  electric  locomotives  are  made  every  12  days,  or  every 
1600  locomotive  miles.  Steam  locomotives  require  inspection  every 
100  miles,  and  must  be  sent  to  the  back  shop  for  overhaul  every  2 
months,  or  about  every  40,000  to  60,000  miles,  depending  upon  the  service 
and  the  water  used.  Electric  locomotives  seldom  require  a  general 
overhaul.  The  time  required  for  inspection  is  4  to  12  hours.  Of  the  41 
passenger  locomotives,  3  are  in  for  inspection  each  day,  in  summer. 

Maintenance  expense,  which  includes  all  repairs,  was  at  first  7  cents 
per  locomotive  mile,  but  this  has  now  been  reduced  to  5  cents,  of  which 
3.5  cents  are  for  labor  and  1.5  cents  for  material. 

Locomotive  troubles  have  been  detailed  and  explained  by  Mr.  Murray, 
Electrical  Engineer  for  the  road,  to  the  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1908;  Apr.,  1911. 
The  new  designs  had  many  minor  troubles,  as  was  expected,  but  they 
disappeared  in  time.  The  most  wonderful  thing  about  the  whole  record 
was  the  absolute  success  of  the  new  single-phase  motor. 


FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVES   1909-1911. 

Three  locomotives  are  being  tried  out  in  freight  service.  These  differ 
from  the  41  passenger  locomotives  in  that  the  motors  are  mounted  above 
and  either  geared  or  crank  and  side-rod  connected  to  the  driving  axles, 
instead  of  being  flexibly  mounted  on  the  driver  axles.  The  2-4-4-2  wheel 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        369 


FIG.  139. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD^GEARED  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. [" 


FIG.  140. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD  GEARED  LOCOMOTIVE. 
Number  071  hauling  the  12-coach  "Boston  Express." 


24 


370 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


arrangement  is  used.     These  electric  freight  locomotives   on  the  New 
York  division  have  much  larger  capacity  than  the  steam  locomotives. 

Specifications  required  each  electric  freight  locomotive  to  be  capable 
of  hauling  a  freight  train,  having  a  maximum  weight  of  1500  tons,  at  a 
speed  of  35  m.  p.  h.  on  level  track  with  6  pounds  per  ton  resistance; 
or,  when  used  in  heaviest  passenger  service,  to  haul  an  800-ton  passen- 
ger train  at  a  maximum  speed  of  45  m.  p.  h.  and  a  schedule  speed 
of  40  m.  p.  h.  in  limited  service,  i.e.  without  stops;  or  to  haul  a  12-car, 
800-ton  express-passenger  train  over  the  73  miles  between  New  York  and 
New  Haven  in  2  hours  and  12  minutes,  allowing  a  total  of  5  minutes  for 
stops;  or  to  haul  a  350-ton  train  in  local  passenger  service,  making  all 
stops,  the  average  of  which  is  not  to  exceed  45  seconds,  over  the  73  miles 
in  2  hours  and  45  minutes.  Tractive  effort  was  to  exceed  40,000  pounds. 

GEARED  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE  071. 

Trucks  and  running  gear  are  planned  in  accordance  with  a  design 
patented  by  S.  M.  Vauclain,  July  6,  1909.  This  is  described  as  an  articu- 
lated locomotive  in  which  the  two  truck  frames  are  connected  by  an 
intermediate  drawbar,  one  truck  to  have  a  rotative  motion  about  its 


D 


D    D    D    D 


44000 


48000 


4-80  OO 


48000 


44OOO 


FIG.  141. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  GEARED  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 

One  used  on  New  York  Division.     140-ton,  1260-h.  p.,  1-phase,  25-cycle,  11,000-300-volts.     Four 

geared  motors.     Gear  ratio  2.32.     Forced  ventilation.     Freight  service. 


center  pin,  while  the  other  has  a  fore-and-aft  motion,  as  well  as  a  rota- 
tive motion,  to  compensate  for  the  angular  positions  of  the  truck  and 
drawbars  on  curves.  Leading  wheels  are  mounted  in  radial-swing 
trucks  of  the  Rushton  type.  The  cab  is  carried  thru  springs  on  friction 
plates  at  the  ends  of  the  trucks,  not  on  the  truck  center  pins.  This 
design  also  prevents  periodic  vibration  or  nosing. 

Wheel  loads  are  equalized  as  in  steam  locomotive  practice,  the  springs 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        371 

of  the  leading  wheels  being  connected  to  the  driving  springs  by  equalizing 
beams.  One  of  the  trucks  is  cross-equalized  under  the  center  of  the 
locomotive.  The  frame  is  spring-supported  by  the  cross-equalizer  on 
each  side  of  the  center  line.  This  arrangement  promotes  steady  riding, 
and  tends  to  prevent  side  rolling  at  high  speed. 

Truck  wheel  base  of  geared  freight  locomotive  is  38  feet  6  inches; 
rigid  wheel  bases  are  7  feet;  total  wheel  base  for  each  truck  is  14  feet; 
truck  centers  are  24.5  feet;  length  between  couplers  is  48  feet.  Drivers 
are  63-inch,  and  pony  wheels  36-inch. 

Frames  are  placed  outside  the  wheels,  and  are  braced  transversely 
under  the  center  of  the  locomotive  by  heavy  steel  castings  provided  with 
draw  pockets  in  which  the  intermediate  drawbar  is  seated.  This  bar 
transmits  from  one  truck  to  the  other  the  full  tractive  force  developed 
by  the  motors  of  a  leading  truck. 

Motors  for  the  geared  freight  locomotive  consist  of  4  single-phase, 
conductively  compensated,  series,  300-volt,  1000-ampere,  0.93  power- 
factor,  315-h.p.  units.  Each  motor  with  forced  ventilation  is  rated 
300-volt,  930-ampere,  0.93-power  factor,  and  280  h.  p.  Two  motors  are 
used  in  series.  On  350  volts  the  rating  is,  of  course,  materially  higher. 

The  motors  have  12  poles  built  in  a  solid  frame.  The  diameter  of  the 
armature  is  39  1/2  inches  and  the  width  of  the  core  is  13  inches.  The 
peripheral  speed  of  the  armature  is  high,  the  armature  having  the 
diameter  used  in  the  passenger  locomotives. 

Weight  of  each  motor  with  gear  and  gear  case  and  axle  bearing 
but  without  the  1400-pound  quill  is  6050  pounds. 

Gearing  has  a  ratio  of  2.32  and  teeth  have  1 .75  pitch.  Gears  are  placed 
at  each  end  of  the  armature  shaft.  The  unit  stresses  in  the  gears  are 
much  lower  than  in  ordinary  large  railway  motors.  Doubt  is  expressed 
as  to  whether  there  is  ample  length  along  the  shaft  to  properly  distrib- 
ute the  wear  of  the  teeth,  and  as  to  the  sufficiency  of  gears  in  high- 
speed service. 

Control  apparatus  is  of  the  electro-pneumatic  type,  designed  for  use 
with  either  11,000  volts  alternating  current  or  600  volts  direct  current. 
When  operated  on  alternating  current,  the  motors  are  grouped  in  multi- 
ple and  the  control  is  obtained  entirely  by  changing  the  connections  to 
various  voltage  taps  on  the  main  transformer.  On  direct  current  the 
motors  are  first  grouped  in  series  and  then  2  in  series  and  2  in  parallel, 
in  combination  with  various  resistance  steps.  Any  one  of  the  motors 
may  be  cut  out.  There  are  13  running  voltages  on  the  controller  or 
double  the  number  of  steps  required  for  passenger  service,  and  any  speed 
can  be  used  continually,  with  the  maximum  tractive  effort.  Two  or 
more  locomotives  may  be  coupled  and  operated  from  one  master  controller. 

Motor  mounting  is  arranged  over  the  axles,  and  solidly  on  the  truck 


372 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


frames.  Each  end  of  the  armature  shaft  is  provided  with  a  pinion  mesh- 
ing with  gears  mounted  on  a  quill  surrounding  the  axle  and  carried  in 
bearings  on  the  motor  frame,  similar  to  the  usual  axle  bearings.  The 
quills  are  provided  with  6  bearing  arms  on  each  end,  which  project  into 
spaces  provided  between  the  spokes  in  the  driving  wheels.  Each  of 
these  arms  is  connected  to  an  end  of  a  helical  spring,  the  other  end  of 
the  springs  being  connected  to  the  driving  wheels.  This  arrangement 
smooths  out  the  torque  pulsations,  and  it  allows  for  1  1/2-inch  vertical 


FIG.  142. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  GEARED  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 
Motors  and  truck  for  locomotive  number  071. 

movement  of  the  axles.  In  addition,  flexibility  is  provided  between  the 
quill  and  motor  shafts,  to  equalize  the  torque  on  the  gears.  The  center 
of  gravity  of  the  motors  is  high.  The  transmission  of  strains  and 
shocks  from  the  track  to  the  motors  is  eliminated. 

PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GEARED  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort,  Ib. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

8000            .  660 

16.5 

36,900 

1640 

Voltage  11,000/300. 

6400 

.750 

21.5 

27,000 

1540 

Drivers  63-inch. 

4800 

.835 

28.2 

17,600 

1340 

Gear  ratio  2.32. 

4400 

.855 

30.3 

15,600 

1260 

One-hour  rating,  1260. 

3760 

.885 

35.0 

12,000 

1120 

Continuous  rating,  1120. 

3200 

.910 

40.8 

8,800 

960 

Motors,  4  No.  403. 

2800 

.930 

46.0 

6,880 

845 

Locomotive,  No.  071. 

Tests  have  been  made  on  the  geared  freight  locomotives  as  follows: 
A  2100-ton  freight  train  was  started  and  hauled  up  a  0.3  per  cent 
grade  with  a  3-degree  curve. 

A  1600-ton  freight  train  was  accelerated  at  the  rate  of  0.2  m.p.h, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        373 

p.  s.,  or  to  a  speed   of   12   m.p.h.   in  1  minute;  and  an  800-ton  train 
was  accelerated  at  a  rate  of  0.4  m.p.h.  p.  s. 

A  maximum  tractive  effort  of  51,000  Ib.  was  developed. 


SIDE-ROD  LOCOMOTIVE  070. 

A  side-rod  locomotive  was  built  in  1910  by  the  Westinghouse  Co. 
for  service  on  the  New  York  Division. 

Specifications  for  the  side-rod  locomotive  were  the  same  as  those 
detailed  for  the  geared  freight  locomotive. 

The  design  is  of  the  articulated  double-cab  type.  Each  half  com- 
prises 2  pairs  of  driving  wheels  and  2  leading  pony  truck  wheels,  mounted 
on  a  forged  frame  of  the  loconiotive  type.  Crankshafts  are  placed  across 


Combined  Straight 

and  Automata 
-Brake  Vain  I  ' 
Master  Controller. 
Foot-operated!  '  I 
Push  Button,  I  | 
-S.Hches 


FIG.  143. — NEW  HAVEN  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE,    CRANK    AND    SIDE    ROD    TYPE.     SIDE    ELEVATION. 
One-half  of  locomotive  is  shown.      Horse  power,  1346.      Wheel  base,  43  feet  6  inches. 


the  side  frames,  and  57  inches  ahead  of  the  front  driving  axles,  which  carry 
on  each  end  a  crank  arm  and  counterweight  casting  to  which  a  motor 
crankshaft  above  is  connected  by  means  of  rods.  The  two  drivers  on 
each  side  are  coupled  to  the  crankshaft  crank  pin  by  locomotive  side 
rods  of  the  ordinary  type.  The  driving  mechanism  and  frames  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  on  Pennsylvania  side-rod  locomotives,  already  described. 
Motors  are  single-phase.  Two  are  used  per  locomotive.  With 
forced  ventilation  the  one-hour  rating  of  each  is  about  673  h.  p.  They 
are  arranged  for  either  alternating-current  or  direct-current  service. 
Either  motor  may  be  operated  separately.  The  motor  shaft  is  91  in. 
above  the  rail.  Motors  are  slow-speed  units,  206  r.  p.  m.  at  35  m.p.h., 


3t4          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

with  57-inch  drivers.  Armature  diameter  is  76  inches.  Core  has  no 
air  ducts  and  is  13  inches  wide.  The  motor  frame  is  built  up  of  steel 
plate  and  standard  shapes,  in  place  of  the  usual  steel  casting,  to  gain 
in  rigidity.  The  rotor  is  mounted  on  a  quill,  and  the  rotor  spider  is 
in  2  parts,  between  which  the  spider  of  the  quill  shaft  is  built.  The 
pulsating  armature  torque  is  transmitted  thru  heavy  spiral  springs  at 
the  ends  of  the  spider  arms,  to  smooth  out  the  mechanical  effort.  Motor 
transformers  are  air-cooled,  of  150  0-kv.  a.  capacity. 

GEARED  LOCOMOTIVE  069. 

A  second  geared  locomotive  for  main-line  freight  service  was  placed 
in  service  in  1911. 

Specifications  were  those  detailed  above  for  freight  locomotives. 

The  design  embodies  eight  42-inch  drivers  on  a  rigid  driver  wheel 
base,  and  four  leading  and  four  trailing  pony  truck  wheels.  The  pony 
truck  is  not  pivoted  at  a  bolster,  on  its  vertical  center  line,  but  is  con- 
nected to  a  V-frame.  The  pivotal  point  of  the  V,  and  of  the  pony 
truck,  is  at  the  apex  of  the  V,  within  the  rigid  truck  wheel  base. 

Drivers  with  axle  can  be  removed  from  the  locomotive  frame  by 
lowering  the  wheels,  as  in  steam  locomotive  practice. 

Motors  are  eight  per  locomotive.  It  was  found  that  eight  geared, 
single-phase  motors  per  locomotive  made  a  lighter  locomotive  than 
could  be  built  with  two  or  four  motors  per  locomotive.  Armatures  are 
the  same  type  as  those  used  for  motor-car  trains,  already  described.  A 
single  pinion  on  each  armature  shaft  is  connected  to  a  gear  wheel  which 
is  flexibly  mounted  on  each  driver  shaft.  The  motor  voltage  is  235,  or 
470  per  pair  of  motors,  and  the  motors  are  permanently  connected  in 
series  in  pairs. 

Framing  for  the  fields  of  each  pair  of  armatures  are  of  the  double 
horse-shoe  shape,  mounted  rigidly  on  the  locomotive  frame. 

Weight  of  this  single-phase  locomotive,  No.  069,  is  116  tons,  yet  this 
latest  design  has  40,000-pounds  drawbar  pull  and  greater  capacity  than 
the  other  freight  locomotives  described  above. 

GEARED  SWITCHER  LOCOMOTIVES. 

Switcher  locomotives  are  in  service  at  the  Harlem  River,  62-mile 
freight  yards,  electrified  in  1911.  Tests  showed  that  a  600-h.p.  80-ton 
unit  could  handle  the  yard  work. 

The  design  embodies  two  trucks  of  the  heaviest  articulated  type, 
suitable  for  heavy  buffing  strains,  for  classification  and  yard  work.  It 
is  to  be  substituted  for  a  steam  locomotive  which  uses  an  average  of 
4600  pounds  of  water  per  hour,  or  at  40  pounds  per  h.  p.  hour,  averages 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        375 

115  h.  p.;  but  since  these  locomotives  develop  power  for  36.7  per  cent,  of 
the  time  the  average  power  while  working  is  313  h.  p.  Switcher  electric 
locomotives  with  450-h.  p.  continuous  rating  will  more  than  handle  the 
work.  The  trailing  load  is  450;  the  maximum  speed,  26  m.  p.  h. 

Motors  are  four,  rated  150-h.  p.  each  for  one  hour,  plain,  single-phase 
units  of  the  quill,  spring-drive,  double-geared  type,  similar  to  those  on 
New  Haven  motor  cars,  already  described  under  "Motor-car  Trains." 

COMPARATIVE  DATA  ON  NEW  HAVEN  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Number  in  service  
Number 

41 
01  to  041 

1 
071 

1 
070 

069 

15 
0200 

Service  

Passenger 

Freight 

Freight 

Freight 

;    Switch. 

Wheel  order 

2-4-4-2 

2-4-4-2 

2-4-4-2 

4_4_4_4 

0-4-4-0 

Motor  connection  
Driver  diameter 

Mounted  on 
axle  quill. 

63-inch. 

Geared  to 
quill. 

63-inch. 

Crank  and 
jackshaft. 

57-inch 

Geared  to 
quill. 

Geared 
to  axle 
quill. 
63  in. 

33  inch 

36  inch 

36-inch 

Weight,  total  
Weight  on  drivers 

102  tons. 
77  tons. 

140  tons. 
96  tons. 

35  tons 
92  tons 

116  tons 

80  tons. 
80  tons. 

\Veight  of  motors 

33  4  tons 

38  0  tons 

41  6  tons 

26.0 

AVeight  of  armature 

5850  Ib 

6050  Ib 

19000  Ib 

No.  of  motors  

4-No.  130 

4-  No.  403 

2-No.  ... 

8-No.  409 

4-No.401 

One-hour  h.p  

960 

1260 

1350 

1396 

600 

Continuous  h.p  
Motor  voltage 

800 
220 

1120 
300 

1130 
300 

235 

450 
190 

Motor  shaft  above  rail  . 
Center  of  gravity  do 

31.  5  in. 
51  Oin 

63.785  in. 
in 

91.0  in. 
in 

60.0  in. 

Diam   of  motor 

58  5  in 

58  5  in 

102  0  in 

39  5  in 

39  5  in 

76  0  in 

Length  of  core           .  . 

18.  Oin. 

13.0  in. 

13.0  in. 

Gear  ratio 

zero 

2  32 

zero 

Rigid  truck  wheel  base. 
Total  truck  whesl  base. 
Locomotive  wheel  base 
Length  over  all  

8'-0" 
12'-2" 
30'-10" 
36'-4" 

7'-0" 
14'~0" 
38'-6" 
48'-0" 

S'-O" 
18'-0" 
43'-6" 
53'-3" 

ll'-O" 
39'-0" 
39'-0" 
46'-8" 

7'-0" 

23'-6" 
23/-6// 
37'-0" 

References  on  New  York  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  Locomotives. 

Passenger  Locomotives:  Order  for  25,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  9,  1905,  p.  638. 

Locomotive  Controversy:  Mr.  Westinghouse,  Mr.  Sprague,  and  others,  with  reference 

to  New  York  Central-New  Haven  equipment.     S.  R.  J.,  and  Elec.  World, 

Dec.,  1905;  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Dec.  22,  1905,  p.  579. 
Descriptive:   Plans  for  72-ton  units,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1906;    85-ton  units,  S.  R.  J., 

March  24,  1906;   Drawings  of  100-ton  units,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  17  and  24,  1907; 

Pony  wheels  and  frames,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  21,  1908,  p.  1424;  Motor  Characteristics, 

S.  R.  J.,  April  14,  1906. 
Lamme:  Descriptive;  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1906. 


376 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors,  for  Suburban  M.  U.  Trains,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 
Storer:  Performance  curves;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.  11,  1908,  p.  1694;    S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  14, 

1906;  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908,  p.  1605. 
Murray:  Steam  and  Electric  Performance;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907.    Log  of  New 

Haven  Electrification;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  19,  1908;  Steam 

Locomotive  Fuel  and  Maintenance;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907,  p.  148;  Analysis 

of  Electrification,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April  and  June,  1911. 
Sprague:  Some  Facts  and  Problems   Bearing  on  Electric  Trunk  Line   Operation. 

Criticism  of  New  Haven  Locomotives;   A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907;   July  1,  1910. 
Geared  Freight  Locomotive:  Drawings,  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  25,  1909;  May  7,  1910,  p.  829; 

Elec.  Journal,  Feb.,  1910;  Ry.  and  Loco.  Engrg.,  April,  1910;  Murray:  A.  I.  E.  E. 

April,  1911,  pp.  732  and  760. 

Side-rod  Freight  Locomotive:  E.  R.  J.,  Mayj7,  1910,  p.  830. 
Switching  Locomotive:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  1911,  p.  760;  Ry.  Age,  July  21,  1911,  p.  119. 


I  It  til 


2503 


FIG.  144. — BOSTON  AND  MAINE  RAILROAD.     GEARED  LOCOMOTIVE. 


BOSTON  &  MAINE  RAILROAD. 

Boston  &  Maine  Railroad,  in  the  electrification  of  its  Hoosac  Tunnel 
in  1911,  uses  5  locomotives.  They  are  similar  to  the  New  Haven  geared 
freight  locomotives  No.  071,  except  that  two  have  a  gear  ratio  of  4.14 
in  place  of  2.32.  The  design,  efficiency,  and  capacity  were  raised. 

The  straight  11,000-volt,  25-cycle  single-phase  system  is  used, 
without  the  direct-current  complications  of  the  controller  and  third  rail, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        377 
PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  BOSTON  &  MAINE  LOCOMOTIVE. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort,  Ib. 

1 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

8000 

.82 

12.2 

63,500 

2060 

Voltage  11000/300. 

6000 

.88 

15.1 

43,000 

1740 

Gear  ratio  4.  14. 

5000 

.90 

17.2 

32,800 

1520 

Drivers  63-inch. 

4250 

.92 

19.2 

26,000 

1340 

One  hour  h.p.  1340. 

4000 

.93 

20.0 

23,000 

1230 

3750 

.94 

21.0 

21,000 

1180 

Continuous  h.p.  1180 

3000 

96 

25  0 

14,000 

935 

2500 

.97 

28.6 

10,000 

760 

Motors,  4  No.  403  

FIG.  145. — VISALIA  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1906. 
Fifteen-cycle  motors.     Swivel  trucks 

VISALIA  ELECTRIC  RAILROAD. 

Visalia  Electric  Railroad,  owned  by  Southern  Pacific  Co.,  purchased 
a  swivel-truck  type  electric  locomotive  in  1908.  It  is  in  service  between 
Visalia  and  Lemon  Cove,  California,over  36  miles  of  track. 


378 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Weight  is  47  tons  all  on  drivers.  Wheel  arrangement  is  0-4-4-0, 
drivers  are  36-inch;  rigid  wheel  base  is  7  feet  4  inches. 

Motors  are  single-phase,  15-cycle,  the  first  to  be  used  in  America. 
Four  125-h.p.  motors  are  used.  Gear  ratio  is  3.89.  See  Figure  37. 

Tests  were  made  by  starting  a  312-ton  trailing  load  on  a  10-degree 

.curve,  at  the  foot  of  a  1  per  cent,  grade,  and  hauling  the  load  up  the 

grade;  following  this  test  2  Southern  Pacific  passenger  cars  were  attached 

and  the   tests  were  repeated  by  pushing  the   train  around  the  curve 

and  up  the  grade.     Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Jan.  15,  1901,  p.  101. 

GRAND  TRUNK  RAILWAY. 

St.  Clair  tunnerand^terminal  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  has  used 
six  720-h.  p.  electric  locomotives  since  May,  1908,  in  and  near  the  St. 
Clair  tunnel  which  is  under  the  Detroit  River  between  Sarnia,  Ontario, 
and  Port  Huron,  Michigan. 


FIG.  146. — GRAND  TRUNK  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE  FOR  ST.  CLAIR  TUNNEL,  1906. 
Six  units,  66-ton,  720-h.  p.     Three  25-cycle,  3000-235-volt,  single-phase,  geared  motors.     Tunnel 

and  yard  service. 

The  tunnel  is  single-track,  is  19  feet  in  diameter,  and  has  a  length 
of  6032  feet.  The  route  electrified  is  3.66  miles  long  and  including  ter- 
minals the  mileage  is  12.  Grades  of  2  per  cent,  for  3000  feet  run  out  of 
of  the  tunnel. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        379 

The  system  used  is  the  single-phase,  25-cycle,  with  a  3300-volt  line. 
The  tunnel  was  small,  and  6000  volts  could  hardly  be  used  with  safety 
nor  was  it  necessary.  The  system  was  chosen  by  the  consulting  en- 
gineer, B.  J.  Arnold,  on  the  score  of  economy  of  operation. 

Specifications  called  for  a  locomotive  with  a  normal  drawbar  pull  of 
about  50,000  pounds  without  sanded  track  and  without  slipping  the 
drivers.  Two  locomotives  were  to  start  a  1000-ton  freight  train  on  the 
2  per  cent,  grades  in  the  tunnel  without  taking  the  slack  out  of  the 
drawbars  and  without  injury  to  the  commutator  or  motors. 

Weight  of  trie  locomotive  is  about  66  tons,  on  six  62-inch  drivers. 
Rigid  and  total  wheel  base  is  16  feet,  divided  6  feet  3  inches  and  9  feet 
9  inches.  Weight  is  equally  distributed  on  axles. 

Tractive  effort  is  3000  pounds  at  30  miles  per  hour;  19,000  pounds 
at  13.3  m.  p.  h.,  at  rated  load;  and  25,000  pounds  at  10  m.  p.  h. 
Each  locomotive  on  a  test  developed  45,000  pounds  drawbar  pu  1  (not 
tractive  effort)  before  slipping  the  drivers. 

Speed  with  500-ton  passenger  trains  varies  from  a  maximum  of  25 
m.  p.  h.  on  the  level  to  20  m.  p.  h.  up-grade;  and  with  1000-ton  freight 
trains  it  is  12  m.  p.  h.  in  haulage  up  the  2  per  cent,  grade. 

Power  plant  contains  two  3-phase  1250-kw.  turbo-generator  units, 
one  of  which  handles  the  load.  There  are  four  400-h.  p.  boilers  with 
double  the  usual  steam  storage  space,  to  handle  the  fluctuating  load. 

Power  required,  as  shown  by  tests,  is  600  amperes,  3000  volts,  and 
1500  kw.  during  4  to  5  m'nutes,  for  a  train  with  1020  gross  tons 
on  a  2  per  cent,  grade  at  11.3  miles  per  hour.  If  the  resistance,  in  the 
tunnel,  is  10  pounds  per  ton,  the  h.p.  is  then  1020x50x11.3/375  or  1540. 
The  combined  efficiency  of  transmission  and  contact  lines,  motor,  and 
gearing,  is  1540x. 746/1500  or  77  per  cent. 

Motors  are  235-volt,  240-h.  p.,  or  220-volt,  225-h.  p.  units,  with  twin 
gears  and  a  5.31  reduction.  Weight  of  armature  is  5600  pounds,  total 
weight  per  motor  is  14,500  pounds.  Motor  frames  are  of  the  box  type, 
and  forced  ventilation  is  provided.  Armature  is  30  inches  in  diameter, 
and  the  core  is  14  3/4  inches  wide.  (See  Fig.  38.) 

Speed  control  is  secured  by  voltage  variation,  by  taps  from  windings 
of  the  auto-transformer.  Sections  are  small  so  as  not  to  cause  a  large 
increase  of  current,  or  in  drawbar  pull,  while  changing  taps. 

The  road  is  said  to  handle  thru  its  single-track  tunnel  the  heaviest 
railroad  traffic  in  the  world.  W^ith  the  constantly  increasing  traffic,  at 
times  the  four  118-ton  steam  locomotives  were  taxed  in  handling  the 
tonnage,  and  the  capacity  of  the  road  was  throttled  by  the  tunnel.  The 
installation  of  the  six  720-h.  p.,  66-ton  electric  locomotives  provides 
a  traffic  capacity  about  three  times  larger  than  the  actual  demands. 


280          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
PERFORMANCE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  GRAND  TRUNK  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Current 
amperes. 

Power 
factor. 

Speed, 
m.p.h. 

Tractive 
effort  Ib. 

Power 
h.p. 

Notes  or  conditions. 

4800 

.800 

7.7 

47,700 

980 

Motors  per  locomotive,  3. 

4000 

.854 

9.4 

36,000 

900 

Drivers,  62-inch. 

3600 

.880 

10.4 

30,300 

840 

Parallel  operation. 

3000 

.905 

12.1 

22,300 

720 

One-hour  rating,  720  h.p. 

2400 

.940 

14  6 

15,200 

590 

2250 

.950 

15.5 

13,800 

570 

Continuous  rating,  570  h.p. 

2000 

.960 

17.2 

11,000 

510 

1600 

.970 

20.6 

7,600 

417 


Gear  ratio  5.31. 

1200 

.980 

25.3 

4,800 

325 

Voltage  3000/235. 

"Two  single-phase  66-ton  electric  locomotives  handle  1000-ton  trains,  where  the 
118-ton  steam  locomotives  handled  750- ton  trains.  The  electric  locomotives  climb 
the  2  per  cent,  grades  at  10  miles  per  hour  while  the  steam  locomotives  were  barely 
able  to  pull  out  at  3  miles  per  hour.  The  running  time  from  summit  to  summit  is  now 
10  minutes  and  the  average  number  of  cars  per  train  is  27.3,  while  under  steam  con- 
ditions the  average  time  was  15  minutes  and  the  average  number  of  cars  19.7." 
H.  L.  Kirker,  Electrical  Review,  March  6,  1909,  p.  423. 

"Train  movements  thru  the  tunnel  average  26  freight  trains  per  24  hours,  with 
an  average  tonnage  of  924  per  train;  and  15  passenger  trains  per  24  hours  with  an 
average  tonnage  of  281  per  train.  In  freight  service  two  electric  locomotives  are 
coupled;  in  passenger  service  one  locomotive  is  used.  Passenger  train  and  freight 
business  are  handled  without  any  interruption."  J.F.Jones,  Supt.  Terminals,  1910. 

Economy  has  been  obtained  with  the  electric  service.  Coal  cost 
with  electrical  operation  was  39  per  cent,  of  the  coal  cost  under  steam 
operation.  Run  of  mine  and  slack  Indiana  coals  are  used  in  power- 
stations,  in  place  of  anthracite  on  steam  locomotives.  Total  service 
operating  charges  are  60  per  cent,  of  the  charges  under  steam  operation. 
Total  service  operating  charges  plus  fixed  charges  were  84.5  per  cent, 
of  the  charges  under  steam  operation;  and,  after  adding  depreciation, 
the  total  operating  charges  are  equal.  This  is  a  wonderful  result  from 
the, first  two  years'  service;  with  the  great  investment  for  a  short  mileage. 
Maintenance  and  repairs  of  locomotives  were  reduced  45  per  cent. 

Service  notes  show  that  4  of  the  6  locomotives  are  used  regularly. 
Locomotive  inspections  are  made  every  third  day.  Life  of  pinions  is 
60,000  miles.  Mileage  of  each  locomotive  per  month  averages  2700. 

Safety  has  been  gained  with  electrical  operation.  On  account  of 
the  large  number  of  trains  and  the  severe  braking  required  on  long  2 
per  cent,  grades,  trains  will  break  in  two,  with  steam  or  electric  operation. 
In  the  event  of  a  train  breaking  in  two  with  steam,  the  time  necessary 
to  recouple  exceeded  the  interval  within  which  the  steam  locomotive 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        381 

could  be  kept  in  the  tunnel  without  suffocating  the  train  crew.  This 
trouble  is  obviated  with  electric  power.  It  is  often  necessary  for  the 
electric  locomotive  to  start  a  train  on  the  long  2  per  cent,  tunnel  grades 
and  this  is  done  without  first  taking  the  slack  out  of  the  train. 

References  on  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Sarnia  Tunnel  Locomotives. 

Single-phase  Traction:  S.  R.  J.  and  E.  W.,  Jan.  20,  1906. 

Muralt,  in  criticism:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1906. 

Descriptive:  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1906;    Oct.,  1908.     S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  14,  1908. 

Power  House:  Power,  June  29,  1909;  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  14,  1908,  p.  1364. 

Kirker:  Elec.  Review,  March  6,  1909,  p.  423. 

Operation  and  Shop  Methods:  S.  R.  J.,  April  2,  1910. 


I 


FIG.   147. — GENERAL  ELECTRIC  SINGLE-PHASE,  SIDE  ROD  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE,  1909. 


imy 

J  '"",   ; 
" 


FIG.   148. — GENERAL  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE. 
Geared  side-rod  type.     Proposed  in    1910  for  mountain  freight  service. 

GENERAL  ELECTRIC  SINGLE -PHASE. 

General  Electric  Company  built  an  experimental  single-phase  loco- 
motive in  1909,  which  had  some  distinguishing  features. 

Frames  and  running  gear  were  similar  to  those  of  a  Pacific  type 
steam  locomotive  with  the  usual  side  rods  connect'ng  the  drivers. 


382          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Each  motor  was  crank-connected  to  a  jackshaft,  set  across  the  locomo- 
tive frames,  and  connected  to  the  driving  wheel  side  rods. 

Motors  were  two  400-h.  p.,  15-cycle  units  set  up  on  the  locomotive 
frames.  The  design  was  for  passenger  service,  to  deliver  15,000  pounds 
tractive  effort,  at  20  m.  p.  h.,  but  to  have  variable  speed,  up  to  50  m.  p.  h. 
Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  May  8,  1909. 

A  geared  and  side -rod  locomotive  design,  outlined  in  the  accompany- 
ing drawing,  was  presented  at  the  annual  convention  of  the  A.  I.  E.  E., 
July,  1910.  The  design  embraces:  Spring-suspended  motor  weight;  in- 
dependent operation  of  driving  axles  requiring  the  driving  of  only  one  set 
of  wheels  at  one  time;  and  high  weight  efficiency  due  to  the  introduction 
of  gearing. 

SHAWINIGAN  FALLS  TERMINAL  RAILWAY. 

Shawinigan  Falls  Terminal  Railway,  about  21  miles  long,  runs  from 
Three  Rivers  to  Shawinigan  Falls,  half  way  between  Montreal  and  Quebec. 

One  General  Electric  single-phase,  4-motor,  swivel-truck,  50-ton 
locomotive  was  obtained  in  1909  for  freight  shunting  service. 

The  locomotive  is  designed  for  operation  on  either  a  15-cycle  or 
30-cycle,  6000-volt  single-phase  circuit. 

Motors  are  rated  150  h.  p.,  800  amperes,  225  volts  on  15  cycles,  or 
650  amperes  and  225  volts  on  30  cycles.  They  have  a  4.95  gear  ratio. 

A  trolley  voltage  of  700  was  tried  in  1909,  but  gave  trouble  in  heavy 
service  due  to  the  impedance  in  the  rail  return.  On  6600  volts  and  30 
cycles,  or  on  direct  current,  the  operation  is'  successful. 

SWEDISH  STATE  RAILWAY. 

Swedish  State  Railway  has  been  conducting  experiments  near  Stock- 
holm with  locomotives  and  high  potential  contact  lines,  since  July,  1905. 

Westinghouse  18,000-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase,  28-ton,  2-axle 
locomotive  equipment,  with  44-inch  drivers,  was  first  tested.  It  was 
designed  to  haul  a  70-ton  train  at  40  m.  p.  h.,  and  was  equipped  with 
two  150-h.  p.  geared  motors.  A  second  locomotive  had  4  axles,  four 
44-inch  drivers,  four  115-h.  p.,  geared  motors,  and  weighed  40  tons. 

Siemens-Schuckert  furnished  a  20,000-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase 
freight  locomotive,  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration.  The  loco- 
motive has  3  driving  axles  each  geared  to  a  115-h.  p.,  compensated  series 
motor.  The  locomotive  weighs  40  tons  and  is  designed  for  hauling  freight 
trains  at  28  miles  per  hour.  The  rated  drawbar  pull  is  13,300  pounds, 
and  on  1  per  cent,  grades  the  speed  is  15  m.  p.  h.  Drivers  are  43-inch. 
Transformers  are  oil-cooled,  300-kw.  units,  and  reduce  the  contact 
line  voltage  from  20,000  to  from  160  to  320,  in  10  sections. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES  383 


FIG.   149. — SWEDISH  STATE  RAILWAY.     SIEMENS  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1906. 


FIG.   150.— SWEDISH  STATE  RAILWAY.     SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVE  AND  TRAIN,   1906. 


384 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


In  1909,  as  a  result  of  the  experienced  so  gained  by  the  Swedish 
State  Railway,  the  single-phase,  15-cycle,  15,000-volt  system  was  formally 
adopted  and  an  extensive  program  was  started,  embracing  the  use  of 
water  powers  and  heavy  locomotives  for  mountain  freight  trains. 

Siemens-Schuckert  Works  will  furnish  thirteen  2000-h.  p.,   110-ton, 


52'  10" 


FIG.   151. — SWEDISH  STATE  RAILWAY.     CRANK  AND  SIDE  ROD  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE. 
18,000-volt,  15-cycle,  single-phase,  2000-h.  p.  unit. 

crank-type  freight,  also  two  1000-h.  p.,  77-ton,  crank-type  passenger 
locomotives  for  use  on  the  Kiruna-Riksgransen,  93-mile  road  on  the 
Norwegian  Frontier.  The  train  loads  of  the  ore  trains  will  be  doubled. 
Reference:  E.  R.  J.,  May  6,  1911,  p.  788. 


45'.  7" 


FIG.  152. — SWEDISH  STATE  RAILWAY.     CRANK  AND  SIDE  ROD  PASSENGER  LOCOMOTIVE. 
18,000-volt,  15-cycle,  single-phase  1000-h.  p.  unit. 


FRENCH  SOUTHERN  RAILWAY. 


French  Southern  (or  Midi)  Railway,  in  1911,  placed  in  service  one  A.  E.G. 
and  six  Westinghouse  geared  locomotives.  These  are  2-motor,  2-6-2 
class,  crank  and  side-rod  units,  equipped  with  two  800-h.  p.  single- 
phase,  15-cycle  motors,  supplied  from  a  12,000-volt  contact  line.  Freight 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        385 


and  passenger  trains  are  hauled  on  a  70-mile,  double-track  mountain 
road. 

Specifications  required  that,  between  speed  limits  of  18  and  33  m.  p.  h., 
when  traveling   on  down-grades,  current  be  returned  to  the  line;  also 


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FIG.  153.  —  FRENCH  SOUTHERN  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE,  1910. 

Used  between  Pau  and  Montrejean.     A.  E.  G.  94-ton,  1600-h.  p.,  1-phase,  15-cycle,  12,000-volt 
locomotive  of  the  side-rod  type.     Forced  ventilation.     Freight  and  passenger  service. 

that  a  450-ton  train  be  hauled  up  a  3.5  per  cent,  grade  at  18  m.  p.  h.;  a 
310-ton  train  at  25  m.  p.  h.;  and  a  115-ton  train  at  38  m.  p.  h.  On  the 
level,  express  passenger  trains  were  to  run  at  62  m.  p.  h.,  and  regular 
passenger  trains  at  40  m.  p.  h. 


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FIG.  154. — BADEN  STATE-WEISENTAL  RAILWAY  LOCOMOTIVE  OF  1910. 
Ten  Siemens-Schuckert  units  used  on  the  Basel-Zell  Line.     71-ton,  1050-h.  p.,  300-volt  motors. 

Westinghouse  units  weigh  89  tons,  of  which  62  tons  are  on  drivers. 

A.  E.  G.  units  weigh  94  tons,  of  which  60  tons  were  on  49-inch  drivers. 

The  cranks  work  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  horizontal,  and 

the  crank  circle  has  a  21.66-inch  diameter.     E.  R.  J.,  June  3, 1911,  p.  962. 

25 


386          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
GERMAN  STATE  RAILWAYS. 

Baden  State  Railway  in  1909  obtained  from  Siemens-Schuckert  ten 
locomotives  for  its  Wiesental  Railway  between  Basel,  Schopfheim,  and 
Zell,  34  miles  of  track. 

The  system  is  the  15-cycle,  10,000-volt,  single-phase.  Locomotives 
have  3  sets  of  47-inch  drivers  and  2  sets  of  leaders.  Motors  are  two 
525-h.  p.,  300-volt,  mounted  upon  the  locomotive  frame  and  crank-con- 
nected to  jackshafts  and  to  driver  side  rods.  Weight  is  71  tons.  Eighty 
250-  to  540-ton  trains  per  day  are  hauled  up  grades  of  0.57  per  cent. 

Other  locomotives  of  about  the  same  capacity,  weight,  and  type 
were  purchased  from  Allgemeine  Electricitats  Gesellshaft. 

Reference. 

Electrician,  July  2,  1909;    Ry.  Age  Gazette,  July,  1909;    E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  11,  1909; 
Apr.  9,  1910,  p.  668;  Zeitschrift,  Jan.,  1909. 


FIG.   155. — BAVARIAN  STATE  RAILWAY.     SIEMENS  LOCOMOTIVE  ON  MURNAU-OBERAMMERGAU  LINE', 

1905. 

Bavarian  State  Railways  in  1905  equipped  the  Murnau-Oberammer- 
gau  line  with  two  Siemens-Schuckert,  2-axle  locomotives  for  freight 
service,  each  with  175-h.  p.  15-cycle  motors,  with  a  gear  ratio  of  5. 
The  trolley  voltage  is  5500.  Many  interesting  details  of  the  locomotive, 
contact  line,  and  2-axle  freight  cars  are  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Prussian  State  Railway  in  1906  ordered  from  the  A.  E.  G.  two  25- 
cycle,  6000-volt  experimental  locomotives.  One  had  three  350-h.  p.,  and 
one  had  two  300-h.  p.,  single-phase  motors.  The  first  locomotive,  in 
service  at  Oranienburg,  is  shown  in  Figure  196.  It  has  geared  motors, 
56-inch  drivers,  10-foot  10-inch  bogie  truck  wheel  bases,  a  31-foot  total 
wheel  base,  and  weighs  66  tons. 

For  the  Magdeburg-Leipzig  Line,  Brown-Boveri,  Allgemeine,  Oerlikon, 
and  Siemens  Companies  have  built  locomotives  of  the  2-motor,  crank  type, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        387 

and  the  Bergmann  Company  has  built  a  1 -motor,  1500-h.  p.  locomotive. 
These  locomotives  were  designed  for  75  m.  p.  h.  in  passenger  service,  and 
for  35  m.  p.  h.  in  freight  service. 

The  10,000-volt,  15-cycle  system  has  been  adopted. 

Allgemeine  has  furnished  an  express  locomotive  of  the  Atlantic  type  and  4—4-2 
class.  One  1000-h.  p.  motor,  mounted  in  the  center  of  the  locomotive,  utilizes 
vertical  driving  rods  from  its  crank  shafts,  and  a  crank  circle  of  23.6  inches.  The 
crank  shaft  is  side-rod  connected  to  2  pairs  of  63-inch  drivers.  Rigid  driver  wheel 
base  is  9  feet  10  inches,  and  total  wheel  base  is  19  feet  8  inches.  Weight  is  77 
tons.  See  Figure  157. 


FIG.   156. — PRUSSIAN  STATE  RAILWAY.     A.  E.  G.  LOCOMOTIVE  AT  OKANIENBURG,   1906. 

Allgemeine  freight  locomotive  is  of  the  0-4-4-0  class,  with  one  800-h.  p.  motor, 
crank-connected  at  45  degrees  to  a  crankshaft  located  across  the  middle  of  the  loco- 
motive. The  crank  circle  diameter  is  19.7  inches.  The  crank  shaft  is  side-rod 
connected  to  4  pairs  of  41-inch  drivers.  Driver  wheel  base,  not  rigid,  is  15  feet 
9  inches,  and  the  total  weight  is  about  64  tons.  See  Figure  158. 


References. 
Elec.  Zeit.,  Aug.  4,  1910;   E.  W.,  April  9,  1910;   E.  R.  J.,  June  6,  1908,  p.  11. 

SWISS  FEDERAL  RAILWAY. 

Swiss  Federal  Railway  has  experimented  extensively  on  the  Seebach- 
Wettingen  branch,  with  Oerlikon  and  with  Siemens  locomotives. 

An  Oerlikon  locomotive,  built  in  1905,  is  a  plain,  single-phase,  15- 
cycle  unit  with  2  bogie  trucks.  It  has  two  200-kv.  a.,  15,000  to  600- 
volt  transformers.  Two  250-h.  p.,  650-r.  p.  m.  forced  draft  motors,  with 


388 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        389 


390  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.   159. — Swiss  FEDERAL  RAILWAY.     SIEMENS  LOCOMOTIVE,   1906. 


FIG.  160. — Swiss  FEDERAL  RAILWAY.     SIEMENS  SINGLE-PHASE  FREIGHT  LOCOMOTIVE. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        391 


FIG.   161. — BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     A.  E.  G.  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVE,   1910. 
1600-h.  p.,  103-ton,  crank  and  side-rod  units.     Crank  rods  from  motors  make  an  angle  of  only 

11  degrees  from  a  vertical. 


FIG.  162. — BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     OERLIKON  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVE,  1910. 
2000-h.  p.,  97-ton,  crank  and  side-rod  units. 


392 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


a  3.08  gear  ratio,  are  geared  to  a  crankshaft  located  between  each  pair 
of  40-inch  drivers,  the  crankshaft  being  coupled  by  side  rods  to  the 
drivers.  Weight  of  electrical  equipment  is  18  tons  and  the  total  is  45 
tons. 

A  motor-generator  locomotive  is  described  later  in  this  chapter. 

A  Siemens  freight  locomotive,  Figures  159  and  160,  is  a  6-axle,  83-ton, 
single-phase,  15-cycle,  15,000-volt,  1350-h.p.  unit.  Each  of  six  225-h.p. 
motors  is  geared  to  its  axle,  a  3.75  gear  ratio  being  used.  E.  W.,  Aug., 
1908,  p.  290. 

BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD. 

Bernese  Alps  Railroad,  in  1910,  placed  in  service  several  locomotives 
on  the  52-mile  road  between  Bern,  Lotschberg,  and  Simplon  Tunnel. 
A.  E.  G.  Locomotive.     This  unit  is  of  the  articulated  2-4-4-2  class. 
Specifications   called   for   28,600   pounds   maximum  tractive   effort, 


FIG.  163. — BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     MOTOR  AND  TRUCK  OF  OERLIKON  LOCOMOTIVE.    ' 

and  a  1-hour  drawbar  pull  of  17,600  pounds,  at  24.8  miles  per  hour, 
for  a  2.7  per  cent,  grade  and  280-ton  train,  or  for  a  1.55  per  cent,  grade 
and  442-ton  train;  and  for  maximum  speeds  of  47  m.  p.  h. 

The  design  embraces  a  unit  built  in  two  similar  halves,  with  two  800-h.p.  motors 
mounted  upon  the  frames,  which  transmit  their  energy  by  crank  and  connecting 
rods,  thru  crankshaft.  Each  pair  of  driving  axles  is  side-rod  connected.  Leading 
wheels  are  used  on  a  pony  truck  and  the  leading  axles  are  sliding  axles.  The  driving 
axles  can  turn  independent  within  narrow  limits.  The  side  rods  have  the  usual 
knuckle  joint.  Springs  are  provided  to  keep  the  driving  axle  at  right  angles  to  the 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        393 


longitudinal  axis  of  the  locomotive,  on  tangents.  Driver  wheel  diameter  is  50  inches ; 
leading  wheels,  33  inches;  crank  circle,  21  inches;  wheel  base,  40  feet  10  inches; 
wheel  base  of  one-half,  17  feet  4  inches;  weight  on  driving  axles,  19  tons;  on  leading 
axles,  14  tons;  total  weight  103  tons;  weight  of  mechanical  portion,  49  tons;  weight 
of  electrical  equipment,  54  tons;  weight  of  motors,  30  tons. 

Motors   are  two   8-pole   800-h.p.,    single-phase,    15-cycle   units,    fed   from   two 
15.000-  to  400- volt  transformers.     E.  R.  J.,  April  9  and  Oct.  29,  1910.     See  Fig.  33. 


FIG.  164. — BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     TRANSFORMER  ON  OERLIKON  LOCOMOTIVE. 

Oerlikon  Locomotive.     This  unit  is  of  the  two  truck  0-6-6-0  class. 

The  two  bogies  each  have  three  coupled  axles.  Weight  is  97  tons,  all  on  drivers; 
mechanical  parts  weigh  49  tons,  and  electrical  parts  48  tons.  Two  15,000-  to  450- 
volt,  1000-kv.a.  transformers  weigh  12  tons.  Length  is  48  feet.  Drivers  are  53-inch. 
Motors  and  transformers  are  located  over  the  two  sets  of  end  drivers  of  each  truck; 
and  the  weight  on  the  leading  and  trailing  axles  is  14.5  tons,  while  that  on  each  of 
the  four  middle  axles  is  16.8  tons.  Axle  centers  in  feet  and  inches  are  5-5,  6-0,  8-7, 
6-0,  7-5. 


394 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Motors  are  two  12-pole,  1000-h.p.,  single-phase,  420- volt,  2100-ampere,  510-r.p.m., 
compensated  series,  11-ton  units.  Frames  are  split  horizontally.  A  10-h.p.  motor 
operates  a  forced  draft  fan  for  motors  and  transformers.  Temperature  rise  is  60°  C. 
for  commutator  and  stator,  and  75°  for  the  rotor.  Power  factor  for  speeds  above 
20  m.p.h.  is  95  per  cent.  Air  gap  is  3  millimeters  and  thickness  of  babbit  in 
bearings  is  2  millimeters. 

Motor  shafts  are  73  inches  above  the  rail.  Efficiency  is  .90  at  half  and  full 
load,  and  .95  at  19  m.p.h.  Motors  are  rated  2000-h.p.  Gear  shafts  are  10.4  inches 


FIG.  165. — BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     OERLIKON  LOCOMOTIVE.     MOTOR  WITH  ARMATURE  REMOVED. 

above  the  plane  of  the  driver-axle  centers.  Each  gear  axle  is  crank  connected  to 
the  further  driver  axle  thru  a  9-foot  crank  rod,  which  is  forked  at  the  driver  end, 
and  connects  to  a  crank  pin  on  the  side  rod.  Side  rods  connect  the  three  axles. 

Gear  ratio  is  3.25  and  gear  teeth  are  waved-shaped,  consisting  of  a  double  angle 
with  rounded  tips,  the  sides  being  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  Maximum  pres- 
sure on  teeth  is  1850  pounds  per  square  inch.  Gear  wheels  are  57  inches  in  diameter. 
Motors  run  equally  well  on  direct  current  at  400  volts  and  on  one  phase  of  a  three- 
phase  circuit.  They  are  the  largest  motors  yet  built  and  have  a  remarkably  high 
weight  efficiency. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        395 


References:  E.  W.,  Nov.  17,  1910,  p.  1191;  E.  R.  J.,  June  18,  1910;  July  29,  1911. 

Performance  tests  show  a  maximum  tractive  effort  of  33,000  pounds,  and  a  normal 
tractive  effort  of  28,800  pounds  at  26  m.p.h.  or  2000  h.p.  By  utilizing  a  quickly  made 
modification  of  the  secondary  transformer  windings,  to  provide  for  a  higher  voltage 
3000  h.p.  can  be  exerted  for  an  hour  at  a  speed  of  37  m.p.h.,  and  motors  then  have  a 
2000-h.p.  continuous  rating.  (Oerlikon  Bulletin  No.  63,  August,  1910.) 


FIG.   166. —  BERNESE  ALPS  RAILROAD.     ARMATURE  AND  PINION  ON   OERLIKON  LOCOMOTIVE  MOTOR. 

COMPARISON  OF  OERLIKON  WITH  OTHER  LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Name 
of 
mfgr. 

1 

Elec- 
tric 
system. 

i                i 

One 
hour 
h.p. 

Contin- 
uous   ': 
h.p. 

Wt. 
in 
tons. 

1-hour 
per  ton. 
h.p. 

Max. 

speed 
m.p.h. 

Wt.  of 
motors 
tons. 

Wt.  of 

transf., 
tons. 

New  York  Central.  .  . 

.    G.E  

B.C. 

2200 

1 
1000 

115 

19.1 

60 

25 

0 

600-v. 

Pennsylvania  

.    West.  .  .  . 

B.C. 

2500 

1600 

157 

15.9 

66 

43 

0 

660-v. 

Giovi  

.    West.  .  .  . 

3-p. 

1980 

1440 

67 

29.5 

28 

27 

0 

25-cy. 

Simplon  Tunnel  

.     Brown  .  . 

3-p. 

1700 

76 

22.4 

43 

27.5 

6.6 

15-cy.  [ 

Great  Northern  

.    G.E  

3-p. 

1700 

1500 

115 

14.8 

15 

30 

10 

25-cy. 

Boston  &  Maine.  .  .  . 

.    West.  .  .  . 

1-p. 

1340 

1180 

130 

10.3 

50 

38 

25-cy. 

French  Southern..  .  . 

.    West..  .. 

1-p. 

1600 

1200 

89 

18.0 

46 

30 

9 

15-cy. 

Bernese  \lps 

AEG 

1-p. 

1600 



103 

15.5 

46 

30 

15-cy. 

Bernese  Alps  

.    Oerlikon. 

1-P. 

2000 

2000 

97 

20.6 

44 

21 

12 

15-cy. 

Continuous  h.p.  rating  of  alternating-current  motors  is  on  forced  draft. 
Maximum  speed  must  be  considered  in  comparing  the  locomotive  tonnage. 


396  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


ST.  POLTEN-MARIAZELL  RAILWAY. 

St.  Polten-Mariazell  Railway  in  lower  Austria,  a  30-inch  gage  road,  67 
miles  long,  in  1910  changed  from  steam  locomotives  which  had  a  maxi- 
mum speed  of  18.6  m.p.h.  to  single-phase,  electric  locomotives  with  a 
maximum  speed  of  30  m.p.h.  Siemens-Schuckert  Works  has  furnished 
17  locomotives.  Two  units  are  used  with  multiple-unit  control  for  all 
heavy  trains.  Each  unit  has  two  6-wheel,  swivel  trucks. 

Motors  are  two  per  locomotive,  250-h.p.,  250-volt,  series  type  with 
forced  ventilation,  mounted  above  the  truck  frame  between  the  mid- 
dle and  inside  driving  axle.  Motors  have  a  2.9  gear  ratio  and  are  geared 
to  crankshafts,  each  of  which  is  outside  connected  to  3  pairs  of  drivers 
by  side  rods.  The  rigid  wheel  base  of  each  truck  is  7  feet  10  inches, 
and,  as  is  usual  in  European  practice,  the  forward  driving  wheels 
are  connected  to  the  middle  wheels  by  a  side  rod  thru  a  knuckle  joint. 
The  total  wheel  base  is  25  feet  10  inches. 

Weights  are:  total,  99,500  pounds;  mechanical  46,500  pounds; 
motors  and  gears,  26,500  pounds;  two  6000-  to  250-volt  transformers, 
15, 500  pounds;  control  apparatus,  8800;  current  collectors,  2200  pounds; 
each  motor,  4400  pounds.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  August  20,  1910. 


LEONARD-OERLIKON. 

Motor-generator  locomotives  usually  embrace: 

High-pressure  single-phase  distribution.  Single-phase,  direct-current, 
self-starting,  continuous-running  motor-generator;  driving  direct-current 
motors  connected  to  axles.  Regeneration  of  energy  by  field  control  of 
the  direct-current  generator. 

Advantageous  features  of  the  motor-generator  plan: 

Sixty-cycle  current  may  be  used  if  necessary.  Wasteful  resistance 
losses  are  avoided  in  acceleration.  Smooth  acceleration  is  obtained  for 
freight-train  haulage.  Opening  of  all  heavy  current  circuits  is  avoided. 
Variations  in  speed  may  be  produced  by  variation  in  the  shunt  fields  of 
the  direct-current  generators.  Multiple-unit  control  is  simplified. 
Regeneration  of  energy  is  facilitated. 

A  motor-generator  locomotive  was  built  in  1905  by  the  Oerlikon 
Company  for  the  Seebach-Wettingen  Railway  of  Switzerland.  The  line 
voltage,  15,000,  was  reduced  by  two  15-cycle,  200-kw.  transformers  to 
750  volts.  The  motor-generator  set  was  rated  520  h.  p.,  and  consisted 
of  a  squirrel-cage,  single-phase  motor  connected  to  a  600-volt  direct- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        397 

current  generator,  rated  400  kw.  at  980  r.  p.  m.  There  were  four  100-h.  p., 
600-volt,  direct-current  traction  motors,  with  a  3.50  gear  ratio,  connected 
in  pairs  to  coupled  drivers.  Drawbar  pull  was  9000  pounds,  and  the  run- 
ning speed  was  44  m.  p.  h.  Weights  are  given  below: 

Mechanical  parts  22 . 2  tons  42 . 6  per  cent. 

Transformers  3 . 0  tons  5 . 8  per  cent. 

Motor-generator  11.0  tons  2 1.2  per  cent. 

Axle  motors  15.8  tons  30.4  per  cent. 

The  total  weight  was  52  tons,  which  is  only  7.7  h.  p.  per  ton. 

References  on  Leonard -Oerlikon  Locomotives. 

Leonard,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892;  E.  W.,  March  5,  1904;  July  8,  1905,  p.  50. 
Oerlikon,  S.  R.  J.,  April  8,  1905,  p.  650;  Nov.  11,  1905,  p.  888;  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  24,  1906; 
E.  W.,  Aug.  8,  1908. 


PARIS-LYONS-MEDITERRANEAN. 

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean  Railway  built  an  experimental  locomo- 
tive in  1909  which  embodied  a  modified  electric  system. 

A  single-phase,  alternating-current,  12,000-volt,  25-cycle  contact 
line  delivers  power  to  a  locomotive,  on  which  a  permutator  converts  the 
alternating  current  to  direct  current  at  an  e.  m.  f.  adjustable  between 
zero  volts  and  600  volts.  The  energy  is  delivered  to  4  ordinary  direct- 
current,  450-volt  motors  geared  to  the  4  driving  axles  of  the  locomotive. 

The  regulating  permutator  which  is  used  consists  of  a  synchronously 
revolving  commutator  which  makes  one  revolution  per  cycle.  The 
function  of  the  permutator  is  to  reverse  the  current  every  half  cycle  or 
to  send  the  successive  half  waves  of  alternating  current  in  the  same 
direction  to  a  receiving,  direct-current  circuit.  The  permutator  which 
has  a  normal  power  factor  of  98  per  cent,  is  rated  2200  kw.;  it  weighs 
20  tons. 

The  locomotive  weighs  140  tons,  is  65  feet  long,  and  has  8  axles 
of  which  the  4  central  ones  are  the  driving  axles.  The  drawbar  pull 
exerted  is  16,400  pounds  at  37  miles  per  hour  and  10,600  pounds  at  62 
miles  per  hour.  This  locomotive  and  system  are  used  on  the  Grasse- 
Cannes-Mouans-Sortoux  line  with  steep  grades  and  sharp  curves. 

Reference. 
London  Electrician,  October  22,  1909;  March  17,  1911;  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  1,  1906. 


398  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

REFERENCES  TO  DETAILED  DRAWINGS  OF  SINGLE-PHASE 
LOCOMOTIVES. 


Name  of  locomotive. 

Maker. 

Location. 

References. 

New  Haven  1906  pass  
1909  geared 

West  
West 

New  York  Div..  . 
New  York  Div 

E.R.J.,  Aug.  17,  1907;    Nov.  21,  1908. 
ERJ     Sept  25    1909-   May  7,  1910. 

19  10  crank.  .  . 
foil  switch.  . 
Boston  &  Maine  geared  .  . 
Grand  Trunk  geared  .... 
Windsor,  Essex  &  L.S  .  . 
General  Electric  freight  .  . 

West  
West  
West  
West  
West  
G.E  

New  York  Div.  .  . 
Harlem  Yards..  . 
Hoosac  Tunnel  .  . 
St.  Clair  
Windsor  Out  
Proposed  
Proposed 

E.R.J.,  May  17,  1910,  p.  830. 
E.R.J.,  April  15,  1911,  p.  667. 

E.R.J.,  July  25,  1908,  p.  340. 
A.I.E.E.,  July,  1910,  p.  1788. 
ERJ    May  8   1909    p    874. 

Prussian  State  

A.E.G  

Oranienburg  
Magdeburg 

Zeitschrift,  1908,  p.  17. 
ERJ     Dec.  25,  1909    p.  1259. 

French  Southern 

AEG. 

France 

ERJ     April  9    1910 

Baden  State,  Wiesental.. 
Bernese-  Alps  
Bernese-  Alps  
St.  Polten-Mariazell  

Siemens  .  .  . 
A.E.G  
Oerlikon.  .  . 
Siemens  .  .  . 

Basel-Zell  
Loetschberg  
Loetschberg  
Austria  

Zeitschrift,  Jan.,  1909,  p.  998. 
E.R.J.,  April  9,  1910. 
E.R.J.,  April  9,  Oct.  29,  1910. 
E.R.J.,  June  18,  1910. 
E.R.J.,  Aug.  20,  1910,  p.  301. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LOCOMOTIVES        399 


This  page  is  reserved  for  additional  references  and  notes  on  single-phase 
locomotives. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS. 

Outline. 

Power  Units  and  Formulas. 
Power  for  Trains  a  Function  of : 

Weight  of  cars;  speed  of  train;  tractive  coefficient,  character  of  tractive  effort; 

tractive  resistance,  gravity,  friction,  inertia;  acceleration,  deceleration. 
Elementary  Kinematics  of  Acceleration. 
Energy  for  Frequent  Stops. 
Power  for  Auxiliaries : 

Light,  ventilation,  brakes,  electric  heating. 
Losses  at  Motors : 

Mechanical,  magnetic,  electric,  control,  contact. 
Losses  Beyond  Motors : 

Transformation,  conversion,  transmission. 
Power  Curves : 

Speed,  tractive  effort,  time. 
Watt-hours  per  Ton-mile. 
Regeneration  of  Energy : 

Mechanical  and  electrical  schemes. 
Summary  on  Power  Required. 
Literature. 


400 


CHAPTER  XI. 

POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS. 
IN  GENERAL. 

The  tractive  effort  required  to  overcome  train  resistance  will  first  be 
studied;  after  which  the  tractive  effort  to  overcome  inertia  will  be  con- 
sidered with  the  subject  of  acceleration;  then  motor  losses,  braking,  and 
regeneration  will  be  taken  up;  and  finally  summaries  will  be  made  on  the 
energy  and  power  required  for  train  movements. 

POWER  UNITS  AND  FORMULAS. 

Energy  and  power  units,  used  in  a  study  of  the  starting,  moving,  and 
stopping  of  trains,  will  first  be  reviewed. 

Energy  is  defined  as  the  ability  to  perform  work;  and  work  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  force  and  the  distance  thru  which  the  force  acts.  Work  is 
measured  in  results;  and  is  expressed  quantitatively,  in  foot-pounds  or  in 
kilowatt-hours. 

The  unit  of  energy,  in  electric  traction,  is  expressed  in  watt-hours 
per  ton-mile. 

Force  refers  to  pull,  or  pressure.  Force  is  expressed  in  gravity  units, 
that  is,  in  pounds.  The  force,  R,  acting  on  a  train,  overcomes  gravity, 
frictional  resistance,  and  inertia. 

Speed  or  velocity  is  expressed  in  feet  per  second,  v,  or,  preferably,  in 
miles  per  hour,  m.  p.  h. 

Power  is  the  rate  at  which  work  is  performed.  The  mechanical  unit  is 
the  horse  power,  550  foot-pounds  per  second. 

R X  v     R  X  v  X5280     R  X  m.  p.  h. 
Horse  power  —       •—  = 

550         550X3600  375. 

The  electrical  unit  of  power  is  the  kilowatt.     1.34  h.  p.  =  1.00  kw. 

The  word  power  is  frequently  used  in  place  of  the  word  energy. 

Energy  of  position  or  potential  energy  is  illustrated. 

A  1000-ton  train  at  the  summit  of  a  grade,  which  is  4000  feet  high, 
has  the  ability  to  perform  work  in  descending  a  grade,  and  may  even 
generate  energy  and  deliver  it  to  an  electric  transmission  line  and  central 
power  station.  The  amount  of  energy  which,  on  account  of  the  position 
of  the  train,  may  be  generated  in  descending  is 

4000X1000X2000  or  8,000,000,000  foot-pounds.  If  the  train  runs 
down  or  up  the  grade  in  2  hours  or  7200  seconds,  at  the  rate  of  15m.  p.  h., 
the  power,  or  rate  of  wrork,  excluding  the  friction  averages 

8,000,000,000/  550/  7200  or  2000  h.  p. 
26  401 


402  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

The  force  required  in  braking  the  train,  if  the  distance  is  about  30 
miles,  or  160,000  feet,  averages 

8,000,000,000 / 1 60,000  =  50,000  pounds. 
As  a  check— h.  p.  =  RXm.  p.  h./375  =  50,000X15/375 -2000. 

Energy  of  motion  of  a  moving  train  is,  by  kinematics,  the  product  of 
one-half  the  mass  and  the  square  of  the  velocity.  Mass  equals  weight  in 
pounds  divided  by  32,  the  force  of  gravity.  The  kinetic  energy  of  motion 
=  (1/2)MW2,  or  Mv2/64,  in  foot-pounds.  Example: 

An  870-ton,  25-car  train  running  at  34  m.  p.  h.  (about  50  feet  per 
second)  has  stored  up  as  kinetic  energy 

870X2000X50X50/64  or  68,000,000  foot-pounds. 

If  the  train  is  to  be  stopped  within  2000  feet,  a  retarding  force  of 
34,000  pounds  is  required,  or  39  pounds  per  ton. 

Frictional  resistance  would  be  about  7.5  pounds  per  ton,  or  6500 
pounds  in  this  example,  so  that  the  net  retarding  force  would  be  27,500 
pounds,  or  1100  pounds  per  car,  or  137  pounds  per  wheel.  If  the  average 
coefficient  of  friction  is  0.17,  the  pressure  per  wheel  would  be  810  pounds. 
Master  Car  Builders'  Association  rules  limit  the  maximum  braking  force 
on  the  8  wheels  of  freight  cars  to  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  light  weight, 
to  avoid  sliding  of  wheels;  or,  in  the  example,  about  27,500  pounds. 

POWER  FOR  TRAINS. 

The  power  used  for  electric  trains  is  a  function  of : 
The  weight  of  the  cars  hauled. 
The  speed  of  the  train. 
The  available  tractive  coefficient. 
The  character  of  the  tractive  effort. 

The  tractive  resistance  or  effort  per  ton,  for  gravity,  friction,  and 
acceleration. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  403 

WEIGHT  OF  CARS,  FREIGHT  AND  PASSENGER,  ON  RAILROADS. 


''  1 

Name  of  cars. 

i 

Length 
in  feet. 

Type 
or  kind. 

Dead  weight 
in  tons. 

Capacity 
in  tons. 

Box 

28  to  30 

Wood 

10  to  12 

20  to  30 

Box  
Box 

30  to  34 
36 

Wood 
Wood 

12  to  14 
15  to  17 

25  to  30 
30 

Box 

36 

Wood 

17  to  18 

40 

Box  
Box                             .        .    . 

36 
40 

Wood 
Wood 

22  to  23 
17  to  21 

50 
40 

Box 

40 

Wood 

20  to  22 

50 

Box  (C.  P.  R.  R.}  
Furniture  
Stock 

36 
30  to  50 
36 

Steel 
Wood 
Wood 

18  to  20 
17  to  19 
14  to  15 

40 
30  to  40 
25 

Oil  

Steel 

15  to  18 

30  to  45 

Flat  
Flat 

28  to  30 
32  to  34 

Wood 
Wood 

9  to  11 
10  to  12 

20 
30 

Flat 

40 

Wood 

12  to  13 

40 

Flat  
Coal           

40 

Steel 
Wood 

20  to  23 
12  to  19 

50 
40  to  50 

Coal 

Steel 

16  to  18 

40 

Coal 

Steel 

20  to  22 

50  to  55 

Gondola  . 
Gondola 

Wood 

Steel 

12  to  14 
20 

30  to  40 
50 

Ore  1  . 

Wood 

12  to  13 

40  to  50 

Ore  
Ballast  .  
Average,  Ry  Age,  1911,  p  935 

Steel 
WTood 

15  to  20 
12 
19 

40  to  70 
30  to  40 
35 

Coaches,  8-  wheel  
Coaches,  12-wheel 

45  to  60 
50  to  60 

Wood 
Wood 

30  to  32 

35       i. 

Coaches,  12-wheel 

60  to  70 

Steel 

50  to  70       i 

Mail  car  
Mail  car  

50  to  70 
60  to  70 

Wood 
Steel 

25        . 

30  to  45       j. 

Baggage  c'ar,  8-  wheel 

50  to  60 

Wood 

30 

Baggage  car,  12-wheel  

66 

Steel 

72   : 

Dining  car  
Tourist  cars 

50  to  60 

Wood 
Wood 

40       |. 
40 

Sleeping  cars  

50  to  60 

Wood 

40  to  60       i  . 

Sleeping  cars  

60  to  70 

Steel 

50  to  65       j  . 

Sleepers,  Pennsylvania  
Six-wheel  truck  only 

60  to  70 

Steel 
Steel 

60  to  75       I. 
10 

Buffet  Library  cars  
Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  18-hour,. 
New  York-Chicago,  six  cars 

72 

Steel 
Steel 

76 
350 

I 

American  Railway  Association's  standard  freight  car  has  inside  di- 
mensions, 36  feet  long  by  8.5  feet  wide  by  8  feet  high. 

European  freight  cars  have  four  wheels  and  weigh  half  as  much. 


404  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

WEIGHT  OF  MOTOR  PASSENGER  CARS  ON  ELECTRIC  ROADS. 


Name  of  cars. 

Length 
in   feet. 

Type 
or  kind. 

Weight 
in  tons. 

No.  of 

seats. 

Pounds 
per  seat. 

City  

26  to  32 

Wood 

8  to  12 

28  to  34 

650 

Interurban 

40 

\Vood 

20 

40 

1000 

Interurban  

45 

Wood 

26 

45 

1155 

Interurban  

50 

Wood 

30 

50 

1200 

Interurban 

55 

Wood 

36 

55 

1310 

Interurban  

60 

Wood 

39 

62 

1260 

Interurban                        .    .  . 

60 

Steel 

50 

64 

1560 

Interurban  coach  

60 

Wood 

30  to  45 

70 

1070 

Rapid  Transit  

50 

Wood 

23  to  45 

55 

1235 

Rapid  Transit 

50 

Steel 

35  to  50 

55 

1545 

Elevated  

45 

Steel 

32 

48 

1335 

Elevated  

45 

Wood 

28 

48 

1165 

Tunnel 

50 

Steel 

31  to  38 

46  to  56 

1350 

Hudson  and  Manhattan  .  .  . 

48 

Steel 

35 

44 

1600 

New  Haven,  motor  

70 

Steel 

87 

76 

2290 

New  Haven,  coaches  

Steel 

50 

76 

1315 

Long  Island.  :  

51 

Steel 

38  to  41 

52 

1520 

Pennsylvania-Long  Island.  . 

65 

Steel 

53 

72 

1485 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  .  .  . 

55 

Wood 

47 

58 

1620 

55 

Steel 

52 

58 

1790 

New  York  Central  

60 

Steel 

54 

68 

1590 

Southern  Pacific  suburban.  . 

72 

Steel 

55 

116 

950 

Midland  Ry.,  England  

60 

Wood 

45 

72 

1250 

London,  Brighton  &  S.  C.  .  . 

60 

Steel 

57 

66 

1730 

See  complete  tabular  data  on  weights  of  American  and  European 
motor  cars  and  coaches,  near  the  end  of  Chapter  VI. 

In  general,  the  weight  of  electric  cars  is  1400  pounds  per  seat  when 
arranged  for  over  60  passengers,  and  1000  pounds  per  seat  for  100  or 
more  suburban  passengers;  an  average  is  about  1200  pounds.  For  a 
given  number  of  seats,  the  weight  per  seat  varies  directly  with  the 
schedule  speed. 

Suburban  cars,  with  some  side  seats,  turtle-back  roofs,  without 
monitor  decks,  are  not  comparable  with  cars  for  railroad  service. 

Steam  railroad  coaches  weigh  from  1700  to  2000  pounds  per  seat. 

References  on  Weight  of  Cars. 

Curves  showing  car  weights,  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  19,  1908;  also  October  10,  1908,  p.  912. 
Standardization  suggested,  dimensions  and  drawings,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1104. 
Heron:  Relation  of  Car  Length,  Weight,  Truck  Centers,  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  8,  1908. 
Ayers:  Weight  and  Operating  Cost,  Amer.  Elec.  Ry.  Assoc.,  Oct.,  1909;   E.  R.  J. 
Oct.  7,  1909. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 
SCHEDULE  SPEED  OF  RAILWAY  TRAINS. 


405 


Name  of  railway. 


M.  p.  h. 


Thru  trains,  in  rolling  country 

Local  passenger  trains 

Mountain  freight  trains 

Way  freight  trains 

Time  freight  trains 

Quick  dispatch  and  refrigerator  special 

Stock  trains,  on  prairie  divisions 

Fast  mail  trains,  without  passengers 

New  York  Central,  18-liour  train,  New  York-Chicago 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  18-hour  train,  New  York-Chicago 

Ordinary  24-hour  train  between  New  York  and  Chicago 

Chicago-Minneapolis  passenger  trains,  408/13 

Minneapolis-Seattle  passenger  trains,   1814/56 

Chicago-Omaha  passenger  trains,  492/14.6 

Chicago-San  Francisco  passenger  trains,  2279/76 

New  York  Subway,  local  and  express 

Manhattan  Elevated 

Ordinary  street  railway 


35  to  40 

22  to  28 

5  to    9 

8  to  12 

13  to  18 
16  to  18 
18  to  22 
40  to  50 

53.5 
50.6 
40.0 
32.0 
32.4 
33.7 
30.0 
14  and  30 

14  to  15 

10 


SCHEDULE  SPEED  OF  TRAINS  INCREASED  WITH  ELECTRIC  TRACTION. 


Schedule  speed. 


Per  cent. 

Steam. 

Electric. 

increase. 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  

11.5 

15.8 

37 

Manhattan  Elevated  R.  R  
Grand  Trunk  Ry  ,  Port  Huron                    .    . 

11.0 
6  0 

15.0 
10.0 

36 

66 

Metropolitan  Elevated,  Chicago  
South  Side  Elevated,  Chicago     

12.0 
13.1 

15.0 
15.0 

25 
15 

Lake  Street  Elevated,  Chicago  
Great  Northern  Cascade  Tunnel 

12.5 
10  0 

15.0 
13.0 

20 
30 

Mersey  Ry    England 

15  6 

19  9 

27 

North-Eastern  Ry.,  England  

/  16.7 

20.0 

20 

Berlin  Inner  Circle  

\  20.1 
11.2 

28.2 
15.7 

40 
40 

Milan-  Varese  R   R 

r  18.6 

27.9 

50 

\24.8 

37.2 

50 

Number  of  cars  per  train  was  increased  50  to  75  per  cent,  on  the 
Manhattan;  and  the  number  of  cars  per  train  on  most  of  the  roads  listed 
was  increased. 


406          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

TRACTIVE  COEFFICIENT. 

The  tractive  coefficient,  or  coefficient  of  adhesion,  is  the  ratio  between 
the  maximum  tractive  effort  and  the  weight  on  drivers.     It  depends 
largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  rails,  and  partly  on  the  composition 
of  the  steel  in  contact. 
Coefficients  of  Friction  Between  Drivers  and  Rail : 

Most  favorable  condition 35%,  when  sanded  40% 

Clean  dry  rail 28%,  when  sanded  30% 

Thoroly  wet  rail 18%,  when  sanded  24% 

Greasy  moist  rail 15%,  when  sanded  25% 

Sleet-covered  rail 15%,  when  sanded  20% 

Dry-snow-covered  rail 11%,  when  sanded  15% 

Character  of  tractive  effort  is  involved  in  tractive  coefficient. 

Steam  locomotives  deliver  a  tractive  effort  which  varies  from  28  to 
50  per  cent,  above  and  below  the  mean,  during  each  revolution  of  the 
driver.  The  ratio  of  the  maximum  available  tractive  effort  to  adhesive 
weight  on  drivers  is  25  per  cent.  This  is  based  on  a  study  made  by  the 
Master  Mechanics'  Association  Committee  of  1898.  Mr.  L.  H.  Fry,  in  a 
paper  before  New  York  Railroad  Club,  Sept.,  1903,  showed  as  the  result 
of  tests  on  155  locomotives  that  the  ratio  averaged  22  per  cent. 

Mallet  compound  steam  locomotives  lack  uniformity  of  tractive 
effort  from  the  pistons,  during  each  revolution  of  the  drivers.  The  two 
pistons  on  each  side  produce  efforts  on  the  drivers  of  independent  trucks, 
which  efforts  may  be  exerted  in  any  relation  or  position  from  zero  to 
90  degrees  apart. 

Electric  locomotives  deliver  a  uniform  tractive  effort  during  the 
revolution  of  the  drivers.  With  smooth  application  of  the  power  by  the 
controller,  the  tractive  effort  is  from  25  to  35  per  cent,  of  the  weight  on 
drivers.  However,  22  per  cent,  is  to  be  recommended  as  a  basis  in  railway 
service;  for,  even  tho  high  ratios  are  available  with  favorable  conditions  at 
the  rail,  they  could  not  be  used  with  bad  weather  conditions  which  fre- 
quently govern  train  service. 

Electric  locomotives  sometimes  lack  uniformity  of  tractive  effort 
during  train  acceleration.  This  is  caused  by  the  opening  of  the  circuits 
in  some  types  of  series-parallel,  or  concatenated  controllers;  or  change 
in  the  number  of  poles,  or  crude  schemes  which  require  that  power  be 
shut  off  to  change  the  motor  combustions.  The  cutting  in  and  out 
of  large  blocks  of  resistance  causes  jerking  of  the  train,  but  this  can  be 
obviated  by  connecting  more  taps  to  the  resistances  or  transformer. 
Water  rheostats  which  make  gradual  changes  in  the  resistance,  a  scheme 
used  on  Field's  locomotives  in  1883,  are  used  on  some  European  work. 

Motor-car  trains,  even  in  bad  weather  and  without  the  use  of  sand 
under  the  wheels,  have  ample  and  uniform  tractive  effort.  The  acceler- 
ation rate  may  be  high  because  so  much  of  the  weight  is  on  the  drivers. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  407 

Tractive  effort  to  overcome  train  resistance  and  inertia  is  thus 
limited  by  the  coefficient  of  adhesion  or  condition  of  the  rail,  the  uni- 
formity of  tractive  effort,  and  the  amount  and  distribution  of  weight. 
The  method  of  suspension  of  the  motors  on  the  truck  also  affects  the 
maximum  tractive  effort.  See  Eaton:  Electric  Journal,  Dec.,  1910. 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE. 

Tractive  resistance  to  motion  is  caused  by  gravity,  friction  of  the 
train,  including  bearings,  rails,  curves,  air  resistance,  and  inertia. 

GRADES. 

Grades  increase  the  tractive  effort  required  per  ton.  Each  1  per 
cent,  grade  increases  the  pull  or  lift  1  per  cent,  of  2000  pounds,  or  20 
pounds  per  ton,  and  this  is  to  be  added  to  the  frictional  resistance  and 
to  the  accelerating  resistance  per  ton. 

FRICTIONAL  RESISTANCE. 

Resistance  measurements  with  dynamometer  cars  are  faulty  because 
they  do  not  include  the  head-end  resistance  of  the  locomotive  or  of  the 
leading  motor  car.  Results  from  electric  meters  include  head-end 
friction,  mechanical  friction,  and  electric  motor  losses.  Results  derived 
from  indicator  cards  of  steam  locomotives  are  also  correct.  * 

Train  friction  equations  are  of  the  form  R  =  A+BV  +  CV2,  wherein 
R  is  the  total  resistance  to  motion,  in  pounds  per  ton;  V  the  velocity  of 
the  train,  plus  or  minus  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  in  m.  p.  h. 

A  stands  for  journal  friction,  which  increases  slightly  with  the  speed 
and  varies  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  the  pressure  on  the  journals. 
Friction  per  ton  is  much  greater  with  empty  than  with  loaded  cars;  it 
varies  greatly  with  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  lubricant,  and 
with  the  temperature.  It  includes  friction  of  motor  bearings,  brushes 
on  commutators,  friction  of  machinery,  trucks,  spring  oscillation,  etc. 

B  stands  for  rail  friction,  which  varies  with  the  diameter  of  the  wheels, 
length  of  wheel  base,  cleanliness,  dryness  and  stiffness  of  rails,  the  track 
sol'dity  or  inelasticity,  and  the  flange  friction  between  wheels  and  rails 
caused  by  concussions  and  by  side  winds.  Oscillations,  concussions,  and 
waves  in  rails  occur  on  poor  track  and  cause  extra  resistance  to  motion. 

C  stands  for  wind  or  air  resistance,  and  varies  with  the  shape  or 
contour  of  the  front  and  rear  vestibules,  sides,  surfaces,  cross-section  of 
the  locomotive  and  cars,  and  the  number  of  cars,  N,  in  the  train. 

The  numerical  values  of  the  constants,  A,  B,  and  C,  in  pounds  are : 

^4=3.0  for  70-ton  freight  cars;  6.0  for  empty  freight  cars;  4.0  for 
passenger  coaches  and  light  loaded  freight  cars;  4.0  for  45-ton,  4.5  for 
35-ton,  and  5  to  6  for  25-  to  15-ton  passenger  or  freight  cars. 

B  =  0 . 06  for  excellent  track;  0 . 1 1  for  heavy  track;  0 . 10  up  to  0 . 15  for 
ordinary  good  track.  Data  on  freight  cars  indicate  that  B=  .05. 


408 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


C  is  a  variable  quantity  which  depends  on  the  shape  of  the  front  of 
the  train,  K,  and  the  effective  cross-sectional  area  of  the  train  in  square 
feet,  divided  by  the  total  weight  of  the  train.  C  =  Kx  Area /Tons. 
The  values  of  K,  in  pounds  per  square  foot,  are: 

.0010  for  parabolic  fronts;  .0040  for  flat  fronts;  .0020  for  wedged  fronts; 
.0028  for  vestibule  cars;  .0030  for  open  platforms;  .0033  for  freight  cars; 
and  higher  values  for  open-end  coaches  and  small  electric  cars. 

Cross-sectional  areas  are  about  85  square  feet  for  a  street  car;  100 
for  an  interurban  car;  120  for  a  locomotive  or  a  coach;  120  to  140  for  a 
freight  car.  To  the  above,  10  per  cent,  of  the  cross-sectional  area  is  added 
for  each  trailing  car. 


FRICTIONAL  RESISTANCE  OF  TRAINS  IN  GENERAL. 


R 


R=  A 


3.0 
3.5 

4.0 

5.0 
6.0 


BV     + 

.05 
.10 

.llxV   + 

.12 
.15 


K 

.0020 
.0028 

.0030 

.0033 
.0040 


Area 

85 
100 


V2 
T 

V2 


120 
140 


TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE  FORMULAS  FOR  TRAINS. 


Authority.  Value  of  R — Tractive  resistance. 


servce. 


Baldwin  
Eng.  News.  .  . 
Dudley 

3.0+.166V  
2.0+.250V  
35+  150V  +  (  02  N-25)V2/T  

Steam  trains. 
General  use. 
Long  trains. 

Lundie 

40+  200V  +  48V2/T 

Elevated  railwavs. 

Blood  
Sprague 

5.  0+.  120V  +  (.0014  +.35^^  8  
40+  160  V+  333V2/T 

Motor-car  trains. 
General  use. 

Davis,  W.  J.. 

Smith,  W.  N. 
Mailloux 

4.0+.130V  +  (.0040AV2/T)  (l  +  .l  (N-l)).. 
4.0+.167V+  .0025AV2/T  
3  5+  150V+(  020  N  +  0  25)V2/T 

Electric  trains. 
Suburban  service. 
Motor-car  trains. 

Armstrong.  .  . 

5.0 

,    +  .030V+(.0020AV2/T)  (1+  .l(N-l))..  . 

Short  trains. 

Value  of  R  for  Freight  Trains,  Exclusive  of  Locomotive. 


Dennis 2.41  T+   90  N 

Onderonk 2.78  T  +  114  N  .  . 

Cole 1.07T  +  138N. 


Amer.  Ry.  Eng.  Association. 


2.22  T  +  122  N. 


Average  of  tests,  1904. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  test,  1904. 
Penn.  R.  R.  tests,  1907. 
Recommendation,  1910. 
N  =  no.  of  cars  per  train. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  409 

The  last  four  formulas  assume  that,  between  5  and  30  m.p.h.,  the 
friction  is  independent  of  the  velocity.  It  is  well  to  point  out  that  there 
is  nothing  in  data  of  tests  to  support  this  assumption.  Conclusive 
tests  show  an  increase  of  50  per  cent,  between  5  and  30  m.p.h. 

Value  of  R  for  Steam  Locomotives  recommended  by  the  American 
Railway  Engineering  Association  for  the  friction  between  the  cylinder 
and  the  rim  of  the  drivers  is  R  =  18.7  T  +  80X,  where  T  =tons  on  drivers, 
and  X  =  number  of  driving  axles. 

American  Locomotive  Company's  tests  show  that  the  mechanical 
friction  resistance  of  the  engine  without  tender  is  equal  to  the  weight  on 
drivers  in  tons  x  22 . 2  pounds. 

Values  of  Air  Resistance  Constant,  C,  in  pounds,  as  detailed  by  Goss : 

C=  .240F2  for  locomotive  =  .002F2xA,  where  A  =  120  square  feet. 

C  =  .  HOT2  for  locomotive  and  tender. 

C=  .026y2  for  last  car  of  a  freight  train. 

C=  .036y2  for  last  car  of  passenger  train. 

C=  .OlOy2  for  each  intermediate  freight  car. 

C  =  .  020y2  for  each  intermediate  passenger  car. 

FRICTIONAL  RESISTANCE  TABLES. 

The  application  of  "train  friction  constants  to  motor-car  trains  is 
shown  in  the  following  Tables  on  Tractive  Resistance.  They  have  been 
checked  repeatedly  for  ordinary  conditions,  on  a  private  right-of-way. 
The  variable  which  requires  the  most  consideration  is  B.  * 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— SINGLE-CAR  OPERATION. 

15-ton  car R  =  6.0+  .  11V+  .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1)/T) 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  6.0  +  l.l  +  .30x  100/15  =  6.0  +  1.1+   2.0=   9.1 
20  6. 0  +  2. 2+.30x  400/15  =  6.0  +  2.2+   8.0  =  16.2 

30  6.0  +  3.3+.30x  900/15  =  6.0  +  3.3  +  18.0  =  27.3 

40  6. 0  +  4. 4 +.30x1600/15  =  6. 0  +  4. 4 +  32. 0=42. 4 

50  6. 0  +  5. 5+.  30x2500/15  =  6. 0  +  5. 5 +  50. 0  =  61. 5 

60  6. 0  +  6. 6 +.30x3600/15  =  6. 0  +  6. 6 +  72. 0  =  84. 6 

20-ton  car.  .  . '. R  =  5.5+  .12V+.30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5.5  +  1.2+.30x  100/20-5.5  +  1.2+    1.5=   8.2 

20  5. 5  +  2. 4+.30x  400/20  =  5.5  +  2.4+   6.0  =  13.9 

30  5.5  +  3.6+.30x  900/20  =  5.5  +  3.6  +  13.5  =  22.6 

40  5.5  +  4.8+  .30x1600/20  =  5.5  +  4.8  +  24.0  =  34.3 

50  5. 5 +  6.0 +.30x2500/20  =  5. 5 +  6. 0  +  37. 5  =  49.0 

60  5. 5 +  7. 2 +.30x3600/20  =  5. 5 +  7. 2 +  54. 0  =  66. 7 

25-ton  car R  =  5.0+  .  13V+  .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T. 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5. 0  +  1. 3+.30x  100/25  =  5.0  +  1.3+    1.2=   7.5 
20  5. 0  +  2. 6+.30x  400/25  =  5,0  +  2.6+   4.8  =  12.4 

30  5.0  +  3.9+.30x  900/25  =  5'.0  +  3.9  +  10.8  =  19.7 

40  5 . 0  +  5 . 2  +  .  30x1600/25  =  5. 0  +  5. 2  +  19. 2  =  29. 4 

50  5. 0  +  6. 5 +.30x2500/25  =  5. 0  +  6. 5 +  30. 0  =  41. 5 


410 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


35-ton  car R  =  4.5  +  .  13V+  .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4. 5  +  1. 3+.30x  100/35=4.5  +  1.3  +   0.9=   6.7 
20  4. 5  +  2. 6+.30x  400/35  =  4.5  +  2.6+   3.4  =  10.5 

30  .  4. 5  +  3.9+. 30x  900/35  =  4.5  +  3.9+   7.7  =  16.1 

40  4.5  +  5.2+.  30x1600/35  =4.5  +  5.2  +  13.7  =  23.4 

50  4. 5 +  6.5+.  30x2500/35  =  4. 5  +  6. 5  +  21. 4  =  32. 4 

45-ton  car R  =  4.0+ .  13V+ .33xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4. 0  +  1. 3+.33x  100/45  =  4.0  +  1.3+  0.7=   6.0 


20 
30 
40 
50 


4. 0  +  2. 6+.33x  400/45=4.0  +  2.6+  3.0=  9.6 
4.0  +  3.9+.33x  900/45  =  4.0  +  3.9+  6.6  =  14.5 
4. 0  +  5. 2 +.33x1600/45  =4. 0  +  5. 2 +  12. 0  =  21. 2 
4. 0  +  6. 5 +.33x2500/45  =  4. 0  +  6. 5 +  18. 3  =  28. 8 


TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— 2-CAR  TRAIN. 

15-ton  cars R-6.0+ .  11V+ .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  6.0  +  l.l+.30x  100x1.1/30  =  6.0  +  1.1+    1.1  = 
20  6. 0  +  2. 2+.30x  400x1.1/30  =  6.0  +  2.2+   4.4  = 

30  6. 0  +  3. 3+.30x  900x1.1/30  =  6.0  +  3.3+  9.9  = 

40  6. 0  +  4. 4+. 30x1600x1. 1/30  =  6. 0  +  4. 4  +  17. 6  = 

50  6 . 0  +  5 . 5  +  .  30x2500x1 .1/30  =  6.0  +  5.5  +  27.5  = 

60  6. 0  +  6. 6 +.30x3600x1. 1/30  =  6. 0  +  6. 6 +  39. 6 


20-ton  cars 


..  .R 
h.,  R 


25-ton  cars 


R 

p.  h.,  R 


10  m. 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

10  m. 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

35-ton  cars R  = 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  = 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

45-ton  cars R 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 


=  5.5+  .12V+  .30xV2xl.l/T 
=  5.5  +  1.2+.30x  100x1.1/40  = 
5.5  +  2.4+.30x  400x1.1/40  = 
5.5  +  3.6+.30x  900x1.1/40  = 
5.5  +  4.8+.  30x1600x1 . 1  /40  = 
5. 5  +  6. 0+. 30x2500x1. 1/40  = 
5.5  +  7.2+.  30x3600x1 . 1/40  = 

5.0+  .  13V+ .30xV2xl .  1/T 
5.0  +  1.3+.30x  100x1.1/50  = 
5.0  +  2.6+  .30x.  400x1.1/50  = 
5.0  +  3.9+.30x  900x1.1/50  = 
5.0  +  5.2+  .30x1600x1.1/50  = 
5. 0  +  6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 1/50  = 
5.0  +  7.8+  .30x3600x1.1/50  = 

=  4 . 5  +  .  13  V  +  .  30xV2xl .  1/T 
=  4.5  +  1.3+.30x  100x1.1/70  = 
4.5  +  2.6+.30x  400x1.1/70  = 
4 . 5  +  3 . 9  + . 30x  900x1 . 1/70  = 
4. 5  +  5.2+. 30x1600x1. 1/70  = 
4.5  +  6.5+.  30x2500x1 . 1  /  70  = 
4.5  +  7.8+.  30x3600x1 . 1/70  = 

=  4.0+.13V+.33xV2xl.l/T 
=  4.0  +  1.3+.33x  100x1.1/90 
4.0  +  2.6+.33x  400x1.1/90  = 
4.0  +  3.9+.33x  900x1.1/90  = 
4. 0  +  5. 2 +.33x1600x1. 1/90  = 
4. 0  +  6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 1/90  = 
4. 0  +  7. 8  +.33x3600x1. 1/90  = 


=  5.5  +  1.2+  0.8 
=  5.5  +  2.4+  3.3 
'5.5  +  3.6+  7.4  = 
=  5.5+4.8  +  13.2 
5.5  +  6.0  +  20.6  = 
=  5.5  +  7.2  +  29.7  = 

5.0  +  1.3+  0.7  = 
=  5.0  +  2.6+  2.6 
5.0  +  3.9+  5.9  = 
=  5.0  +  5.2  +  10.6 
=  5.0  +  6.5  +  16.5 
=  5.0  +  7.8  +  23.7 

=  4.5  +  1.3+  0.5 
=  4.5  +  2.6+  1.9 
=  4.5  +  3.9+  4.2 
=  4.5  +  5.2+  7.5' 
=  4.5  +  6.5  +  11.8 
=  4.5  +  7.8  +  17.0 

=  4.0  +  1.3+  0.4 
=  4.0  +  2.6+  1.6 
=  4.0  +  3.9+  3.6 
=  4.0  +  5.2+  6.4 
=  4.0  +  6.5  +  10.0 
=  4.0  +  7.8  +  14.5 


:        8.2 

12.6 
19.2 

'28.0 

39.0 
52.2 

=  7.5 
=  11.2 
16.5 
23.5 
=  32.1 
42.4 

=  7.0 
=  10.2 
=  14 . 8 
=  20.8 
=  28.0 
=  36.5 

=  6.3 
=  9.0 
=  12.6 
=  17.2 
=  22.8 
=  29.3 

=  5.7 
=  8.2 
=  11.5 
=  15.6 
=  20.5 
=  26.3 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  411 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— 3-CAR  TRAIN. 

15-ton  car R  =  6.0  +  .  11V+  .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  6. 0  +  1.  l+.30x  100x1.2/45  =  6.0  +  1.1+      .8=    7.9 
20  6. 0  +  2. 2+.30x  400x1.2/45  =  6.0  +  2.2+   3.2  =  11.4 

30  6. 0  +  3. 3+.30x  900x1.2/45  =  6.0  +  3.3+   7.2  =  16.5 

40  6. 0  +  4. 4 +.30x1600x1. 2/45  =  6. 0  +  4. 4 +  12. 8  =  23. 2 

50  6. 0  +  5. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/45  =  6. 0  +  5. 5 +  20. 0  =  31. 5 

60  6. 0  +  6. 6 +.30x3600x1. 2/45  =  6. 0  +  6. 6 +  28. 8  =  41. 4 

20-ton  car R  =  5.5+  .  12V+  .30xV2xl  .2/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5. 5  +  1. 2+.30x  100x1.2/60  =  5.5  +  1.2+      .6=   7.3 

20  5. 5  +  2. 4+.30x  400x1.2/60  =  5.5  +  2.4+   2.4  =  10.3 

30  5. 5  +  3. 6+.30x  900x1.2/60  =  5.5  +  3.6+   5.4  =  14.5 

40  5. 5+4.8+. 30x1600x1. 2/60  =  5. 5+4. 8+   9.6  =  19.9 

50  5. 5 +  6.0 +.30x2500x1. 2/60  =  5. 5 +  6. 0  +  15. 0  =  26. 5 

60  5. 5  +  7.2+. 30x3600x1. 2/60  =  5. 5  +  7. 2  +  21. 6  =  34. 3 

25-ton  car R  =  5.0+ .  13V+ .30xV2xl  .2/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5. 0  +  1. 3+.30x  100x1.2/75  =  5.0  +  1.3+      .5=   6.8 

20  5. 0  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.2/75  =  5.0  +  2.6+    1.9=   9.5 

30  5.0  +  3.9+.30x  900x1.2/75  =  5.0  +  3.9+  4.3  =  13.2 

40  5. 0  +  5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 2/75  =  5. 0  +  5. 2+   7.7  =  17.9 

50  5. 0  +  6. 5 +.30x2500x1. 2/75  =  5. 0  +  6. 5 +  12. 2  =23. 7 

60  5. 0  +  7. 8+. 30x3600x1. 2/75  =  5. 0  +  7. 8  +  17. 3  =  30.1 

30-ton  car R  =  4.5+ .  13V+ .30xV2xl .2/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R=4. 5  +  1. 3+.30x  100x1.2/90=4.5  +  1.3  =      .4=   6.2 
20  4. 5  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.2/90=4.5  +  2.6+    1.6=   8.7 

30  4. 5  +  3. 9+.30x  900x1.2/90=4.5  +  3.9+   3.6  =  12.0 

40  4. 5  +  5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/90=4. 5  +  5. 2+    6.4  =  16.1 

50  4.5  +  6.5+.  30x2500x1 .2/90  =4. 5  +  6. 5  + 10. 0=21.0 

60  4. 5 +  7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 2/90=4. 5 +  7. 8  + 14. 4  =  26.  7 

35-ton  car R=4.5+  .  13V+  . 30x1  V2x. 2/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R=4. 5  +  1. 3+.30x  100x1.2/105=4.5  +  1.3+      .3=   6.1 

20  4. 5  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.2/105=4.5  +  2.6+    1.4=   8.5 

30  4. 5  +  3. 9+.30x  900x1.2/105  =  4.5  +  3.9+   3.0  =  11.4 

40  4. 5  +  5.2+. 30x1600x1. 2/105=4. 5  +  5. 2+   5.5  =  15.2 

50  4. 5  +  6.5+. 30x2500x1. 2/105  =  4. 5  +  6. 5+   8.6  =  19.6 

60  4. 5 +  7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 2/105  =4. 5 +  7. 8 +  12. 3  =  24.  6 

45-ton  car R=4.0+ .  13V+ .33xV2xl.2/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,R  =  4. 0  +  1. 3+.33x  100x1.2/135=4.0  +  1.3  +      .3=   5.6 
20  4. 0  +  2. 6+.33x  400x1.2/135=4.0  +  2.6+    1.2=    7.8 

30  4. 0  +  3. 9+.33x  900x1.2/135=4.0  +  3.9+   2.6  =  10.5 

40  4. 0  +  5. 2+. 33x1600x1. 2/135=4. 0  +  5. 2+   4.7  =  13.9 

50  4. 0  +  6. 5+. 33x2500x1. 2/135  =  4. 0  +  6. 5+   7.3  =  17.8 

60  4. 0  +  7. 8+. 33x3600x1. 2/135  =  4.0  +  7. 8  +  10. 6  =  22. 4 


412          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— 4-CAR  TRAIN. 

25-ton  cars R  =  5.0+ .  13V+ .30V2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5. 0  +  1. 3+.30x  100x1.3/100  =  5.0  +  1.3  +  0.4-   6.7 

20                           5. 0  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.3/100-5.0  +  2.6+  1.6=   9.2 

30                           5. 0  +  3. 9+.30x  900x1.3/100  =  5.0  +  3.9+  3.5  =  12.4 

40                          5. 0  +  5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 3/100  =  5. 0  +  5. 2+  6.2  =  16.4 

[50                           5.0  +  6.5+ .30x2500x1.3/100  =  5.0  +  6.5+  9.8  =  21.3 
60                           5.0  +  7.8+  .30x3600x1.3/100  =  5.0  +  7.8  +  14.0  =  26.8 


30-ton  cars 

.    R  =  4 

.5+. 
.5  +  1 

13V+.30xV2xl 
.3+  .30x  100x1 

.3/120 
.3/120  =  4 

.5  +  1 

.3  + 

0 

.3 

=   6. 

1 

10  m. 

p.  h.,         4 

20 

4 

.5  +  2 

.6  + 

.30x  400x1.3/120=4 

.5  +  2 

.6  + 

1 

.3 

=  '8. 

4 

30 

4.5  +  3 

.9  + 

.30x  900x1 

.3/120  =  4 

.5  +  3 

.9  + 

2 

.9 

=  11. 

3 

40 

4 

.5  +  5 

.2  + 

.30x1600x1 

.3/120  =  4 

.5  +  5 

.2  + 

5 

.2 

-14. 

9 

50 

4 

.5  +  6.5  + 

.  30x2500x1 

.3/120=4 

.5  +  6 

.5  + 

8 

.1 

=  19. 

1 

60 

4 

.5  +  7 

.8  + 

.  30x3600x1 

.3/120=4 

.5  +  7 

.8  +  11 

.7 

=  24. 

() 

35-ton  cars  

R  =  4 

.5+. 

13V 

+  .30xV2xl.  3/140 

10  m. 

p.  h.,          4 

.5  +  1 

.3  + 

.30x  100x1 

.3/140  =  4 

.5  +  1 

.3  + 

0 

.3 

=    6. 

1 

20 

4 

.5  +  2 

.6  + 

.30x  400x1 

.3/140  =  4 

.5  +  2 

.6  + 

1 

.1 

-   8. 

2 

30 

4 

.5  +  3 

.9  + 

.30x  900x1 

.3/140-4 

.5  +  3 

.9  + 

2 

.5 

=  10. 

9 

40 

4 

.5  +  5 

.2  + 

.30x1600x1 

.3/140  =  4 

.5  +  5 

.2  + 

4 

A 

-14. 

1 

50 
60 

4 

4 

.5  +  6 

.5  +  7 

.5  + 
.8  + 

.30x2500x1.3/140  =  4 
.  30x3600x1.  3/14fc=  4 

.5  +  6 

.5  +  7 

.5  + 
.8  + 

7 

10 

.0 

.0 

=  18. 
=  22. 

0 

3 

45-ton  cars  

R=4. 

0+.13  V+.33xV2xl 

.3/180 

10  m. 

p.  h.,          4 

.0  +  1 

.3  + 

.33x  100x1 

.3/180  =  4 

.0  +  1 

.3  + 

0 

.2 

-   5. 

5 

20 

4 

.0  +  2 

.6  + 

.33x  400x1 

.3/180  =  4 

.0  +  2 

.6  + 

1 

.0 

=   7. 

(i 

30 

4 

.0  +  3 

.9  + 

.33x  900x1 

.3/180  =  4 

.0  +  3 

.9  + 

2 

.1 

=  10. 

0 

40 

4 

.0  +  5 

.2  + 

.33x1600x1 

.3/180  =  4 

.0  +  5 

.2  + 

3 

.8 

=  13. 

0 

50 

4 

.0  +  6 

.5  + 

.  33x2500x1 

.3/180-4 

.0  +  6 

.5  + 

6 

.0 

=  16. 

5 

60 

4 

.0  +  7 

.8  + 

.33x3600x1 

.3/180  =  4 

.0  +  7 

.8  + 

8 

.6 

=  20. 

1 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— 6-CAR  TRAIN. 

25-ton  cars R-5.0+ .  13V+ .30xV2  (1+0.10  (N-1))1/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5.0  +  1.3+.30x  100x1.5/150  =  5.0  +  1.3+  0.3-   6.6 

20                           5. 0  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.5/150  =  5.0  +  2.6+  1.2=   8.8 

30                          5. 0  +  3. 9+.30x  900x1.5/150  =  5.0  +  3.9+  2.7-11.6 

40                          5. 0  +  5. 2+. 30x1600x1. 5/150.=  5. 0  +  5. 2+  4.8  =  15.0 

50                           5. 0  +  6. 5+. 30x2500x1. 5/150-5. 0  +  6. 5+  7.5  =  19.0 
60                           5. 0  +  7. 8 +.30x3600x1. 5/150  =  5. 0  +  7. 8 +  10. 8  =  23. 6 

35-ton  cars R  =  4.5+ .  13V+ .30xV2xl  .5/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4. 5  +  1. 3+.30x  100x1.5/210  =  4.5  +  1.3+  0.2=    6.0 

20                          4. 5  +  2. 6+.30x  400x1.5/210-4.5  +  2.6+  0.9=   8.0 

30                          4. 5  +  3. 9+.30x  900x1.5/210=4.5  +  3.9+  1.9  =  10.3 

40                          4.5  +  5.2+ .30x1600x1.5/210  =  4.5  +  5.2+  3.4-13.1 

50                          4. 5  +  6.5+. 30x2500x1. 5/210-4. 5  +  6. 5+  5.4  =  16.4 

60                         4. 5  +  7.8+. 30x3600x1. 5/210  =  4. 5  +  7. 8+  7.7  =  20.0 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


413 


45-ton  cars  ............  R  =4  .  0  +  .  13V  +   .  33xV2xl  .  5/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4.0  +  1.3+.33x  100x1.5/270  =  4.0  +  1.3+  .2 

20                          4.  0  +  2.  6+.33x  400x1.5/270  =  4.0  +  2.6+  .7 

30                          4.  0  +  3.  9+.33x  900x1.5/270  =  4.0  +  3.9+  1.6 

40                          4.0  +  5.2+  .33x1600x1.5/270  =  4.0  +  5.2+  2.9 

50                          4.  0  +  6.  5+.  33x2500x1.  5/270  =  4.  0  +  6.  5+  4.6 

60                          4.  0  +  7.  8+.  33x3600x1.  5/270  =  4.  0  +  7.  8+  6.6 


TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE—  8-CAR  PASSENGER  TRAIN. 


35-ton  car..  . 


.  R  =  4.5+  .  13V+  .30xV2  (1+0.1  (N- 


10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4.5  +  1.3+.30x  100x1.7/280=4.5  +  1.3+    .17 

5  +  2.6+  .71  = 
5  +  3.9  +  1.63 
5  +  5. 2  +  2. 89; 
5  +  6.5  +  4.53 


4.  5  +  2.  6+.30x  400x1.7/280  =  4. 

4.  5  +  3.  9+.30x  900x1.7/280  =  4. 

4.  5  +  5.  2  +.30x1600x1.  7/280  =4. 

4.  5  +  6.  5  +.30x2500x1.  7/280  =  4. 
45-ton  car  ..............  R  =  4.0+  .  13V+  .33xV2  (1.  +0.1  (N- 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4.0  +  1.3+.33x  100x1.7/360  =  4. 
20  4.  0  +  2.  6+.33x  400x1.7/360=4. 

30  4.0  +  3.9+.33x  900x1  .7«/360  =  4. 

40  4.  0  +  5.  2  +.33x1600x1.  7/360  =  4. 

50  4.  0  +  6.  5  +.33x2500x1.  7/360  =  4. 


0  +  1.3+  .15 
0  +  2.6+  .62 
0  +  3.9  +  1.36 
0  +  5.2  +  2.47 
0  +  6.5  +  3.89 


TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE— 12-CAR  PASSENGER  TRAIN. 

45-ton  car : R  =  4.0+  .  13V+  .33xV2  (1+0.1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4.0  +  1.3+.33x  100x2.1/540=4.0  +  1.3+    .12 
20  4. 0  +  2. 6+.33x  400x2.1/540  =  4.0  +  2.6+    .43 

30  4.0  +  3.9+.33x  900x2.1/540=4.0  +  3.9  +  1.15 

40  4.0  +  5.2+  .33x1600x2.1/540  =  4.0  +  5.2  +  2.03 

50  4.0  +  6.5+  .33x2500x2.1/540=4.0  +  6.5  +  3.19 

60  4.0  +  7.8+  .33x3600x2.1/540=4.0  +  7.8  +  4.62 


5.5 

7.3 

9.5 

12.1 

15.1 

18.4 


=  6.0 
7.8 
10.0 
12.5 
15.5 

5.4 

7.2 

9.2 

11.7 

14.4 


5.4 

7.0 

9.0 

11.2 

13.7 

16.4 


10 


10  20  30  40  50. 

Miles  per  Hour 

FIG.  167. — TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE  CURVES. 
One  to  ten  electric  motor-car  passenger  trains. 


414 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


50 


60 


10  20  30  40 

Miles  per  Hour 

FIG.  168. — TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE  CURVES. 

One  to  eight  electric  motor-car  passenger  trains,  also  20  to  50-car  electric  locomotive  hauled  freight 

trains. 


New  York  Central  trains  on  the  " Twentieth  Century  Limited"  with 
63-ton  Pullman  coaches  and  Pacific  type  steam  locomotives  (see  page  66) 
show  that  the  tractive  resistance  on  level  tangents  is  as  follows: 


Speed, 
m.  p.  h. 

Cars  in 
train. 

Wt.  of 
cars,  tons. 

Wt.    of 
loco.,  tons. 

Friction  per 
ton,  cars. 

Friction  per 
ton,  loco. 

Friction  per 
ton,  total. 

70 

5 

315 

200 

11.5 

22.7 

15.9 

62 

o 

505 

200 

9.8 

20.3 

12.9 

60 

g 

564 

200                    9.5 

19.7 

12.2 

TRACTIVE  RESISTANCE  OF  FREIGHT  CARS  IN  TRAINS. 

10  cars.     300- ton  load.     R  =  5.0  +  .06V  +  .33xV2  (1  +0. 1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5.0  +  0.6+.33x  100x1.9/300  =  5.0  +  0.6  +  0.2=   5.8 
20  5. 0  +  1. 2+.33x  400x1.9/300  =  5.0  +  1.2  +  0.8=   7.0 

30  5. 0  +  1. 8+.33x  900x1.9/300  =  5.0  +  1.8  +  1.9=   8.7 

40  5. 0  +  2. 4+. 33x1600x1. 9/300  =  5. 0  +  2. 4  +  3. 3  =  10. 7 

20  cars.     600-ton  load.     R  =  5.0+  .06V+  .33xV2  (1  +0. 1  (N-1))/T 

10m.  p.  h.,  R  =  5.0  +  0.6+.33x  100x2.9/600  =  5.0  +  0.6  +  0.1=   5.7 


20 
30 
40 


5.0  +  1.2+.33x  400x2.9/600  =  5.0  +  1.2  +  0.6=  6.8 
5.0  +  1.8+.33x  900x2.9/600  =  5.0  +  1.8  +  1.4=  8.2 
5. 0  +  2. 4+. 33x1600x2. 9/600  =  5. 0  +  2. 4  +  2. 5=  9.9 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


415 


30  cars.     1200-ton  load.  R=4.0+  .06V+  .33xV2  (1  +0. 1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  4.0  +  0.6+  .33x  100x3.9/1200=4.0  +  0.6  +  0.1=  4.7 

20  4. 0  +  1. 2+.33x  400x3.9/1200=4.0  +  1.2  +  0.4=  5.6 

30  4. 0  +  1. 8+.33x  900x3.9/1200=4.0  +  1.8  +  0.9=  6.7 

40  4. 0  +  2. 4+. 33x1600x3. 9/1200=4. 0  +  2. 4  +  1. 7=  8.1 

50  cars.     2000-ton  load.  R  =  4  .0+  .06V+  .33xV2  (1  +0. 1  (N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R=4.0  +  0.6  +  .33x  100x5.9/2000=4.0  +  0.6  +  0.1=  4.7 

20  4. 0  +  1. 2+.33x  400x5.9/2000  =  4.0  +  1.2  +  0.4=  5.6 

30  4. 0  +  1. 8+.33x  900x5.9/2000  =  4.0  +  1.8  +  0.9=  6.7 

40  4. 0  +  2. 4+. 33x1600x5. 9/2000=4. 0  +  2. 4  +  1. 6=  8.0 

40  cars.     2000-ton  load.  R  =  3.5+ .06V+ .33xV2  (1 +0. 1(N-1))/T 

10  m.  p.  h.,  R  =  3.5  +  0.6+.33x  100x4.9/2000  =  3.5  +  0.6  +  0.1=  4.2 

20  3. 5  +  1. 2+.33x  400x4.9/2000  =  3.5  +  1.2+0.3=  5.0 

30  3. 5  +  1. 8+.33x  900x4.9/2000  =  3.5  +  1.8  +  0.7=  6.0 

40  3. 5  +  2.4+. 33x1600x4. 9/2000=3. 5  +  2. 4  +  1. 3=  7.2 


Tractive  resistance  in  pounds  for  the  electric  or  steam  locomotive  is 
to  be  added,  viz.:  22.2  X  tons  on  drivers  for  locomotive  friction;  and 
0.24V2  for  locomotive  head  air  resistance.  Count  the  tender,  if  a  steam 
locomotive  is  used,  as  one  car. 

See  data  from  N.  Y.  N.  H.  &  H.  electric  locomotive  tests,  page  429. 

Winter  weather  will  often  cause  an  increase  of  60  per  cent.,  over  the 
resistance  given  above,  which  is  for  ordinary  summer  weather  on  ordi- 
nary good  track. 

CURVES. 

Curve  resistance  has  been  found  to  vary  from  0 . 56  to  0 . 70,  but  to 
average  0 . 60  pounds,  per  ton  per  degree  of  curvature.  Steam  railroads 
use  the  rule,  0 . 7  pounds  per  ton  for  the  train  and  1 . 6  pounds  per  ton 
for  the  engine,  per  degree  of  curvature.  The  number  of  degrees  equals 
5730  divided  by  the  radius  of  the  curve  in  feet. 

Reverse  curves  are  frequent  in  rough  country.  Where  grades  are 
equated  for  curvature,  it  is  sufficient  to  use  the  resistance  due  to  the 
grade.  When  the  train  is  of  great  length  engines  are  sometimes  stalled 
on  level  track  by  the  reverse  curves  alone. 

INERTIA. 

Inertia  requires  the  application  of  force  to  produce  motion,  and 
generally  the  force  required  is  many  times  greater  than  that  to  simply 
overcome  friction.  The  tractive  effort  required  to  overcome  inertia 
depends  upon  the  rate  of  change  of  speed,  or  the  acceleration,  which  is 
to  be  produced. 

The  unit  of  acceleration  is  the  change  in  speed  per  mile  per  hour  per 
second.  One  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  =  1 . 466  feet  per  second  per  second. 


416 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


ACCELERATION  RATES  COMMONLY  USED  FOR  TRAINS. 


Steam  locomotive, 
Steam  locomotive, 
Steam  locomotive, 
Electric  locomotives, 
Electric  locomotives, 
Electric  locomotives, 
Electric  motor  cars, 
Electric  motor  cars, 
Electric  motor  cars, 
Electric  motor  cars, 
Maximum  rate  used, 


long  and  way  freight 

common  passenger  trains 

transcontinental  passenger  trains, 

common  freight  service 

thru  passenger  trains 

local  passenger  trains 

interurban  service 

city  cars 

rapid  transit  trains 

highest  rates 

coefficient  of  friction  x  32.2 


.1  to 

.2  to 

.1  to 

.1  to 

.2  to 
,  .4  to 

.  8  to  1 . 3 
1 . 3  to  1 . 6 
1 . 3  to  1 . 8 
2 . 0  to  2 . 5 
6.0  to  8.0 


ACCELERATING  RATES  OF  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  TRAINS. 


Initial              Rate  to 
Name  of  electric  railroad.                        rate              half-speed 
m.p.h.p.s.     !     m.p.h.p.s. 

Cars 
per 
train. 

Tons 
per 
train. 

H.  p. 

per 
train. 

H.  p. 

per 
ton. 

Boston  Elevated                        :          1  .  24                   1  .  00 

6 

210 

2100 

10.00 

Boston  &  Worcester  1  .  57                   1  .  50 

1 

25 

200 

8.00 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford: 

Freight  locomotive  .17                      .17 

39 

1640 

1260 

0.91 

Freight  locomotive  [            .40                      .40 

12 

940 

1260 

1.34 

Passenger  locomotive  .45                      .40 

7 

402 

960 

2.35 

Passenger  locomotive  j            .50                      .45 

6 

352 

960 

2.67 

Passenger  locomotive  \            .60                      .55 

4 

302 

960 

3.11 

Motor  car  1  .  30                   1  .  20 

5 

324 

1200 

3.70 

New  York  Central: 

Passenger  locomotive  .20                      .20 

18 

700 

2200 

3.14 

Passenger  locomotive  .40                      .40 

13 

550 

2200 

4.00 

Passenger  locomotive  .60                      .55 

9 

378 

2200 

5.82 

Passenger  locomotiv  .90                      .85 

6 

278 

2200 

7.90 

Passenger  locomotive  1  .  20                   1.10 

3 

194 

2200 

11.34 

Motorcars  .  1.30                   1.25 

8 

493 

2000 

4.06 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  1  .  75                   1  .  60 

6 

178 

1600 

9.00 

Manhattan  Elevated                                                     1  33                   1  30 

6 

154 

1000 

6.50 

Interboro  Subway,  1908  !          1.30                   1.10 

8 

361 

2400 

6.67 

Interboro  Subway,   1911  1.40                   1.20 

10 

360 

3260 

9.33 

Long  Island-Pennsylvania.  1  .  40                   1  .  40 

6 

321 

2580 

8.04 

Long  Island-  Brooklyn                                                  1  30                   1  30 

6 

222 

1600 

7.21 

West  Shore  R.   R  1          1.00                   1.00 

2 

80 

600 

7.50 

Erie  R.R.,  motor  car  

4 

152 

800 

5.2 

Metropolitan  Elevated,  Chicago  1.41                   1  .06 

6 

164 

South  Side  Elevated,  Chicago  1  .  35                   1.19 

5 

540 

Northwestern  Elevated,  Chicago  !            .84           

6 

1280 

Central  London  j          1  .  00                   1  .  00 

7 

136 

500 

3.7 

Great  Western  I          1.55           

6 

194 

640 

3.3 

North-Eastern,  England  .75                      .75 

9 

270 

3000 

11.1 

London,  Brighton  &  S.  C  3  .  00           

3 

145 

820 

6.4 

3.00                   2.50 

4 

190 

1200 

6.4 

Liverpool  &   Southport  \ 
(_            l  .Uo                      .00 

2 
5 

110 
179 

1200 
1200 

10.9 
6.7 

Midland  Ry.,  England  1  .  40                   1.19 

3 

87 

360 

8.0 

(Dalziel  &  Sayer's  data)  /            J  '^                   J  'J* 

3 
3 

83 
83 

300 
300 

7.3 
7.0 

Giovi  Ry.,  Italy;  2.7%  grade  .14                      .14 

18 

446 

1980 

4.4 

Great  Northern,  Cascade  T.;  1.7%   grade.              .12                      .12 

15 

733 

1700 

2.3 

POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


417 


The  acceleration  rate  is  governed  by  the  h.  p.  capacity  per  ton,  as 
well  as  by  the  speed-time  service  requirements.     Tons  of  2000  pounds. 

ACCELERATION  RATES  OF  ENGLISH  RAILWAYS. 


Name 

of  electric  railway. 

Specific 
acceleration 
m.  p.  h.  p.  s. 

1 

Distance 
between 
stops,    ft. 

Time 
of 
stop. 

Scttedule 
speed 
m.  p.  h. 

Running 
speed 
m.  p.  h. 

1 
Liverpool  Overhead.             i 

1 

79 

2145 

I 
H 

19 

5 

22 

q 

Liverpool  &  Southport  
London  Electric       

1 
1 

.25 

06 

6535 
2555 

15 
20 

30 
15 

0 

7 

33 
19 

4 

9 

Central  London                      | 

0 

90 

2540 

20 

14 

7 

17 

7 

North-Eastern  
Midland-Morcambe    .     ...  I 

0 
0 

.71 
.35 

6000 
23500 

30 
120 

20 
26 

5 

7 

24 
33 

1 
4 

London,   Brighton  &  S.  C  . 

1 

.00 

4300 

20 

22 

0 

DECELERATION  RATES. 

Braking  commonly  used  for  electric  trains 1.6    to  2.00 

Westinghouse  magnetic  brakes,  Electric  Railway  Test  Com- 
mission   2.57 

Maximums,  Electric  Railway  Test  Commission 4.00  to  5.00 

Boston  and  Worcester  interurban 2.1     to  2 . 77 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  (Elevated  Division) 1 . 50 

Manhattan  Elevated  R.  R 1 . 75  to  1 . 85 

Ordinary  steam  railroad  passenger  train 1 . 25  to  1 . 60 

Ordinary  steam  railroad  freight  train 70  to     .80 

KINEMATICS  OF  ACCELERATION. 

Elementary  kinematics  governing  acceleration: 
Pull,  or  pressure,  or  force 
Mass  =  M 
Distance  or  space 
Time 

Energy  =  FXs,  in  foot-pounds. 
F  =  rate  of  acceleration  X  mass. 

F  =  aX  weight  in  pounds/32.2  in  feet  per  second  per  pound. 
F  -a  X5280/3600  X  W  X  2000/32.2,  in  miles  per  hour  per  second  per  ton. 
F=a  X91.1  X  No.  of  tons,  in  miles  per  hour  per  second  per  ton. 
F  =  aXlOOX  tons,  allowing  10  per  cent,  for  energy  of  rotation. 

This  means  that  in  order  to  accelerate  a  train  at  the  rate  of  1  mile  per 
hour  per  second,  a  force  of  100  pounds  per  ton  is  required. 
Velocity  in  feet  per  second  v  =  s/t 

and  v  =  rate  of  acceleration  X  time. 

Energy  of  rotation  =  (l/2)MXv2  = 
27 


=  F,  in  pounds. 
= weight/32.2 

=  s,  in  feet. 

=  t,  in  seconds. 

Power  =  FXs/550,  in  h.  p. 


418  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

F  =  (l/2)W/32.2Xv2/s,  in  feet  per  second  per  second. 

F  =  69V2/s,  where  V  is  in  miles  per  hour  per  ton,  and  s  is  the  distance  in 

feet  within  which  acceleration  or  deceleration  takes  place. 

F  =  76V2/s,  allowing  about  10  per  cent.  (6  to  16)  for  energy  of  rotation.1 

This  means  that  an  accelerating  or  decelerating  force  must  be  76  pounds 
per  ton,  times  the  square  of  the  velocity  in  miles  per  hour,  divided  by  the 
distance  in  feet. 

Distance  in  feet,  s  =  velocity   X  time;  and  v  =  (ave.)aXt. 

Distance  in  feet  is  s  =  (l/2)a  Xt2,  in  feet  per  second  and  seconds. 

Example. — A  1200-ton  freight  train  is  started  by  employing  an  ac- 
celerating force  of  18,000  pounds,  or  15  pounds  per  ton,  in  addition  to 
the  force  required  to  overcome  friction. 

The  rate  of  acceleration  is  then  0. 15  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.;  for  to  accelerate  a 
train  at  the  rate  of  1  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  requires  100  pounds  per  ton. 

The  speed  in  m.  p.  h.  is  a  Xt.  The  speed,  at  the  end  of  a  uniform 
acceleration  period,  for  example  84  seconds,  is  0. 15X84  or  12.6  m.  p.  h. 

One  m.p.h.p.s.  equals  1.466  feet  per  second.  Distance  run  is 
(1/2)  XaXt2  =  (l/2)x0.15xl.466X842  =  775  feet. 

A  300-ton  passenger  train  is  started  by  using  an  acceleration  force  of 
12,000  pounds,  which  is  40  pounds  per  ton;  or  the  rate  of  acceleration 
used  is  0.4  m.p.h.p.s.  The  speed  in  m.  p.  h.  at  the  end  of  60  seconds  is 
0.4  X  60,  or  24m.  p.  h.;  and  the  distance  run  is  (1/2)  X0.4X  1 .466X602, 
or  1056  feet. 

The  same  300-ton  passenger  train  in  common  rapid  transit  service 
would  be  accelerated  at  four  times  the  above  rate,  or  at  1 . 6  m.  p.  h.  p.  s. 
If  maintained  30  seconds,  the  speed  would  be  1.6x30,  or  48  m.  p.  h. 
The  distance  covered  in  30  seconds  is  (1  /  2)  X  1 . 60  X 1 . 466  X302,  or  1056  ft. 

ENERGY  FOR  FREQUENT  STOPS. 

When  the  service  requires  frequent  stops,  the  subject  of  energy  and 
power  becomes  an  important  matter. 

The  kinetic  energy  in  foot-pounds  which  is  required  to  start  or  stop  a 
train  is  (l/2)Mv2,  where  M  is  the  mass  (pounds  divided  by  32.2)  and 
v  is  the  speed  in  feet  per  second. 

Example. — A  55-ton  car  running  at  60  m.p.h.  The  kinetic  energy  is 
(1/2)X55X2000/32.2X(1.466X60)2,  or  13,000,000  foot-pounds;  or 
13,000,000/  (550X60X60)  =6. 50  h.p.  for  1  hour.  Assuming  that  the 
efficiency  of  the  motor  and  of  the  control  plan  during  the  time  when  the 
train  is  accelerating  from  zero  to  full  speed  is  55  per  cent.,  then  the 
kw.-hr.  to  the  motors  are  746 X 6. 5/. 55,  or  8.8,  which  might  amount 
to  10  kw.-hr.  at  the  electric  power  station.  The  train  can  attain  full 
speed  in  about  1  minute  and  thus  the  average  power  expended  for 

1  Storer:   Inertia  of  Rotating  Parts  of  a  Train,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1902. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  419 

acceleration  alone,  during  each  start,  is  10  kw.-hr.  divided  by  1/60 
hour,  or. 600  kilowatts.  The  cost  of  energy  at  the  rate  of  2  cents  per 
kw.-hr.  is  20  cents,  a  relatively  large  sum  to  be  paid  per  car  per  stop. 

The  example  is  a  fair  one  and  shows  up  the  mechanical  and  the 
financial  side  of  train  service  which  requires  frequent  stops  per  mile. 
Frequent-stop,  high-speed  service  is  expensive. 

The  energy  required  for  common  interurban  train  service  varies 
widely.  For  example,  it  was  found  that  the  average  energy  delivered 
from  the  central  station  to  supply  the  motors  on  a  28-ton  electric  car 
which  made  long  runs  with  very  few  stops  between  two  cities  was  2.30 
kw.-hr.  per  car-mile,  while  the  average  energy  with  10  stops  per  mile  for 
service  within  the  city  limits  was  4.75  kw.-hr.  per  car-mile. 

Efficiency  of  motors  during  the  accelerating  period  is  low,  from  50 
to  70  per  cent.  These  losses  are  not  of  relative  importance  when  the 
number  of  stops  does  not  exceed  one  per  mile. 

Operating  expenses  are  increased  by  stops.  For  example  the  total 
operating  cost  as  determined  for  a  common  railroad  is  55  cents  per 
average  passenger  train-mile,  and  the  cost  of  each  extra  stop  is  80  cents. 

Frequent  stop  service  thus  increases  the  amount  of  energy,  total  cost 
of  energy,  running  time,  and  cost  of  truck,  car,  and  motor  maintenance. 

The  energy  required  for  the  propulsion  of  rapid  transit  trains  having 
a  fixed  schedule  speed  is  least  when  the  trains  are  started  and  stopped 
at  the  maximum  rate  of  acceleration  and  deceleration.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  that  trains  which  are  to  make  numerous  stops  per  mile  be 
properly  equipped.  High  rates  of  acceleration  require  that  the  motive 
power  be  placed  at  intervals  thruout  the  train;  it  must  not  be  concen- 
trated on  a  few  drivers,  or  on  one  or  more  locomotives. 

Tables  have  been  distributed  by  manufacturers  of  electric  railway 
motors  showing  the  average  kilowatt  input  to  trains  of  varying  weight 
and  composition,  schedule  speed,  maximum  speed,  and  stops  per  mile, 
with  different  motor  gear  ratios.  These  tables  facilitate  determinations 
of  motor  capacities.  Such  a  table  is  given  below. 

AVERAGE  KILOWATT  INPUT  WITH  VARYING   STOPS   FEE  MILE. 

Single-car  Operation. 


Stops  per  mile.     1/8   1/4   1/2    1 


20-ton  car 51  36  29  26  24  <  23  22  22 

30-ton  car 96  69  51  40  36  33  32  31  31 

40-ton  car 176   119  85  63  51  45  43  41  40  40 

50-ton  car 195   130  94  73  61  55  52  50  49  49 

60-ton  car..          200   140  106  82  70  64  62  60  59  !  58 


420          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Two-car  Trains. 


2-20-ton  cars  .  . 

78 

60 

50 

45 

43 

41 

40 

40 

2-30-ton 

137 

104 

80 

69 

64 

62 

60 

59 

58 

2-40-ton  
2-50-ton  
2-60-  ton 

228 
255 

282 

160 
183 
202 

124 

147 
165 

103 
125 
144 

89 
111 
127 

82 
103 
117 

79 
99 
115 

77 
97 
113 

76 
95 
111 

75 
94 
110 

Three-car  Trains. 


3-20-ton  cars  . 

102 

76 

67 

63 

61 

60 

59 

58 

3-30-ton 

173 

135 

112 

97 

90 

88 

86 

84 

83 

3-40-ton  
3-50-ton  
3-60-ton  

280 
300 
342 

200 
236 
263 

164 
198 
219 

140 
172 
191 

127 
155 
175 

117 
145 

167 

115 
142 
163 

113 
139 
160 

111 
137 
158 

110 
136 
157 

Five-car  Trains. 


5—  20-ton  cars 

144 

124 

110 

102 

98 

97 

95 

94 

5-30-ton  
5-40-ton 

370 

238 
292 

196 
246 

171 
216 

154 
197 

145 

188 

142 
183 

139 
180 

137 

178 

136 
176 

5-50-ton  

438 

350 

302 

270 

250 

236 

228 

225 

222 

220 

5-60-  ton  

497 

400 

352 

314 

290 

280 

275 

271 

266 

263 

POWER  FOR  AUXILIARIES. 

Lighting  and  ventilation  of  cars  generally  require  1  kilowatt  per 
passenger  car.  Swiss  Federal  Railway  allows  2  candle  power  per  seat. 
Shops  and  passenger  stations  require  1  kilowatt  per  100  square  feet. 

Brakes  are  seldom  electrically  operated. 

Signals  require-  about  1  per  cent,  of  the  total  power  used  for  trains. 

Heating  by  electricity  is  decidedly  expensive  compared  with  heat- 
ing by  coalr  :  Electric  heat  is  used  for  rapid  transit  service  to  obtain 
cleanliness,  space,  and  minimum  care;  or  when  the  cost  of  electric  power 
is  low.  Electric  heating  during  3  months'  of  the  year  in  the  northern 
states  requires  about  400  watts  per  ton,  or  12  kilowatts  for  a  30-ton 
car.  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad  uses  63  watt-hours  per  ton-mile, 
measured  at  substations,  for  summer  service,  and  100  for  winter  service, 
the  difference  being  used  largely  for  heating  the  cars  in  winter.  Swiss 
Federal  Railway  allows  156  watts  as  a  rraximum  per  seat. 

LOSSES  AT  MOTORS. 

To  the  mechanical  power  required,  the  losses  at  motors,  the  friction, 
magnetic,  commutator,  contact,  control  and  heating  losses,  are  added. 
Motor  and  gear  friction  on  motor  cars  is  equivalent  to  about  50 
pounds  tractive  effort  per  motor. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


421 


LOSSES  BEYOND  MOTORS. 

These  are  the  losses  in  transmission  and  contact  lines,  transformers, 
and  substations  where  used. 

Efficiency  of  transmission,  from  the  power  station  output  to  the 
rotary  converter  substation  output,  is  70  to  85  per  cent.,  varying  in- 
versely with  the  output.  Third-rail  and  track-return  losses  reduce  the 


f>n 

,-K                                   ^""^ 

~"           ^— 

>.H.30 

S~~*  —  5 

y                   .^""X-^  -* 

10 

—  30 

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/^St-Paul 

\—  **^ 

\_-iyLiuD6ftpt 

0   •     •     •    •   5 

•    -    -     •    10  •     • 

•    15 

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dinutes  • 

25  • 

.     .     .  30   .     . 

*  35 

FIG.  169. — TYPICAL  CURVE  ON  RELATION  OF  SPEED  TO  TIME. 

Great  Northern  Railway  eight-car  passenger  train  number  1,  The  Oriental  Limited.     Curve  by 

Schalter  speed  recorder. 

above  efficiency  5  to  20  per  cent.,  depending  upon  the  distance  and  loads, 
making  the  total  efficiency  50  to  65  per  cent.  •  When  high-voltage  con- 
tact lines  are  used,  and  substations  are  omitted,  the  efficiency  varies 
from  65  to  85  per  cent. 


1000  50 


«Sss 

<^8S 

ass 


.^o? 

ils 

S8S- 


TYPICAL  CURVES  SHOWING  RHEOSTAT  LOSSES 
I         6  CAR  TRAIN  4  MOTOR  CARS-1 45  TONS 
~±T       AVG.BRAKING  RATE  1.75  MILES  PER  HR.PER  SEC. 
STATION  STOP  14-SEC. 


0      10     30      30     40      50      60     70 

Seconds 

Fia.   170. — POWER,  SPEED,  AND  TIME  CURVES  OBTAINED  BY  PUTNAM  ON  THE  MANHATTAN  ELEVATED 

RAILWAY. 

POWER  CURVES. 

To  illustrate  the  change  of  speed  or  tractive  effort  with  reference 
to  time  or  to  distance,  power  curves  are  used.  See  Fig.  169.  Illustrative 
curves,  in  simplest  form,  from  Putnam's  paper  on  "Power  Economy  on 
Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad,"  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1910,  are  also  shown. 


422 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


WATT-HOURS  PER  TON-MILE. 

The  energy  which  is  required  for  trains  is  generally  expressed  in 
watt-hours  per  ton-mile.  The  energy  required  is  proportional  to;  and 
dependent  on,  the  tractive  effort  required  per  ton  to  overcome  friction, 
inertia,  and  grades.  The  energy  required  per  ton-mile  does  not  depend 
on  the  speed.  It  is  not  a  function  of  the  speed  but  of  the  resistance. 
High  speed,  however,  increases  the  friction  or  tractive  effort. 

The  average  numerical  value  of  the  tractive  resistance,  or  the  values 
of  the  train  resistance  for  different  speeds  and  combinations  of  cars  in 
the  train,  were  given  in  the  tables  on  tractive  resistance.  The  tables 
are  for  trains  on  a  level  tangent  at  uniform  motion.  The  added  re- 
sistance for  the  grades,  track  curves,  and  rate  of  acceleration,  is  readily 


1600 


1300 


800 


400 


TYPE  OF  TRAIN:  e  CARS  (4  MO-OP  CARS  &  2  TRAILER  CARS) 

MOTORS  PER  TRAIN=  8(2    MOTOKS  PER  MOTOR  CAR) 

WEIGHT  OF  TRAIN  LOADED  =    308,000  LB.  =154  TONS 

TOTAL  WEIGHT  ON  DRIVERS  =  137,000    u    =  68.  8  TONS  =  'M-  6  $ 

TRACTIVE  COEFFICIENT  =  15  % 

RATE  OF  ACCELERATION        =  1.33  MILES  PER  HR.PER  SEC. 


RATE  OF  BRAKING 
TRAIN  RESISTANCE 
TRACK  ASSUMED  LEVEL 
E.  M.  F.  OF  LINE 


=  2  MILES  PER  HR.  PER  SEC. 

=  13  LB.  PER  TON  OF  TRAIN  WEIGHT 

=  1775  FEET  LONG 

=  550  VOLTS 


-1775  Ft.&  64.5  Sec: 


FIG.  171. — POWER,  SPEED  AND  TIME  CURVES. 
Man  batten  Elevated  Railway.     Putnam. 


HSec.Stop>| 


computed  from  the  data  given.  The  energy  required  to  accelerate  the 
train  from  rest  to  full  speed  can  be  obtained  by  computing  the  value 
of  1/2  Mv2  in  foot-pounds  and  in  kilowatt-hourrs,  as  illustrated. 

The  average  tractive  effort  required  to  overcome  inertia,  or  to  acceler- 
ate the  train,  is  most  easily  determined  by  diagrams  made  to  show  the 
tractive  force  required  during  the  acceleration  period.  This  is  governed 
partly  by  the  motor  characteristics,  and  also  by  changes  in  motors 
by  series-paralleling,  concatenation,  pole  change,  voltage  variation,  field 
variation,  etc.  The  average  tractive  force  during  a  given  period  or  cycle, 
including  the  time  for  the  train  stop,  can  be  determined  mathematically 
or  by  diagrams.  HOBART:  "Heavy  Electrical  Engineering/'  Chapter  X. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  423 

WATT-HOURS  PER  TON-MILE. 

Rule. —  The  watt-hours  per  ton-mile  are  found  by  multiplying  the  tractive 
resistance,  in  pounds  per  ton,  by  2.  (approx.)     Proof: 

H.p.    =  tractive  effort  in  total  pounds,  R,  X  speed  in  m.p.h.  /375. 
H. p. -hours     per    ton-mile   =R  X  m.p.h.  X  hours  /(375  X  tons   X 

miles) . 
Watt-hours    per    ton-mile    =R  X  m.p.h.  X  hours    X    746  /(375    X 

tons  X  miles). 
=  R  X  746  /(375  X  tons)  =R  per  ton  X  2. 

The  rule  is  useful  for  rapid  work  and  quick  conceptions  of  problems. 
It  applies  to  grades,  curves,  and  acceleration,  and  for  level  tangents. 
Power  losses  in  motors,  controllers,  and  transmission  line,  are  not  included. 
Example  in  power  and  energy. — Assume  the  average  tractive  resist- 
ance due  to  friction,  grades,  etc.,  as  15  Ib.  per  ton;  a  600-ton  train;  a  108- 
mile,  4-hour  trip  at  27  m.p.h. ;  motor  and  control  efficiency  of  80  per  cent. 
Mechanical  h.  p.  output  averages  600X15X27/375,  or  648 

Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  average  2X15,  or  30 

Kilowatt  hours  of  work  total  .030  X  600  X  108,  or  1944 

Energy:  Kilowatt  hours  to  the  motors,  total  1944/.80,  or      2430 
Power:  Kilowatts  to  the  motors,  average  2430/4,  or  607.5 

The  motors  must  be  designed  with  such  continuous  capacity  that  the 
root-mean-square  of  the  electric  power  input  will  not  exceed  607.5  kv.-a. 
Example. — Ascent  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  by  G.  X.  Ry.  eastbound 
trains  is  on  a  2.2  per  cent,  grade  for  25  miles.  The  tractive  effort  per 
ton  for  the  grade  is  44  pounds,  the  friction  at  usual  speed  is  6  pounds, 
and  the  total  is  thus  50  pounds  per  ton.  The  work  or  energy  required 
at  the  wheel  rim  is  then  100  watt-hours  per  ton  per  mile,  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  speed.  The  25-mile  run  with  a  1600-ton  train  requires 
.100X1600X25,  or  4000  kw.  hr.  If  the  average  speed  is  12.5  m.p.h.  for 
a  2-hour  run,  then  the  average  power  required  at  the  drivers  is  2000 
kilowatts.  The  efficiency  of  motor,  transformers,  and  lines  is  about  69 
per  cent.  The  power  from  the  water  power  plant  is  2900  kilowatts  or 
4000  mechanical  horse-power. 

Three  1700-h.  p.  electric  locomotives  are  now  used  to  haul  each  2000- 
ton  freight  train  up  the  1.7  per  cent,  tunnel  grades. 

Watt -hours  per  ton -mile  required  for  moving  trains  equal  twice  the 
tractive  resistance  in  pounds  per  ton.     An  average  tractive  resistance 
for  many  trains  approximates  10.5.     This  is   about  the  resistance  per 
ton  for  10-  to  40-car  freight  trains  at  30  to  40  m.p.h. 
Three-car  passenger  trains,  135  tons,  at  30  m.p.h. 
Four-car  passenger  trains,  140  tons,  at  30  m.p.h. 
Eight-car  passenger  trains,  360  tons,  at  35  m.p.h. 


424          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

The  watt-hours  per  ton-mile  at  70  per  cent,  efficiency  for  motors  and 
line  are  thus  (10.5X2)/.70  or  30. 

Grades  compensate  themselves,  and  do  not  materially  increase  the 
energy  required,  so  long  as  the  brakes  are  not  applied  too  much  of  the 
time.  The  power  required  varies  with  the  grade. 

Acceleration  of  trains  increases  the  average  watt-hours  per  ton-mile, 
since  the  energy  required  in  starting  is  higher  than  in  running,  even  with 
the  offset  due  to  the  absence  of  energy  while  coasting,  braking,  and  stop- 
ping. For  example,  the  average  energy  is  estimated  in  the  following  table. 

Length  of  the  train  run  in  miles 20     15     10       5       4       3       2       1 

Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  at  station 30     31     33     38     40     45     52     70 

The  data  are  good  for  the  wide  range  of  speed  noted  above. 

REGENERATION  OF  ENERGY. 

Regeneration  of  energy  may  be  effected  by  mechanical  and  by  electric 
methods,  as  will  now  be  explained  briefly. 

Compensation  for  inertia  and  frictional  resistance  is  often  effected 
mechanically,  particularly  in  rapid  transit  service,  by  elevating  the  track 
at  stations  where  local  stops  are  made  regularly,  in  order  to  store  and  to 
utilize  potential  energy.  Compensation  is  not  so  practical  where  the 
express  trains  do  not  stop  at  the  majority  of  the  stations,  because  smooth 
riding  may  be  prevented,  if  the  elevation  of  the  track  is  appreciable. 

Central  London  Railway  uses  1.66  per  cent,  up-grade  approach  to 
stations  to  retard  the  train  and  to  store  energy,  and  uses  a  3.30  per  cent, 
down-grade,  half  as  long,  to  assist  in  accelerating  the  train  in  leaving  the 
station.  The  pulLdue  to  the  down-grade  is  66  pounds  per  ton,  which, 
deducting  friction,  allows  a  high  ratio  of  acceleration  with  a  small 
amount  of  electrical  energy. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  takes  advantage  of  such  compensation 
at  a  few  stations,  where  changes  of  grade  are  necessary  for  other  reasons. 

In  rapid  transit  service  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  entire  energy  is 
consumed  in  braking,  and  theoretically  this  can  be  saved  by  regeneration. 

Regeneration  by  electric  motors  saves  energy  which  would  otherwise 
be  lost  in  the  friction  of  brake  shoes  on  wheel  tires.  Regeneration  in- 
volves the  generation  of  electrical  energy  by  the  driving  motors,  the 
return  of  this  energy  to  the  line,  and  to  other  locomotives,  or  to  the  power 
station.  The  amount  saved  depends  upon  the  steepness  and  length  of 
the  grades,  and  may  vary  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  energy  to 
the  motor.  The  efficiency  of  regeneration  varies  from  60  to  75  per  cent, 
and  increases  with  the  number  of  trains. 

Trains  running  down  grade  regenerate  energy  to  haul  trains  up  the 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  425 

grade  on  the  other  side  of  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  thus  saving  in 
line  loss  when  concentrated  loads  are  hauled.  With  a  double  track,  a 
train  can  advantageously  start  down  the  grade  when  another  train  starts 
up  the  grade;  or  with  regeneration  on  a  single-track  road,  trains  can  meet 
advantageously  in  the  middle  of  a  long  grade. 

The  energy  available  in  stopping  a  train  varies  as  the  square  of  the 
speed  at  the  time  when  brakes  or  regeneration  is  applied.  The  energy  is 
(1/2)  MV2  in  foot-pounds.  For  example,  a  1000-ton  train  at  30  m.  p.  h. 
or  a  250-ton  train  at  60  m.  p.  h.,  have  equal  amounts  of  stored  energy. 
The  foot-pounds  in  the  later  case  are  (1/2)  X250X2000X88X88/32.2, 
or  60,000,000.  If  such  a  train  is  stopped  in  60  seconds,  the  power  to  be 
gained  in  regeneration,  or  destroyed  in  braking,  averages  1820  h.  p. 

The  down-grade  must  exceed  0.4  per  cent.,  assuming  train  friction  of 
8  pounds  per  ton,  before  energy  can  be  generated  by  the  motors.  With 
1.4  per  cent,  grade  the  power  generated  and  delivered  to  the  line  at  70 
per  cent,  motor  efficiency,  by  a  1200-ton  train  at  15  m.  p.  h.,  would  be 
20  (1.4 -. 4)  X 1000 X 15 X. 70/375,  or  560  h.  p. 

Where  stops  are  infrequent,  the  effect  of  regeneration  on  economy  is 
negligible.  In  any  case  the  torque  of  the  motor  approximates  zero  in. 
stopping,  and  air  brakes  must  be  used  in  connection  with  regeneration. 

Regeneration  with  direct -current  motors  requires  shunt-wound  motors. 
These  were  successfully  tried  in  1887  on  the  New  York  Elevated 
Railway. 

The  motor  field  was  weakened  to  increase  the  speed,  and,  in  slowing 
down,  strengthened  to  send  current  back  to  the  line  and  later  to  a  local 
rheostat  circuit.  No  brakes  were  used.  But  the  series  motors  have  too 
many  physical  advantages,  among  them  tremendous  overload  capacity, 
speed,  and  commutating  characteristics  and  the  shunt  motors  used  were 
abandoned.  Sprague:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1899,  page  239;  May,  1907,  page 
713;  E.  E.,  Oct.  18,  1893,  page  339. 

Sprague  showed  that  a  reduction  of  40  per  cent,  could  be  effected  in 
the  capacity  of  a  central  station. 

Shunt  motors  were  abandoned  because: 

1.  Motors  require  fine  wire  field  windings  which  are  not  hardy.     The 
horse  power  so  developed  is  relatively  low. 

2.  Equalization  of  motor  characteristics  is  necessary. 

3.  Driver  diameters  must  be  alike,  or  some  motor  will  be  overloaded. 

4.  Speed-torque  characteristics  are  not  the  most  desirable  for  rapid 
transit    work.      They   cannot    be    applied   to   variable   speed   railroad 
service. 

Regeneration  with  three-phase  motors  was  first  commercially  devel- 
oped about  1902  by  Ganz  Electric  Company  for  the  infrequent  service  on 
grades  of  the  Valtellina  Railway  in  Italy.  The  regenerative  feature,  as 


426  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

applied,  reduces  the  fluctuations  of  the  load  at  the  power  house  to  1.8 
times  the  average  load.  In  case  of  a  heavy  load  on  the  power  house,  the 
speed  of  the  water  wheels  and  all  trains  is  reduced,  and  some  trains  fed 
back  into  the  line.  The  trains  constituted  the  equivalent  of  a  gigantic 
flywheel  and  reduced  the  power-house  fluctuations  in  load  and  speed. 
The  load  fluctuations  are  particularly  large  with  three-phase  motors. 

Stillwell  refers  to  a  test  on  a  7-car  train,  to  the  lack  of  complication 
in  running  down  grades,  and  to  the  fact  that  more  than  70  per  cent, 
of  the  energy  regenerated  was  restored  to  the  line,  and  this  figure  would 
have  been  higher  with  steeper  grades.  In  a  specific  case  Ganz  guaranteed 
to  regenerate  over  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  energy.  Cserhati:  St.  Ry. 
Journ.,  Aug.  26,  1905,  p.  303. 

Armstrong  notes  that,  in  the  case  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway,  two 
trains  running  down  a  grade  could,  with  recuperative  power,  haul  one 
train  up  the  grade  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountain. 

Regeneration  with  single-phase  motors  is  effected  by  varying  the  taps 
on  the  transformers  from  which  the  locomotive  motors  obtain  excitation. 
The  ratio  of  transformation,  the  e.  m.  f.,  and  the  rate  of  electric  power  so 
generated  by  the  motors  on  the  down-grade  are  thus  varied.  Motor 
designs  have  compensating  windings  to  neutralize  the  armature  reaction, 
and  th:s  permits  of  a  wider  range  of  armature  current  and  field  excitation 
than  is  permissible  with  ordinary  series  direct-current  railway  motors. 
Wm.  Cooper:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907,  p.  1469;  St.  R.  J.,  p.  1145,  June  19, 
1907.  Single-phase  regeneration  on  grades  is  carried  out  to  commercial 
advantage  on  European  roads;  particularly,  the  French  Southern  (Midi) 
Railway  on  its  long  hilly  divisions. 

Regeneration  in  practice  is  applied  for  safety  of  operation.  Electric 
braking  or  regeneration  is  used  normally,  and  the  air  brakes  are  held  in 
reserve.  Economy  of  train  operation  requires  coasting  after  the  motors 
have  attained  full  speed.  On  the  light  down-grades,  the  tra'n  will  often 
run  at  high  speed.  Ordinarily,  regeneration  will  not  be  desirable. 

a.  Regeneration  of  energy  has  no  great  advantages,  nor  can  the  sav- 
ing in  energy  be  large,  on  ordinary  railroads.     It  has  advantages  for 
service  on  long,  steep,  mountain  grades. 

b.  Increased  safety  on  grades  makes  it  a  valuable  adjunct. 

c.  Simplicity  and  reliability  are  not  sacrificed. 

d.  Motor    capacity  must  be  increased  for  frequent  stop   or   rapid 
transit  service  and  the  capacity,  weight,  and  cost  may  even  be  doubled. 
The  capacity  of  motors,  cooled  with  forced  draft,  in  trunk-line  mountain- 
grade  freight  service,  need  not  be  increased. 

e.  Regeneration  tends  to  smooth  out  the  load,  to  increase  the  load 
factor,  and  economy  of  power  production;  and,  since  the  load  factor  is 
low  in  the  three-phase  system,  regeneration  is  of  economic  importance. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


427 


f.   Cost  of  the  generating  plant,  transformers,  and  transmission  lines 
for  long  trunk-line  mountain-freight  service,  is  decreased. 
Good  data  are  not  yet  available. 

SUMMARIES  ON  POWER  REQUIRED. 

General  Consideration. — The  motive  power  equipment  of  steam  rail- 
roads of  the  United  States  on  June  30,  1910,  was  about  60,000  steam 
locomotives.  This  number  divided  by  the  aggregate  length  of  the  steam 
railroad  route  length,  240,000,  gives  .25  locomotives  per  mile  of  road;  or 
divided  by  the  sum  of  the  single,  second,  third,  fourth  tracks,  yards,  and 
sidings,  namely  350,000  miles,  gives  .17  locomotives  per  mile  of  single 
track  operated.  The  average  number  of  square  feet  of  heating  surface 
is  2053.  Using  the  constant  0.43,  the  average  horse  power  is  about  884. 
There  were  220  h.p.  per  mile  of  road,  or  150  h.p.  per  mile  of  single  track. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  about  550  h.p.  per  mile  of  route,  and 
Pittsburg  &  Lake  Erie,  and  the  Bessemer  &  Lake  Erie,  which  have  heavy 
freight  service,  require  about  1000  h.p.  per  mile  of  route. 

The  amount  of  equipment  used  by  electric  railroads  per  mile  of  track  is 
noted  in  the  table  which  follows. 

POWER  EQUIPMENT  USED  PER  MILE  IN  SINGLE  TRACK. 


Name  of  railway. 

Locomotives. 

Motor  cars. 

Total, 
h.p. 

Mile- 
age. 

Total  h.p. 
per  mile. 

No.    h.p.      Total  h.p. 

No. 

h.p. 

Total 
h.p. 

New  Haven  i  41 

960 

2 

500 

2 

1260 

42,480 

2 

250 

3,900 

46,380 

100 

464 

1 

600 

4 

600 

Boston  &   Maine  

5 

1340 

54,000 

0 

0 

0 

54,000 

22 

245 

Pennsylvania-Longlsland 

33 

2500 

82,500 

225 

430 

96,750 

179,250 

95 

1887 

Long  Island  

0 

0 

0 

136 

400 

54,400 

54,400 

164 

332 

West  Jersey  and  Seashore 

0 

0 

0 

108 

480 

51,840 

51,840 

154 

336 

Interboro.    Subway  

0 

0 

0 

910 

480 

43,680 

43,680 

85 

5139 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  

0 

0 

0 

200 

320 

64,000 

64,000 

18 

3555 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

12 

11,600 

0 

0 

0       11,600 

7 

1657 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  .  .  . 

0 

0 

0 

12 

400 

4,800 

4,800 

35 

1371 

New  York  Central  

47 

2200 

103,400 

125 

480 

60,000 

163,400 

150     ;        1089 

West  Shore.  . 

o 

o 

0 

21 

300 

6,300 

6,300 

114                  55 

Erie  Railroad  

0 

0 

0 

6 

400 

2,400 

2,400 

40 

60 

Grand  Trunk  

6 

720 

4,320 

0 

0 

0 

4,320 

12 

360 

Michigan  Central  

6 

1100 

6,600 

0 

0 

0 

6,600 

19 

347 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit. 

2 

200 

400 

600 

200 

100 

240 

174,000 

174,400 

380 

459 

100 

300 

Rotterdam-Hague- 

.... 

0 

0 

19 

360 

6,840 

6,840 

48 

143 

Scheveningen. 

Giovi  Ry  

20 

1980 

39,600    

0 

0 

39,600 

26 

1525 

Note. — The  average  steam  railroad  traffic  in  the  United  States  passing  a  given 
point  in  each  direction  does  not  exceed  7  trains  per  day. 


428          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
EQUIPMENT  AND  ENERGY  USED  BY  BROOKLYN  RAPID  TRANSIT  CARS. 


No.  of 
motor 
cars. 

Ave.  wt. 
of  cars 
loaded. 

Motors  no. 
per  car 
and  name. 

. 

H.  p.  of 
each 
motor. 

Gear 
ratio 
used. 

Max. 

speed 
m.  p.  h. 

Watt- 
hours  per 
ton-mile. 

327 

29 

4-101  B  W 

40 

5.00 

23.50 

157 

112 

19 

2-93A2  W 

60 

4.12 

28.75 

178 

754 

19 

2-81  W 

60 

4.38 

28.25 

172 

143 



2-68  W 

40 

4.86 

22.00 

92 

19 

2-64  GE 

60 

4.12 

21.50 

140 

125 

29 

4-80  GE 

40 

4.36 

29.00 

164 

659 

39 

2-300  W 

200 

3.37 



Stop  per  mile  not  given.     E.  R.  J.,  June  12,  1909,  p.  1073. 


EQUIPMENT  AND  ENERGY  USED  FOR  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS. 


Name  of  railway. 

Cars 
per 
train. 

Weight 
in 
tons. 

Schedule 
speed 
m.  p.  h. 

Stops 
per 
mile. 

H.  p. 

of 
motors. 

H.p. 
per 
ton. 

Watt-hr. 
at  car  per 
car-mile. 

London  Electric: 

Metropolitan  

4 

141 

15.7 

2.1 

800 

6.2 

2,220 

Bakerloo  

3 

71 

15.04 

2.35 

400 

5.6 

2,270 

Great  Northern  .... 

4 

88 

16.22 

2.35 

400 

4.5 

1,970 

Charring  Cross  

4 

85 

16.05 

2.57 

400 

4.6 

2,320 

Central  London 

7 

132 

14  0 

2  1 

500 

3  8 

North-Eastern  

101 

22  0 

0  9 

5.0 

Boston  Elevated 

6 

200 

2100 

10  5 

Manhattan  Elevated  .  . 

6 

148 

14.7 

3.0 

1000 

7.0 

2,750 

f    5 

224 

1440 

6  5 

Interboro  Subway  .... 

10 

361 

16.2 

2.6 

2400 

6.7 

2,890 

1  10 

360 

23.0 

3360 

9.3 

Armstrong's  data: 

A  I  E  E    Jan.  1904 

100 

19  0 

2  0 

630 

6  3 

p.  70. 

27.0 

1.0 

1000 

10.0 

40.0 

0.5 

1800 

18.0 

Valtellina  Ry 

6 

165 

600 

3  6 

Berlin  Zossen: 

AEG   3-phase 

1 

101 

100  0 

1000 

10  0 

POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS 


429 


ENERGY  REQUIRED  FOR  MOTOR-CAR  TRAINS  PER  TON-MILE  AND  PER 

CAR-MILE. 


Miles      £ 
Name  of  railway.            per       s 
stop,     rr 

i     Watt-hours  ;   Watt-hours 

?eh        Pars                                                      Per  ton-mile.      per  car-mile. 
Train  or  service 

characteristics, 
i.p.h.    train, 
a.c. 

!        ;                        1 

d.c. 

a.c.         d.c. 

BostonElevated 

i 

'       6       Elevated     '  

70 

2750 

Manhattan  Elevated  ....     0  .  33      ] 
Brooklyn   Elevated  1  .  . 
Interboro  Subway  ; 
Interboro  Subway  j  
New  York  Central.  '.  1.25      2 
Long  Island  R  R                    1  60  '< 

4-151   5-8        Elevated  <     82 
....i   3-6       Elevated  !    170 
13        5       Local  service                   ' 

79 

58 

90 

2890 

23:      10        Real  rapid  transit  '  
4-30    6-8     i  Terminal  &  suburban  
25         4      ;  Brooklyn  suburban.          Ill 

2260 

4040      3280 

1 

Lake  Shore  Electric  
Marion    Bluffton  &  E 

4       Light    winter    traffic,      139 
with     electiic     heat. 
1        City  service                           91 

1        Interurban  service  ....     126 
1       E  R  J.,  May  1,  1909  

85        2710 

4750   i  
2820 

Chicago  Lake  Shore  &       , 

1—3       Heavy  motor-car           i     98 

South  Bend. 
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit.;  
London  Electric  0  .  44 
Central  London  0.47 
City  &  South  London  1  .  . 

trains. 
10.0         1        City  and  interurban  .  .  .     200 

14.7        7        Suburban  traffic  50 
....         4        Suburban  traffic  55 

!  

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire 

i       4     ;  Ordinary  railroad                 80 

London    Brighton  &  S  C 

'       3     i  London  suburban           i  ...... 

BlankaneserOhlsdorf  
Valtellina  Ry.  : 
Locomotive  
Motor  car  :  

....  I       2        Heavy  suburban  

3-6        Light  ry.  service  86 
62 

71 

: 

"1  1  1                           ..  ! 

Measurements  were  made  at  the  a.c.  generator  bus-bar  at  the  power 
plant,  and  at  the  d.-c.  third-rail  or  trolley  feeders  at  the  substation. 

ENERGY  REQUIRED  FOR  NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD 
ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE  HAULED  TRAINS. 


| 

1 

Watt- 

Location 

of  division. 

Length 
miles. 

Service 
noted. 

Train 
tons. 

Speed 
m.p.h. 

No.  of 

stops. 

Ave. 

kw. 

!  hours  per 
!  ton-mile. 

R,  per 
ton. 

Stamford  to  Woodlawn, 

N.  Y.  • 

20 

1 
52    i 

Express 

488 

49.0 

0 

1010 

30.0 

12.0 

passenger. 

Woodlawn  to 

Stamford, 

Conn. 

20 

52 

Express 

•477 

44.7            0 

860 

35.0 

14.0 

passenger. 

Stamford  to  Woodlawn, 

N.  Y. 

20 

52 

Local 

316 

22.1 

13 

790 

85.4 

34.1 

passenger. 

Woodlawn  to 

Stamford, 

Conn  . 

20 

52 

Local 

285 

22.1 

13 

740 

74.2 

29.7 

passenger. 

New  Rochelle 

,  N.  Y.  to 

Stam- 

16 

90 

Local 

500 

26.4 

9 

777 

58.8 

23.5 

ford,  Conn. 

passenger. 

New  Rochelle 

,  N.  Y.  to 

S  tarn- 

16 

77 

Thru 

1428 

36.8 

0 

1370 

25.9    1 

10.4 

ford,  Conn. 

freight. 

See  foot  notes  for  above  table  on  next  page. 


430          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Passenger  locomotive  weight  was  102  tons. 

Freight  locomotive,  geared,  071,  weight  was  140  tons. 

Efficiency  of  the  locomotive  motors  and  auxiliaries  approximated  80  per  cent. 
Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  divided  by  2 . 0/ .  80  gives  the  average  tractive  resistance 
per  ton  for  acceleration,  grades,  curves,  and  train  friction.  See  also  page  414. 

Reference:  Murray  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911.     Tests.  February,  1911. 

Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  are  a  function  of  the  number  of  stops, 
speed,  and  air  resistance,  and  number  of  cars  per  train. 

Power  required  if  all  steam  railroads  used  electric  power  is  roughly 
7  kilowatts  per  mile  of  single  track. 

Swiss  Federal  Railway  Commission,  which  has  reported  on  the  amount 
of  energy  required  to  move  all  of  the  steam  trains  in  Switzerland,  agreed 
on  the  following  basis  for  tractive  resistance:  In  express  service,  from  12 
to  21  pounds  per  2000  tons;  in  passenger  service,  from  11  to  12.4  pounds; 
Gotthart  line,  with  less  favorable  conditions,  14.8  pounds;  for  narrow-gage 
lines,  24.6  pounds.  To  the  theoretical  energy  required  for  starting  at  sta- 
tions and  for  running,  30  per  cent,  was  added  for  passenger  and  freight 
trains,  and  110  per  cent,  for  express  trains,  to  allow  for  changes  in  speed 
during  running,  and  for  starting  after  signal  stops  and  slow  down. 


LITERATURE. 

References  on  Train  Resistance. 

ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  TEST  COMMISSION  REPORT,  1905  (McGraw,  N.  Y.) ;  abstract  in 

S.  R.  J.,  March  25,  1905. 
BERLIN-ZOSSEN  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  TESTS  OF  1902-3  (McGraw,  N.  Y.) ;  abstract  in 

S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  9  and  Oct.  28,  1905. 

HENDERSON:  " Locomotive  Operation"   (Wilson  Co.,  Chicago),  Chapter  IV. 
Proceedings  of  New  York  Railway  Club;  American  Railway  Engineering  Association; 

American  Electric  Railway  Engineering  Association. 
Dynamometer-car  tests:  Goss,  Forsoth,  Dennis,  Wickhortt,  Crawford. 
Carter:  Technical  Considerations  in  Electric   Railway  Engineering,    Inst.   of  Elec. 

Engineers,  Jan.,  1906. 
Aspinwall:  Resistance  of  Steam  Locomotive  Hauled  Trains,  B.  I.  C.  E.,  Nov.,  1901; 

Resistance  of  Motor-car  Trains,  E.  R.  J.,  May  22,  1909. 
Davis:  Tests  on  Buffalo  &  Lockport  Railway  for  Resistance  of  Single  Cars  and  2-car 

Trains,  S.  R.  J.,  May  and  June,  1902;  Dec.  3,  1904. 

Stillwell:  New  York  Subway,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1904,  p.  723;   E.  R.  J.,  June  6,  1908. 
Arnold:  Resistance  of   Steam   Locomotive   Hauled  Trains   on   New  York   Central, 

A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 

Potter:  Tests  on  Motor-cars  at  Schenectady,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June  19,  1902,  p.  836. 
Murray:  Tests  on  New  Haven  Road,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907;  p.  146    April,  1911. 
Clark:  Test  on  C.  B.  &  Q.  R.  R.  on  Relation  of  Friction  to  Speed  with  Varying  Num- 
ber of  Coaches,  Western  Railway  Club,  Jan.,  1900. 
Blood:  Formulas  on  Train  Resistance,  S.  R.  J.,  June  27,  1903. 
Smith,  W.  N.:  Data  on  Electric  Train  Resistance,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1904. 
Renshaw:  Tests  on  Indiana  Union  Traction  Cars,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  4,  1902. 


POWER  REQUIRED  FOR  TRAINS  431 

Cole:  Train  Resistance,  Ry.  Age,  Aug.  27  to  Oct.  1,  1909. 
McMahon:  Tractive  Resistance  in  London  Tubes,  S.  R.  J.,  June,  1899. 
Schmidt:  Freight  Train  Resistance,  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin  No.  39,  May,  1910; 
A.  S.  M.  E.,  June,  1910. 

Inertia  of  Rotating  Parts  of  Trains. 
Storer:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1902;  Carter,  B.  I.  C.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1906. 

Speed -time  Curves. 

Mailloux:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902;  S.  R.  J.,  July  5,  1902;  E.  R.  J.,  Feb.  13,  1909. 

Valentine:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  6,  1902;  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1908. 

Carter:  Predeterminations  in  (Suburban)  Railway  Work,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June  1903. 

Simpson:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  9  and  March  23,  1907. 

Wynne:  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.  and  May,  1906. 

Gears — Effect  of  Changes  on  Schedule,  Power,  and  Heating. 

Huffman:  Effect  of  Changing  Gears  on  Motor  Equipments,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  29,  1904. 
Storer:  Capacity  of  Motors,  and  Gear  Ratios,  Elec.  Journal,  July  and  Sept.,  1908. 
Conant:  Mechanics  of  Electric  Traction,  S.  R.  Review,  Dec.,  1901. 

High-speed  Problems  and  Effect  of  Stops. 
Armstrong:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1898;  June,  1902;  June,  1903. 

Braking  of  Railway  Cars. 

Parke,  Keiley:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1902;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  2,  1904. 
Plumb:  S.  R.  J.,  June  1,  1907. 

Rae:  Energy  Required  in  Braking,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  5,  1904. 
M.  C.  B.  Assoc.:  Brake  Shoe  Tests,  1905-6-7-11. 

References  on  Energy  Consumption  of  Cars. 

Boston  Elevated  Railway  Tests,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  14,  1905. 

Brooklyn  Elevated,  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  12,  1909. 

Long  Island  R.  R.     Lyford  and  Smith,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.  25,  1904. 

Manhattan  Elevated  Coasting  Tests.     Putnam,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1910. 

Columbus,  O.,  One-  and  Two-car  Trains,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1907. 

Cleveland  Interurban  and  City  Tests,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  13,  1909;  Jan.  8,  1910. 

Indiana  Union  Traction.     Renshaw,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  4,  1902;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1903. 

Denver  &  Interurban.     E.  T.  W.,  Sept.  25,  1910,  p.  1026. 

London  Electric  Railway  Tests.     E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  6,  1910. 

Swiss  Government  R.  R.  Commission  Report.     S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  10,  1906,  p.  950. 

Gleichman:  Power  Required  for  Bavarian  Ry.  Trains,  Elek.  Zeit.,  April  14,  1911. 

Ashe:  On  Train  Testing,  S.  R.  J.,  May  21,  1904;  Dec.  1,  1906;  Aug.  24,  1907. 

Bright:  Kilowatt-hours  per  Car-mile,  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1906. 

Street:  Locomotives  vs.  Motor  Car,  Elec.  Journal,  Oct.,  1906. 

Ayres:  Car  weight.   Effect  on  Power,  E.  T.  W.,  June  19,  1909;  Weight  and  Operating 

Cost,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  7,  1909. 
Dodd:  Power  Consumption  on  Electric  Cars,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.,  1898. 


.P 


f.  ••  i- 

\y 


CHAPTER  XII. 
TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES. 

Outline. 

Status  of  Development. 
Energy  Losses: 

Energy  losses  with  low  voltages,  alternating  current  for  important  trans- 
-  missions,  energy  losses  with  converter  substations,  transmission  of  three-phase 
current  to  motors,  transmission  of  single-phase  current  to  motors,  design  of 
apparatus  for  high  voltages,  development  of  high  voltages  for  railways, 
voltages  required. 

Laws  Governing  Transmissions. 

Impedance  and  Resistance. 

Transmission  Line  Engineering : 

Financial    basis,    electrical    energy,    location,    voltage   and    cycle,    materials 
available,  specifications  for  materials,  results  to  be  anticipated. 

Insulators. 

Data  on  High -voltage  Transmissions. 

Data  on  Steel  Towers  for  Transmission  Lines. 

Contact  Lines : 

Voltages  used,  design  of  contact  lines,  collection  of  current,  by  trolley,  shoes, 
pantograph,  and  bows;  two- trolleys  wires  for  three-phase  motors. 

Catenary  Construction. 

Third -rail  Contact  Lines. 

Cost  of  Constructions : 

Insulators,  poles,  towers,  bridges,  catenary,  third  rail. 

Literature. 


432 


CHAPTER  XTI. 

TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES. 
STATUS  OF  DEVELOPMENT. 

A  study  of  the  development  of  electric  power  transmission  shows 
that  the  first  electric  railways  used  direct  current  and  a  potential  of  100 
to  250  volts,  and  that  the  two  conductors  were  the  two  track  rails.  An 
independent,  insulated,  positive  third  rail  was  soon  added,  but  an  over- 
head trolley  contact  line  was  usually  substituted  for  the  exposed  third 
rail.  Practical  street  railways  in  1888  used  450  volts;  but  since  1896,  the 
voltage  has  generally  been  600.  Direct  current,  with  660  volts  on  the  con- 
tact line,  is  now  used  by  most  of  the  interurban  railways  and  by  electric 
divisions  of  terminal  railroads.  Where  heavy  trains  are  operated, 
economy  of  investment  and  of  energy  demand  potentials  of  3000  to  12,000 
volts,  the  actual  voltage  depending  upon  the  speed,  number,  and  weights 
of  individual  trains,  and  the  distances  involved. 

Electrification  in  the  larger  sense  is  chiefly  a  matter  of  power  trans- 
mission; and  in  the  development  of  the  art,  energy  for  electric  trains  has 
been  generated  and  transmitted  as  alternating  current.  Three  steps  in 
the  development  of  transmissions  are  noted. 

a.  A  single-phase  power  transmission  plant  was  installed  in  1890  at  Telluride, 
Colorado,  from  which  a  Westinghouse  single-phase  alternator  of  100  h.  p.,  the  largest 
then  made,  transmitted  energy  at  3000  volts  over  a  distance  of  2.6  miles  to  a  similar 
motor  at  the  end  of  a  transmission  line. 

b.  Three-phase  power  transmissions  were  introduced  in  1891  by  Ferraris,  at  the 
Frankfort  Exposition,  when  100  h.  p.  was  transmitted  as  three-phase  current  at 
20,000  volts,  a  distance  of  112  miles.     E.  E.,  Sept.,  1891. 

c.  Three-phase  long-distance  power  transmission  for  commercial  service  began 
with  11,000  volts  about  the  year  1895  in  California,  and  in  1896  between  Niagara  and 
Buffalo.     This  at  once  allowed  an  extension  of  electric  roads,  since  several  thousand 
horse  power  could  be  transmitted  economically  over  distances  of  twenty  to  thirty 
miles.     The  line  voltage  could  be  reduced  at  substations  along  the  route  by  step- 
down  transformers,  and  the  alternating  current  could  be  converted  from  three-phase 
to  direct  current  for  standard  railway  motors.     This  plan  was  soon  adopted  by  the 
leading  electric  railway.     See  details,  under  "Electric  Systems,"  Chapter  IV. 

ENERGY  LOSSES. 

Losses  with  low  voltages  are  large  when,  with  a  reasonable  expenditure 
for  copper  lines,  electrical  energy  is  transmitted  at  low  potentials,  over 
distances  of  several  miles  for  the  propulsion  of  electric  trains.  For  ex- 
ample, when  1200  kilowatts  are  transmitted  at  1200  volts  pressure,  over 
a  distance  of  only  12  miles,  by  twelve  1,200,000  c.m.  copper  feeders  to 
deliver  1200  h.  p.  to  haul  one  common  passenger  or  freight  train,  the 
28  433 


434          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

transmission  loss  in  the  feeder  and  return  circuit  is  5  per  cent,  per  train. 
If  12  trains  are  to  be  operated  in  the  division,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
place  expensive  rotary  converter  substations  about  12  miles  apart,  and 
to  add  heavy  out-going  and  return  cables.  The  losses  are  quadrupled 
when  600  volts  are  used,  but  are  one  one-hundredth  as  large  when 
12,000  volts  are  used. 

Alternating  current  at  high  voltage  is  required  in  order  to  reduce  the 
losses  in  long  important  power  transmissions.  Electricity  then  fur- 
nished a  very  efficient,  simple,  and  convenient  means  for  the  transmission 
of  large  powers  over  long  distances  to  heavy  individual  train  units. 
This  is  an  inherent  advantage  of  electricity  over  steam,  for  common 
long-distance  railroad  work. 

Energy  losses  with  converter  substations  are  large  because  of  the  low 
efficiency  of  normally  underloaded  rotary  converters,  storage  batteries, 
and  auxiliaries.  The  transformation  and  conversion  of  the  energy  to 
direct  current  at  many  small  substations  involves  a  relatively  heavy 
investment.  High  efficiency,  economy  of  labor  and  of  investment 
require  the  equipment  to  have  a  high  load  factor  and  uniform  traffic. 
Such  conditions  are  seldom  found  in  converter  substations. 

Examples  from  the  practice  of  two  large  electric  railroads  are  given 
to  show  the  amount  of  the  converter  substation  losses. 

TRANSMISSION  LOSSES  ON  WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE   RAILROAD. 

75  miles  of  route;  8  rotary  converter,  675-volt,  d.c.  substations. 

Alternating-current,  kw-hr.  to  transmission  lines,  August,  1906 2,244,020 

Direct-current,  kw-hr.,  from  converter  substations  1,694,770 

Kw-hr.  lost  in  transmission  line,  transformers,  and  converters 549,250 

Per  cent,  of  energy  lost 24 . 4 

Alternating-current  kw-hr.  to  transmission  lines,  March,  1909, 1,850,000 

Kw-hr.  lost  in  transmission,  transformers,  and  converters 519,310 

Per  cent,  of  energy  lost 28 

Average  loss  in  1907  was  27.8  per  cent.;  1908,26.2;  1909,  21.6;  1910,  20.4  per  cent. 

Loss  in  the  675-volt  third-rail  is  estimated  at  15  per  cent.,  making 
the  total  loss  between  station  and  cars  over  40  per  cent.  A  change  to 
1200  volts  would  save  part  of  the  loss  in  the  third  rail  and  track. 

TRANSMISSION  LOSSES  ON  NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  RAILROAD. 

Cost  of  power  delivered  from  power  station 0 . 58  0.  per  kw-hr. 

Cost  of  power  delivered  from  substations 0. 77  0.  per  kw-hr. 

Cost  of  power  delivered  to  locomotive 1 . 09  0.  per  kw-hr. 

This  indicates  a  loss  between  locomotive  and  power  house  of  nearly 
50  per  cent.  The  660-volt,  direct-current,  third-rail  system  is  used,  and 
the  45  miles  of  route  require  nine  rotary  converter  substations. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  435 

These  railroads  were  electrified  in  1906,  prior  to  the  development  of 
high-voltage,  alternating-current  contact  lines. 

For  additional  data  on  transmission  and  converter  losses  see  tables 
on  (relative)  '•  Cost  of  Steam-Electric  Power  per  Kilowatt  Hour,"  also 
"  Watt-hours  per  Car-mile,  at  power  plant  and  from  substations." 

Interurban  railways  in  Indiana  and  Ohio  with  rotary  converter  sub- 
stations deliver  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  electric  power  generated 
to  the  motors  on  the  heavy  single  cars.  Analysis  of  losses  show  step-up 
and  -down  transformer  losses  13  per  cent.,  transmission  3  per  cent.,  rotary 
converters  20  per  cent.,  direct-current  distribution  21  per  cent. 

Transmission  of  three-phase  current  at  3000  volts  and  15  cycles,  and 
the  application  of  electric  power  to  locomotives,  without  the  use  of  rotary 
converter  substations,  have  been  used  by  several  roads  in  Italy,  since  1902. 
The  voltage  used,  3000,  is  applied  directly  on  the  motor  field  windings. 
The  use  of  3000-volt  contact  lines  for  heavy  train  haulage  requires 
frequent  step-down  transformer  substations,  because  the  drawbar  pull 
from  the  motors  decreases  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  motor  voltage, 
and  the  latter  must  therefore  be  well  maintained. 

Nine  substations  are  required  for  66  miles  of  the  Valtellina  Railway 
with  light  traffic;  4  substations  for  12.5  miles  of  the  Giovi  Railway 
with  heavy  traffic;  2  stations  for  the  Simplon  Tunnel,  a  12-mile,  single- 
track  road;  14  substations  on  the  Burgdorf-Thun,  26-mile,  750- 
volt  interurban  road. 

Transmission  of  single -phase,  high -voltage  current  and  its  utilization 
by  railway  motors,  without  transformation  and  conversion  to  direct 
current,  is  a  development  which  began  in  1904.  Westinghouse  engineers, 
among  them  Mr.  B.  G.  Lamme,  after  many  engineering  struggles,  equipped 
the  first  single-phase  road,  the  Indianapolis  and  Cincinnati  Traction, 
46  miles  of  track,  with  a  3000-volt  contact  line.  The  next  long  single- 
phase  roads,  Spokane  and  Inland  Empire,  and  others,  used  6600  volts. 
The  use  of  11,000  volts  on  the  trolley,  directly  from  the  generator,  without 
line  transformers  and  converter  substations,  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford,  and  many  other  roads,  since  1907,  for  long-distance  haulage 
of  heavy  individual  train  units,  marked  an  epoch  in  the  transmission 
of  energy  for  railroad  transportation. 

Design  of  suitable  apparatus  necessarily  preceded  the  transmission 
and  utilization  of  electrical  energy  at  the  high  voltage  required  for 
heavy,  high-speed  electric  trains. 

a.  Alternators  were  changed  from  a  type  in  which  the  revolving 
element  carried  the  high-voltage  coils  to  a  type  in  which  the  stationarj^ 
element  carried  the  high-voltage  coils.  This  increased  the  space  available 
and  arranged  for  improved  coil  insulation.  Voltages  above  3500  became 
common  after  1897,  and  voltages  of  12,000  are  now  common. 


436 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


b.  Transformers  were  improved,  about  1896,  by  a  change  in  design 
from  the  air-blast  type  to  the  oil-insulated,  water-cooled  type.     In  large 
transformers  these  improvements,  with  extra  insulation  on  the  end  coils, 
and  greater  rigidity  allowed  potentials  of  20,000,  40,000,  60,000,  and 
higher  voltages  for  reliable  work. 

c.  Lightning  arresters  were  designed  which  protected  apparatus  and 
lines  against  break-down  from  static  discharges.     Improvements  were 
made  in  the  spark-gap,  horn,  and  electrolytic  cell  types;  also  in  methods 
of  installation.     Ground  wires  were  strung  over  the  transmission. 

d.  Insulators  of  the  pin  type  for  50,000-volt  circuits,  and  of  the  sus- 
pension type  for  50  to  100,000-volt  circuits,  were  perfected.    This  provided 
for  increased  reliability  for  ordinary  service   and  the  factor  of  safety 
during  lightning  storms. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH  VOLTAGES  FOR  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Contact  line.  Transmission  line.    * 


Year. 

Direct- 
current 
voltage. 

Name  of  railway. 

Three- 
phase 
voltage. 

Location  or  name  of  line 

No.  of 
miles. 

1880 

1888 

250 
450 

Siemens  at  Berlin  
Union  Passenger  Ry. 

Exhibition  
Richmond  Virginia 

1 
3 

1894 

500 

Norwich  Street  Ry 

2  500 

Taftsville,  Connecticut 

4 

1895 

550 

Lowell  &  Suburban 

5  500 

Lowell,  Massachusetts 

15 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1904 
1906 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 

550 
550 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 
600 

Portland  General  Electric  
Buffalo  Ry.  Company  
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  
Los  Angeles  Ry  
Butte,  Montana  
Rochester,  New  York  
Grand  Rapids,  Mich  
Several.  Denver  
Several.Toronto  

6,000 
11,000 
13,000 
33,000 
55,000 
66,000 
110,000 
100,000 
110,000 
125,000 

Portland,  Oregon  
Niagara-  Buffalo  
Minneapolis-  St.  Paul  
Redlands,  California  
Helena-Butte  
Niagara  Falls  
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan  
Central  Colorado  Power  
Niagara-Toronto,  etc  
Commonwealth,  Michigan  

13 
21 
9 
75 
65 
165 
50 
200 
180 
100 

1908 
1911 
1906 

1200 
1500 
2000 

Indianapolis  &  Louisville  
Piedmont  &  Northern  
European,  see  Chapter  IV  

d.   c. 
100,000 
d.  c. 

Indianapolis-Louisville  
Southern  Power  Co.,  N.  C  
Mozelle-Maizieres,  France  .... 

20 
140 
9 

Year. 

Three- 
phase 
voltage. 

Name  of  railway. 

Three- 
phase 
voltage 

Location  or  name  of  line. 

No. 
of 
miles. 

1896 
1899 
1902 
1903 

500 
750 
3,000 
11,000 

Lugano  Street  Ry  
Burgdorf-Thun  Ry  
Valtellina  Ry  
Zossen  experiment  

500 
16,000 
20,000 
11,000 

Lugano,  Italy  
Switzerland  
Northern  Italy  
Berlin,  Germany  

4 
30 
46 
15 

1909 

6,000 

i  Geat  Northern  Ry  

33,000 

Cascade  Tunnel,  Washington.  . 

30 

TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


437 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  HIGH  VOLTAGES  FOR  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Continued. 
Contact  line.  Transmission  line. 


Year. 

One- 
phase 
voltage. 

Name  of  railway. 

Three- 
phase 
voltage. 

No. 
Location  or  name  of  line.            of 
miles. 

1904 

2  200 

22  000 

Ballston  Division                                16 

1904 

3  300 

33  000 

Indianapolis                                         41 

1906 

6  600 

Spokane  &  Inland 

45  000 

Spokane-South                         ...       50 

1907 

11  000 

Erie  R  R 

60  000 

Rochester-Mt.  Morris       154 

1908 
1909 

11,000 
12  000 

NewYork,  NewHaven  &  Hartford 
French  Southern  or  Midi 

11,000 
60,000 

Woodlawn-Stamford  22 
France  50 

1910 

15,000 

Bernese  Alps  R.  R   .  . 

60,000 

Switzerland  60 

1911 

18,000 

Swedish  State  

80,000 

Norwegian  frontier  70 

Voltages  required  for  transmission  lines  in  railway  work  may  be  deter- 
mined mathematically,  but  this  is  largely  a  matter  of  experience,  and 
requires  a  knowledge  of  the  important  variables  which  affect  capacity, 
losses,  cost  of  equipment,  and  operating  results. 

Cross-sectional  area  of  copper  line  is  reduced  75  per  cent,  when  the 
voltage  is  doubled,  and  therefore  the  higher  practical  voltages  would  be 
used  to  reduce  the  cost  and  loss,  were  it  not  that  operation  becomes  more 
dangerous,  and  that  insulation  for  generators,  transformers,  transmission 
lines  and  switches  becomes  more  expensive. 

Standard  voltages  used  for  common  transmission  lines  in  railway 
work  are  6600,  13,000,  33,000,  and  66,000.  Generator  and  also  contact 
line  voltages  seldom  exceed  12,000  volts.  Transmission  lines  use  less 
than  1000  volts  per  mile  of  line. 


LAWS  GOVERNING  TRANSMISSIONS. 

Laws  governing  transmissions  are  stated  briefly: 

a.  With  unit  energy  transmitted,  the  voltage  and  current  generated 
will  vary  inversely. 

b.  With  unit  work  done,  unit  loss  in  line,  and  fixed  voltage  at  the 
terminals  of  the  line,  the  weight  of  copper  will  vary  as  the  square  of  the 
distance;  its  cross-section  will  vary  directly  as  the  distance;  and   the 
weight  of  copper  will  vary  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  voltage  at  the 
terminals  of  the  line. 

c.  With  unit  cross-section,  the  distance  over  which  a  given  amount 
of  power  can  be  transmitted  will  vary  as  the  square  of  the  voltage. 

d.  With  unit  weight  of  copper,  unit  amount  of  power  transmitted, 
and   unit  loss  in  distribution,  the  distance  over  which  power  can  be 
transmitted  will  vary  directly  as  the  voltage  generated. 


438  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Kelvin's  Law  which  governs  transmissions  is  this: 

The  annual  cost  due  to  line  loss  and  interest  charges  should  be  equal; 
or  the  interest  should  equal  the  loss.  Stated  in  another  way:  "The  sum 
of  the  annual  cost  of  the  energy  lost  in  the  line  and  the  annual  cost  of 
interest  and  depreciation  should  be  a  minimum."  A  consideration  of 
the  variable  portions  of  the  two  sets  of  costs  greatly  simplifies  the  calcu- 
lations on  the  most  economical  loss  and  investment.  This  subject  is 
treated  at  length  in  many  electrical  text-books. 

IMPEDANCE  AND  RESISTANCE. 

Line  Losses  are  caused  by  resistance,  but  the  drop  in  voltage  in  an 
alternating-current  line  is  a  function  of  the  reactance.  The  effective 
resultant  is  called  the  impedance.  In  electric  circuits  impedance,  and 
not  the  ohmic  resistance  only,  must  be  considered.  With  alternating 
current  the  impedance  of  a  copper  transmission  line  is  about  50  per  cent, 
higher,  and  of  steel  rails  is  600  to  800  per  cent,  higher,  than  with  direct 
current;  but  the  current  itself  is  smaller. 

Losses,  in  watts,  equal  the  product  of  the  resistance  of  the  wires  and 
the  square  of  the  current  in  the  wires.  The  energy  loss  is  transformed 
into  heat.  The  drop  in  the  line,  in  volts,  is  the  product  of  the  line  resist- 
ance or  impedance  and  the  current. 

Cycles  affect  the  loss  of  voltage  in  transmission  lines,  and  in  copper 
and  third-rail  contact  lines.  The  higher  the  number  of  cycles  used,  the 
greater  is  the  impedance  to  the  flow  of  current.  With  60  cycles,  the 
impedance  is  so  high  that  this  frequency  is  not  used  in  electric  railroading. 

Resistance  of  copper  wire,  in  ohms,  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
resistance,  K,  of  1  foot  of  copper  wire,  1  circular  mil  in  diameter  by  the 
length  of  the  wire  in  feet  and  dividing  the  product  by  the  number  of 
circular  mils.  K  =  10.35  ohms  at  68°  F.,  or  20°  C.,  and  increases  0.4 
per  cent,  per  degree  C.  Every  third  larger  sized  wire  has  twice  the  cross- 
section,  twice  the  weight,  and  one-half  the  resistance. 

Heating  of  wires  must  be  considered.  For  a  given  resistance  the 
heating  effect  varies  as  the  square  of  the  current.  With  fluctuating 
loads,  the  heating  effect  varies  as  the  root-mean-square  of  the  currents. 

Voltage  drop  or  voltage  loss  in  line  affects  motor  characteristics, 
drawbar  pull,  speed,  and  heating.  An  average  contact  line  loss  of  10 
per  cent.,  and  a  maximum  of  20  per  cent.,  are  usually  provided  for 
direct-current  and  single-phase  work.  These  losses  must  be  much 
smaller  in  three-phase  contact  lines,  for  a  10  per  cent,  loss  in  voltage 
causes  a  19  per  cent,  decrease  in  the  drawbar  pull  of  the  motor. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 
IMPEDANCE  VALUES  OF  SINGLE-PHASE  LINES. 


439 


No.  and 

No.  and 

Impedance,  total  in 
ohms  per  mile. 

Rail 

wt.  of 

size  of 

cur- 

Notes. 

rails. 

trolleys. 



rent. 

25  cycles.        15  cycles. 

8-100  Ib  .  .  .  . 

4-0000 

.165 

8-100  Ib  

4-1000 

.189 

4-100  Ib  

2-0000 

.310 

2-100  Ib  .  .  .  . 

1-0000 

.553 

2-100  Ib  

1-000 

.600 

2-100  Ib  

Not  any. 

.030 

2-100  Ib  

Not  any. 

.025 

2-100  Ib  .  .  .  . 

Not  any. 

.080 

2-100  Ib  

1-000 

.047 

Not  any  

1-0000 

.026 

Not  any  

1-000 

.470 

Not  any  

1-0000 

.400 

.112 

.75 

.130 

.75 

.220 

.58 

.396 

.40 

.425 

.40 

.020 

.40 

.58 

.048 

1.00 

.028 

1.00 

.026 

1.00 

With  two  00  feeders. 
Without  feeder. 
Without  feeder. 
Without  feeder. 
Without  feeder. 
A.  c.  resistance  only. 
A.  c.  resistance  only. 
A.  c.  resistance  only. 
A.  c.  reactance  only. 
A.  c.  resistance  only 
Impedance. 
Impedance. 


Data  which  do  not  specify  the  relative  current  in  trolley  and  rail  are  not  valuable. 
Copley's  measurements,  given  in  Transactions,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908,  page  1171, 
are  based  on  height  of  trolley  of  22  feet,  double  catenary,  0000  rail  bonds,  and  60  to 
70  per  cent,  power-factor. 

Rosenthal,  in  "Transmission  Calculations,"  has  furnished  other  tables.  See  also 
Dawson,  "Electric  Traction  for  Railways,"  page  451;  Parshall  and  Hobart,  "Electric 
Railway  Engineering,"  page  283;  Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911,  p.  751. 

Impedance  for  other  sizes  of  rail  can  be  readily  computed.     The  relative  impedance 
at  25  and  at  15  cycles  should  be  as  the  square  roots  of  the  cycles,  or  as  1 . 29  to  1 . 00. 
The  steel  catenary  or  messenger  cable  in  parallel  with  the  trolley  reduces  the 
above  impedance  values  about  10  per  cent. 

The  ratio  of  impedance  to  direct-current  resistance  of  trolley  wire,  at  25  cycles,  is 
1 . 5  and  the  ratio  for  rails  is  about  6 . 0,  but  the  current  in  the  rails  is  small. 

The  resistance  to  direct  current  of  two  100-pound  steel  rails  is  .03  ohms  per  mile. 

TRANSMISSION  LINE  ENGINEERING. 

A  clear  understanding  of  the  real  problem  involved  in  a  transmission 
line  must  first  be  obtained.  The  extent  of  each  item  forming  a  part  of  a 
problem  can  be  studied  by  means  of  an  outline  of  the  financial,  technical, 
constructive,  and  operating  features  which  are  involved.  Instead  of  an 
extended  treatment  of  the  subject,  an  outline  frequently  used  by  the 
writer  in  his  work,  one  suitable  for  general  consideration,  is  presented  on 
the  next  page. 


440          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FIG.  172. — EXAMPLE  OF  FLEXIBLE  STEEL 

TOWER  FOE  TRANSMISSION  LINE. 
Eight-inch  channels.    Pin  type  insulators. 


OUTLINE   FOR   STUDY   OF   TRANS- 
MISSION LINE  ENGINEERING. 

Financial  Basis : 

Earnings,  present  and  ultimate  condi- 
tions, effect  on  smaller  undertakings,  and 
effect  on  economy  of  plants. 

Value  of  energy  cost  per  kw-hr.  trans- 
mitted, total  cost  of  energy  delivered. 
Competition  and  reputation;  duplication 
of  lines,  voltage  regulation. 

Electrical  Energy : 

Present  and  future  load;  power  factor 
and  load  factor. 

Location : 

Accessibility  of  locality,  geography  and 
elevations,  freight  charges,  frequency  of 
electric  storms,  precipitation,  right-of- 
way  and  terminals,  rivers,  valley,  swamp, 
lakes,  special  span  constructions,  fran- 
chise and  municipal  restrictions,  cross- 
ings over  steam  railroads. 

Voltage  and  Cycles : 

Length  of  line,  amount  of  load,  type  of 
insulator,  protection  of  the  public,  sepa- 
ration of  wires,  inductive  effect  on  line, 
impedance  constants  and  losses,  effect 
on  cost  of  all  equipment. 

Materials  Available : 

Conductor:  Aluminum  or  copper,  cross- 
sectional  area,  stranding,  mechanical 
strength,  electrical  resistance. 
Poles:  Wood  or  concrete;  kind  and  char- 
acter, cutting  and  sap,  life  and  treatment, 
length  and  body. 

Towers  of  Steel:   Frame  or  pipe,  angle 
or  channel,  two,  three,  or  four  legs. 
Insulators :  Porcelain,  glass,  pin  types,  2 
to  5  shells;  steel  or  wood  pins;  disk,  cone, 
and  suspension  types. 

Specifications  for  Materials : 

Quantity,  quality,  details  of  design, 
tests  for  acceptance. 

Results  to  be  Anticipated : 

Guarantees,  limitations,  lack  of  funds, 
local  conditions. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  441 

INSULATORS. 

Insulators  for  high  voltage  lines  are  made  of  porcelain.  This  is  the 
only  material  which  is  adequate.  Best  clays  are  selected,  great  skill 
is  used  in  manufacture,  and  in  burning.  By  design,  porcelain  is  not 
utilized  to  carry  tensile  stresses.  In  compression  its  strength  is 
16,000  to  20,000  pounds;  in  shear,  2400  to  2700  pounds;  in  tension,  650 
to  3300  pounds  per  square  inch.  . 


FIG.  173. — EXAMPLE  OF  FLEXIBLE  STEEL  TOWER  FOR  TRANSMISSION  LINE. 
Latticed  angles.     Suspension  type  disk  insulators. 

Pin  type  insulators  usually  consist  of  3  or  more  shells  or  pieces  per 
insulator,  mounted  on  one  pin.  The  malleable  iron  pin  has  replaced 
the  wooden  pin,  which  in  time  was  " digested"  by  static  currents. 

Suspension  type  insulators  were  first  used  in  1907.  They  have  long 
and  well-interrupted  insulating  surfaces  to  limit  the  surface  leakage. 


442 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Several  20,000  to  25,000-volt  disks  or  cones  are  suspended  in  a  series,  to 
insulate  for  any  potential  used. 

Advantages  of  suspension  type  insulators:  Torsional  strains  on  the 
cross  arms  are  decreased,  but  cross  arms  must  be  longer,  and  torsional 
stresses  on  the  towers  are  increased.  Flexibility  is  obtained  to  reduce 
the  mechanical  stresses.  Cost  of  high-voltage  insulators  is  increased. 
Factors  of  safety  are  raised  in  power  transmission. 


FIG.  174. — Two  25,000-voLT  UNITS  OF  A  SUSPENSION  TYPE  INSULATOR. 

The  pin  type  insulator  gives  fair  results  up  to  50,000  volts.  The 
suspension  type  is  now. practically  standard  above  50,000  volts.  In 
either  case,  an  overhead  ground  wire  is  used,  to  assist  in  preventing  the 
puncture  of  insulators  by  lightning,  except  on  the  Commonwealth  Power 
Company  and  Grand  Rapids-Muskegon,  Michigan,  transmissions,  using 
125,000  and  110,000  volts. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 
DATA  ON  IMPORTANT  HIGH- VOLTAGE  TRANSMISSIONS. 


443 


Name  of  transmission  company. 

Length 
miles. 

Kilowatts 
delivered. 

Voltage 
on  lines. 

No.  of 

cycles. 

Year 
built. 

Connecticut  River  Power  Company,   Vernon,   Vt.  . 

66 

15,000 

66,000 

60 

1908 

Hudson  River  Electric  Power  Co.,  Glen  Falls,  N.  Y.  . 

18 

5,000 

44,000 

38 

1901 

Schenectady  Power  Company  

20 

12,000    ; 

32,000 

38 

1909 

Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power  Company  

160 

15,000 

60,000 

25 

1906 

Toronto  &  Niagara  Falls  Power  Companv 

180 

10,000 

60,000 

25 

1907 

Canadian  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  

15 

82,500 

62,500 

25 

1905 

Electrical  Development  Company,  Niagara,  Ontario. 

80 

95,000 

60,000 

60 

1909 

Buffalo,  Lockport  &  Rochester  Ry.  ;  distribution  from 

20 

15,000 

60,000 

25 

1895 

Niagara  Falls. 

Hydro-electric   Power  Commission  of  Ontario  (290 

180 

40,000 

110,000 

25 

1910 

miles  of  towers). 

Shawinigan  "Water  and  Power  Company                .... 

80 

50,000 

56,000 

30 

1903 

Hamilton  Cataract  and  Power  Company  

40 

25,000 

45,000 

66 

1909 

Winnipeg  Electric  Ry.  Company  

65 

22,500 

60,000 

60 

1904 

Rochester  Ry  and  Light  Company  

30 

8,000 

57,000 

25 

1907 

Pennsylvania  Water  and  Power  Company,  McCalls 

40 

30,000 

70,000 

25 

1910 

Ferry,  Pennsylvania. 

Southern  Power  Company,  Charlotte,   North   Caro- 

55 

50,000 

45,000 

60 

1907 

lina*  1^30  miles  of  tower  line                               

240 

80,000 

100,000 

60 

1910 

Grand  Rapids-Muskegon  Power  Company,  Croton  to 

40 

8,000 

72,000 

30 

1903 

Grand  Rapids. 

50 

10,000 

110,000 

30 

1908 

Indiana  &  Michigan  Electric  Company  

50 

15,000 

47,800 

eo 

1909 

Southern    Wisconsin     Power     Company,     Kilbourn, 

111 

6,000 

40,000 

25 

1909 

Watertown,  Milwaukee. 

La  Crosse  Water  Power  Company,  Wisconsin  

47 

4,800 

46,000 

60 

1909 

Great  Northern  Power  Co.,  Duluth  

14 

10,000 

60,000 

25 

1910 

St.  Croix  Falls  Improvement  Company,   Minneapolis 

41 

20,000 

50,000 

60 

1907 

Taylor's  Falls. 

Northern  Colorado  Power  Company,  Denver  

126 

66,000 

1909 

Central  Colorado  Power  Company,  430  miles  of  lines. 

153 

12,300 

100,000 

60 

1909 

Telluride  Power  Company,  Provo,  Utah  

55 

20,000 

44,000 

60 

1898 

Helena  Power  Transmission  Company  

57 

4,000 

57,000 

60 

1900 

East  Helena-Anaconda  

80 

20,000 

70,000 

60 

1908 

Great  Falls  Power  Company,  Great  Falls-  Anaconda.  .  . 

150 

30,000 

100,000 

60 

1910 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.  R.  Company  

100 

40,000 

66,000 

60 

1907 

50,000 

25 

1909 

Washington  Water  Power  Company,  Spokane  450.  . 

20,000 

63,000 

60 

'    1902 

Puget  Sound  Power  Company,  Tacoma-Seattle  

80 

30,000 

60,000 

60 

1903 

Seattle-Tacoma  Power  Company  

110 

21,000 

60,000 

60 

1898 

Northern  California  Power  Company.  .  . 

60 

10,000 

60,000 

60 

1909 

Great  Western  Power  Company,  Big  Bend-Oakland. 

154 

40,000 

100,000 

60 

1909 

Sierra  &  San  Francisco  Power  Company,  1400  of  lines. 

90,000 

104,000 

60 

1908 

California  Gas  and  Electric  Corporation,  Colgate  to 

117 

60 

Mission  San  Jose:  Electra  to  Oakland. 

145 

60 

Pacific  Light  &  Power,  Kern  River,  Los  Angeles  

117 

30,000 

75,000 

50 

1908 

Southern  California  Edison  Company  

81 

3,000 

33,000 

50 

1898 

444          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
STEEL  TOWERS  FOR  TRANSMISSION  LINES. 


Name  of  power  transmission. 

No.  and  size 
of  conductors. 

Kilo- 
volts. 

No. 
of 
arms. 

Spread 
of 
wires. 

Type  and 
parts  per 
insulator. 

Normal 
length 
of  span. 

Schenectady  Power  
Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  
Ontario  Hydro-electric  

6-000  &  G 
3-00 
6-0000  &  G 

32 
60 
110 

3 
1 
3 

17'-0" 
7'-0" 

Disk,  2 
Pin,     3 

Susp.,  8 

550' 
550 
550 

Southern  Power  N  C 

6-00  &  2G 

100 

6 

6'-0" 

Disk      4 

600 

Grand  Rapids-Muskegon 

3-2 

110 

3 

8'-0" 

Disk    5 

528 

Commonwealth,  Michigan  
Southern  Wisconsin  
Milwaukee  Electric  
La-Crosse,  Wisconsin  
St.  Croix  Falls-Minneapolis  
Great  Northern,  Duluth  
Winnipeg  Electric  Ry  
Telluride  (Colorado)  Power  
Central  Colorado  Power  
Northern  Colorado  Power  

3-2 
6-0  &  G 
6-0  &  G 
3-2  &  G 
3-0000  &  G 
6-00 
6-00 

3-0   &   2  G 

125 
40 
40 
46 
50 
60 
60 
44 
100 
66 

3 
3 
3 
3 
1 

1 
1 

6'-0" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 
6'-0" 

..7M)". 

6'-0" 

12'-0" 
10'-4" 

Disk,  8 
Disk,  3 
Disk,  3 
Pin,  4 
Pin,  3 
Pin,  3 
Pin. 
Susp. 
Susp.    4 

528 
528 
480 
440 
400 
450 

Utah  Light  &  Power  
Great  Falls  Power  Co 

6-0  &  G 
6-0   &   2  G 

40 
100 

2 

10'-4" 

Susp    6 

600 
600 

Anaconda  Copper  Extension  
Washington  Water  Power,  Spokane  .  . 

3-0  &   G 
6-000   &   G 

100 
60 

10'-4" 

Susp.    6 

600 

Great  Western,  San  Francisco  
Sierra  and  San  Francisco 

6-000  &  G 
3-00 

100 
104 

13'-0" 
8'-0" 

Susp.    4 
Susp     5 

750 
800 

Los  Angeles  Kern  River  .... 

9-0000 

75 

2 

6'-0" 

Pin       4 

542 

Arizona  Power  M.  &  M 

6-0 

52 

3 

lO'-O" 

Susp 

Guanajuato,  Mexico  ... 

3-1  &  G 

60 

2 

6'-0" 

Pin    3 

440 

Nexaca,  Mexico  

6-000  &  G 

60 

1 

6'-0" 

Pin,  3 

500 

Conductors  are  of   copper  except  in  the  Southern  Wisconsin;   Ontario  Hydro 
electric  Power;  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario. 

G  signifies  a  protecting  cabJe,  usually  of  7-strand  steel,  strung  over  the  tower. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 
STEEL  TOWERS  FOR  TRANSMISSION  LINES. 


445 


Name  of 
transmission. 

Name  of 
manufacturer 

Height 
of 
tower. 

No. 
of 
legs. 

Width 
at 
base. 

Wt.  of 

tower 
Ib. 

Data 
on 
posts. 

Kind 
of 
steel. 

Schenectady  Power 

Milliken     . 

48-71 

4 

17'-7" 

4350 

Gal. 

Niagara  Lockport  &  On- 

Aermotor 

4 

6'-0" 

2ix2^xi  L 

Gal. 

Archbold  B 

45-50 

4 

6'-0" 

Plain 

Ontario  Hydro-electric. 

Canadian  B  . 

4 

17'-0" 

4000 

McCalls  Ferry  Power 

40-60 

4 

Southern  Power   N    C 

Aermotor 

35 

4 

2400 

Aermotor.  .  . 
Milliken 

40 
50 

4 

4 

3080 
3500 

3x3x3/16  L 

Gal. 

Grand  Rapids-Muskegon  . 

Aermotor.  .  . 

40-53 
45 

3 
3 

12'xl7' 

1700 
1900 

3x3x3/16  L 

Gal. 
Gal 

Southern  Wisconsin  
Milwaukee  Electric  Ry.  . 
St.  Croix-Minneapolis 

Aermotor.  .  . 
Aermotor  .  . 
Archbold  B. 

40 
40 

48 

4 
4 
2 

12'-0" 
12'-0" 
9'-0" 

2150 
2250 

3x3x1/4 
3x3x1/4 
9"-13i  ch. 

Gal. 
Gal. 
Plain. 

Milliken 

44 

4 

13'xl4' 

.    2200 

L 

Gal. 

Telluride  (Colorado)power 

U.S.Wind..  . 

51-58 

13'xll' 

4x4x1/4  L 

Plain. 

Great  Falls    Power  &   T 

4 

13M)" 

2140 

lO'-O" 

Washington  Water  Power, 
Great  Western,  San  Fran. 

U.S.  Wind..  .' 
Milliken  .... 

50-68 
61 

4 
4 
4 

16'-0" 
17'-0" 
15'-0" 

3800 
3400 

4x4x1/4  L 

Los  Angeles,  Kern  River. 
Arizona  Power  M.  &  M.  . 

U.S.Wind.. 
U.S.Wind... 

54-60 

33-42 
41-47 

4 

4 
4 

12'xl3' 
9'-0" 

/4250 
\4950 
1125 

4x4x5/16  L 
2|x2Jxl/8  L 

Gal. 

Gal. 
Gal 

Nexaca,  Mexico  

U.S.Wind... 

26-42 

3 

14'-0" 

3x3x1 

Gal. 

Height  of  tower  is  measured  from  the  connection  near  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  lowest 
transmission  cross  arms.  The  steel  work  below  the  ground  is  generally  less  than  one-seventh  of 
the  height  to  the  upper  cross  arm. 

CONTACT  LINES. 

Voltages  are  usually  600  for  third-rail  lines,  and  600,  1200,  3300,  6600, 
and  11,000  volts  on  overhead  trolley  contact  lines.  The  current  is 
reduced  proportionally  as  the  voltage  is  increased. 

Design  of  contact  lines  for  electric  railway  train  service  involves 
these  essentials:  Mechanical  strength,  electrical  carrying  capacity, 
collection  of  current,  and  adequate  support  or  suspension. 

a.  Mechanical  strength  is  gained  by  the  use  of  3/0  and  4/0  grooved- 
section,  hard-drawn  copper  wire.     Smaller  sizes  are  not  used  in  rail- 
roading because  of  the  danger  from  breakage  after  pitting,  arcing,  hard 
spots,  crystallization,  and  wear.     A  4/0  wire  has  a  tensible  strength  of 
7000  pounds,  or  5000  at  joints,  and  a  working  tension  of  2000  pounds. 

b.  Electric   carrying  capacity  is  generally  many  times  larger  than 
necessary  to  prevent  overheating  of  conductors. 

c.  Collection   of   current   from   contact   lines  requires  that  the  con- 
tact point,  line,  or  surface  be  ample  to  prevent  arcing. 


446  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Trolley  wheels,  cylinders,  or  rollers,  without  seriously  burning  the 
wire  and  wheel,  collect  1200  amperes  at  5  m.  p.  h;  600  amperes  at  15 
m.  p.  h.;  350  amperes,  at  40  m.  p.  h.;  and  200  amperes  at  60  m.  p.  h., 
the  latter  with  catenary  construction.  New  cooled  contact  points  are 
continually  negotiated.  A  pressure  of  30  to  40  pounds  is  required 
between  the  wheel  and  the  wire,  for  speeds  of  50  to  60  m.  p.  h.  Wheel 
collectors  are  seldom  used  in  electric  train  service.  When  a  trolley 
wheel  jumps  off  the  contact  line  at  high  speed,  the  overhead  work 
suffers;  and  at  low  speed  the  drawbars  are  jerked  out. 

Third-rail  contact  shoes,  of  malleable  iron,  at  30  m.  p.  h.,  readily 
collect  2200  amperes,  and  at  60  m.  p.  h.,  600  amperes. 

Pantographs  with  a  wide  sliding  shoe  are  also  used  for  the  collection 
of  heavy  current  from  an  overhead  line.  Brooklyn  Bridge  Railroad 
used  pantographs  before  the  third  rail  was  installed.  Small  pantographs 
are  used  on  locomotives  to  reach  overhead  third  rails  in  switching- 
yards.  Three-phase  and  single-phase  high-speed  railroad  trains  re- 
quire pantographs.  In  train  service,  contacts  are  usually  in  parallel. 

Bows  are  a  modification  of  the  pantograph,  in  which  either  a  cylin- 
drical roller,  or  a  metallic  contact  shoe  of  iron  or  aluminum,  shaped  as 
a  bow,  is  placed  between  two  light-weight  supporting  pipes.  Bows  are 
made  in  many  styles  but  they  are  lighter  than  pantographs.  They  are 
often  compounded,  so  that  the  lower  part  makes  the  large  variations 
in  elevation,  while  the  small  bow,  mounted  upon  the  long  heavy  frames, 
easily  follows  the  minor  variations  in  elevation. 

Height  of  contact  wire  has  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  operation  of 
a  trolley,  pantograph,  or  bow-collector.  European  roads  place  the 
trolley  wire  16  to  17  feet  above  the  rails.  American  roads  place  the 
trolley  22  to  24  feet  above  the  rail.  A  small  change  in  track  alignment 
makes  a  wide  lateral  change  at  the  contact;  and  trouble  seems  to  vary 
about  as  the  square  of  the  height  of  the  trolley  wire  above  the  rail. 

The  mechanics  of  current  collection  from  overhead  lines  is  this:  A 
point  must  be  kept  in  contact  with  a  line.  This  contact  point  travels  at 
speeds  up  to  68  rn.  p.  h.  or  100  feet  per  second.  During  this  second, 
the  contact  wire  varies  2  to  3  inches  in  its  elevation.  The  forces  acting 
on  the  pantograph  or  bow,  to  keep  the  point  and  the  wire  in  contact, 
vary  as  the  mass  and  the  square  of  the  velocity.  Therefore,  the  ideal 
bow  or  pantograph  is  one  with  minimum  weight.  The  velocity  referred 
to  is  the  rate  of  change  of  the  contact  point  in  its  vertical  position. 
The  ideal  line  is  thus  one  in  which  the  wire  does  not  sag.  The  wire 
supports  between  the  brackets  or  bridges  are  placed  at  short  intervals  to 
prevent  a  rapid  change  in  the  vertical  position,  for  these  changes  must 
be  followed  by  the  bow  or  pantograph.  This  involves  a  taut  line,  which 
requires  infinite  tension.  Since  wires  stretch,  gradually  slacken  at 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  447 

curves,  and  vary  greatly  in  length  with  the  temperature,  an  automatic 
adjustment  in  the  tension  by  weights  or  springs  is  desirable.  On  many 
European  roads  the  trolley  is  anchored  at  one  end  and  attached  at  the 
other  end  to  a  weight,  hung  over  a  pulley,  of  2000  pounds  per  mile  of  line. 

The  contact  line  support  must  be  flexible  in  order  to  prevent  local- 
ization of  the  contact  pressure  of  the  pantograph  at  the  supporting 
points.  Intensity  of  pressure  or  of  blows  must  be  avoided,  to  reduce  the 
work  of  destruction  and  the  maintenance  expense.  A  moving  contact 
follows  a  rigid  line,  with  destructive  -chattering  and  vibration. 

On  a  300-foot  span,  a  5-point  suspension,  two  very  light  multiple 
contacts,  and  small  pressure  from  a  bow,  works  out  about  as  well  as  a 
20-point  suspension,  one  contact,  and  heavy  pressure  from  a  pantograph. 

A  large  number  of  types  of  catenary  suspended  line  have  been  tried 
by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  12,  1908,  p.  1546. 

Two  overhead  trolley  contact  wires  are  required  with  3-phase  motors. 
There  is  a  difference  of  potential  of  3000  to  6000  volts  between  the  wires. 
Twro  overhead  wires  have  the  following  disadvantages  : 

Two  contact  wires  must  be  supported  and  insulated  from  each  other, 
and  from  their  mechanical  supports. 

Catenary  line  supports  parallel  to  the  two  trolleys,  if  used,  would 
make  an  expensive  construction. 

Danger  exists,  due  to  the  complication  and  to  the  short  distance 
between  the  two  wires.  (On  the  three-phase  European  roads,  real 
high-speed  service  is  not  attempted.)  The  use  of  6000  or  11,000  volts 
between  the  two  wires  would  thus  be  at  a  disadvantage  for  ordinary, 
50  to  60  m.p.h.  railroad  traffic. 

Cost  of  supports,  insulators,  switch  work,  labor,  and  copper,  is  about 
twice  that  for  the  single  contact  line. 

Maintenance  cost  is  greater  than  with  a  single  contact  line. 

Poles  and  overhead  construction  are  heavier,  because  the  weight  to 
be  supported  and  the  strains  to  be  balanced  are  doubled.  * 

Weight  of  two  wires  for  the  3000-  or  6000-volt,  three-phase  system  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  one  wire  for  the  single-phase  system  at  11,000 
volts,  because  the  current  per  wire  is  higher  for  the  low  voltages. 

Current  per  wire,  for  an  ordinary  railway  train,  or  about  1000  kv-a.,  is 
given  in  the  following  table. 

AMPERES  PER  CONTACT  LINE,  1000  KV-A.,  1  AND  3-PHASE  SYSTEM. 


Potentials  used. 

One-phase,  1-wire  system. 

Three-phase,  2-wire  system. 

3,000  volts. 
6,000  volts. 
11,000  volts. 

333  amperes. 
166  amperes. 
98  amperes. 

192  amperes. 
96  amperes. 
52  amperes. 

448 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  use  of  11,000  volts  has  been  well  standardized  by  single-phase 
railroads  and,  except  for  Great  Northern  Ry.,  3000  volts  is  used  by  all 
three-phase  railroads. 

Contact  line  losses  are  higher  for  the  low-voltage  three-phase  system. 

Pounds  of  copper  required  for  the  three-phase  system  are  14  per  cent, 
greater  than  for  the  single-phase,  for  same  voltage. 

One  trolley  or  two  trolleys,  about  36  inches  apart,  must  be  used  in 
heavy  electric  railroading.  The  subject  deserves  consideration  in  view 
of  the  cost,  the  complication,  and  the  danger. 

"One  object  of  all  engineering  is  to  dispense  with  complications  and  unnecessary 
parts,  unless  some  paramount  advantage  is  gained  by  complication.  Everything 
points  to  the  ultimate  adoption  of  a  single  working  conductor  wherever  heavy  electric 
railroading  is  to  be  expected.  There  are  complications  enough  with  only  one  working 
conductor  at  points  of  limited  clearance  to  convince  railway  engineers  of  the  undesir- 
ability  of  increasing  the  complications  by  the  addition  of  another  conductor." 

"  It  is  a  vast  problem  to  install,  in  a  switchyard  containing  a  maze  of  tracks,  a 
system  of  electric  power  supply  utilizing  a  single  conductor.  Imagine  what  is  to  be 
done  to  supply  this  yard  with  two  overhead  conductors  in  addition  to  the  ground 
return.  The  great  difficulty  and  the  enormous  complications  in  overhead  construc- 
tion in  switching  is  one  of  the  most  serious  handicaps  of  the  three-phase  system 
of  traction."  Steinmetz:  General  Electric  Co.,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905,  page  516. 

One  great  problem  in  electric  traction  is  the  transfer  of  energy  in 
large  quantities,  at  high  potentials,  from  an  overhead  contact  line  to 
a  rapidly  moving  locomotive  used  on  the  main  line  or  in  freight  switch- 
ing yards.  This  transfer  of  energy  is  facilitated  with  one  overhead  con- 
tact line  over  each  track.  The  cost  of  one  or  two  overhead  trolley 
wires  is  important,  but  simplicity  and  safety  are  paramount. 


CONTACT  LINES  USED  ON  THREE-PHASE  RAILROADS. 


* 
Name  of  railway. 

Diameter. 

Gage 
No. 

Circular 
mils. 

Normal 
span. 

Height 
above  rail. 

mm. 

inches. 

Burgdorf-Thun  
Valtellina 

8.0 
8.0 
8.0 
8.3 
11.2 

.315 
.315 
.315 
.326 
.460 

0 
0 
0 
0 
4/0 

100,000 
100,000 
200,000 
106,000 
211,600 

115' 

83 
85 
100 
100 

17'-0" 
17'-0" 
17'-0" 
17'-0" 
24'-0" 

Simplon,  two  
Giovi  

Great  Northern 

TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


449 


Voltage 

Wire  centers. 

i 
Contactor 

•  Span  or      Speed 

Name  of  railway. 

used. 

normal,     curves. 

type. 

brackets,     m.p.h. 

1 

Burgdorf-Thun  .  .  . 

750 

36.0"    

i 
Bow  

.    Bracket  .  '•       24 

Valtellina  
Simplon 

3000 
3000 

34  .5        34  .  5" 
39  0 

Pantograph.  .  . 
Bow            .  .  .  ' 

.  i  Both..  .  .         40 
Span.  .  .           43 

Giovi 

3000 

Pantograph 

;  Span                28 

Great  Northern  .  .  . 

6000 

60  .  0      

Trolley  wheels. 

Both....         15 

Switchwork  for  three-phase  overhead  construction  is  complicated 
at  best,  but  not  impracticable.  Certain  rules  are  to  be  followed: 

One  wire  must  not  occupy  such  space  that  the  collector  can  cause  a  short  circuit 
to  the  other  wire. 

Two  or  more  collectors  may  be  used  on  a  locomotive  or  along  a  motor-car  train, 
but  these  must  not  cause  a  short  circuit.  In  general  it  is  not  much  more  dangerous 
to  use  two  collectors  per  train  than  one.  Valtellina  Railway  uses  two,  38  feet  apart 
on  motor  cars,  and  23  feet  apart  on  locomotives. 

If  the  two  wires  have  unequal  sags,  bad  alignment,  or  over-  or  under-separation, 
a  foul  will  be  caused  by  the  action  of  the  collectors  in  running  above  or  at  the  side  of 
one  wire,  or  between  them. 

Mechanical  contact  must  necessarily  be  continuous  in  switch  work,  either  by 
dead  or  live  wires.  Collectors  must  not  travel  free  in  the  air  as  in  the  case  of  a 
third-rail  shoe. 

Electrical  circuits  must  be  continuous;  that  is,  power  must  be  available  at  all 
times.  Trains  must  be  started  at  all  switches.  Breaks  in  the  current  will  cause 
drawbars  to  be  pulled  out.  Power  to  reverse  must  be  available  to  prevent  accident. 

Separation  of  track  sections,  for  the  control  of  circuits,  necessarily  increases  the 
complication. 

CATENARY  CONSTRUCTION. 

Suspension  of  a  contact  wire  by  hangers  from  a  steel  messenger 
cable,  which  has  several  times  the  strength  of  hard-drawn  copper  con- 
tact wire,  is  known  as  catenary  construction  The  plan  is  used  to  ob- 
tain long  spans,  strength,  safety,  and  a  level  contact  wire.  In  detail: 

Supports  for  the  messenger  cable  are  usually  structural  steel  bridges 
for  long  spans,  and  wood  or  steel  poles  for  medium  spans. 

Messenger  cables  made  of  double-galvanized  plow  steel  of  highest 
tensile  strength  are  used,  and  spans  of  from  250  to  300  feet  are  easily 
carried.  A  1/2-inch  7-strand  cable  has  a  minimum  elastic  limit  of  about 
6000  pounds,  which  is  60  per  cent,  of  its  breaking  strain. 

Tensile    strains    in    a    suspended   messenger  or  catenary   cable   are 

proportional  to  WL2/8D,  where  W  is  the  weight  of  the  load  in  pounds 

per   running  foot  (about  1  pound  for  4/0  trolley,   1/2-inch  messenger, 

and  15  feet  between  suspenders),  L  is  the  length  of  the  cable  span,  in 

29 


450          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

feet,  and  D  is  the  sag  of  the  cable  span,  in  feet.  In  case  a  support  is 
broken,  L  is  doubled  and  the  strains  are  increased  about  40  per  cent. 
Coatings  of  ice  1/2  inch  thick,  and  wind  pressures  of  about  8  pounds 
per  square  foot  must  be  considered. 

Insulators  for  messenger  cables  are  porcelain;  for  guys  are  of  impreg- 
nated wood  in  series  with  porcelain.  When  the  voltage  is  6000,  wood 
may  be  used  in  tension,  but  porce]ain  is  always  used  in  compression. 

Suspenders  are  used  between  the  messenger  cable  and  the  contact 
line.  Suspender  links  should  be  flexible,  to  prevent  arcing  by  the  con- 
tactor, and  bent,  looped,  curved,  or  coiled  suspenders  can  be  used 
as  well  as  straight  solid  rods.  Links  must  not  be  loose  to  wear,  or  con- 
tain cup-pointed  set  screws  which  cut  the  cable;  and  so  bolted  clamps 
usually  connect  the  ends  of  the  suspender  to  the  cable  and  contact  line. 
A  horizontal  spacing  of  clamps  of  18  to  25  feet  is  common  practice. 

Contact  lines  are  built  of  grooved  copper  wire,  without  or  with  a 
steel  wire  hung  below  and  parallel  to  the  copper  wire.  With  the  com- 
pound, or  multiple  catenary  construction,  great  flexibility  is  gained  by 
suspending  the  steel  contact  wire  from  the  copper  wire  at  points  half 
way  between  the  suspenders  from  the  messenger.  Brackets  which  sup- 
port messenger  cables  are  hinged,  to  allow  slight  vertical,  and  also  some 
horizontal  swing. 

Catenary  construction  for  three-phase  railways  should  be  similar 
to  that  of  single-phase  railways  if  speeds  are  to  be  high  on  the  former. 
The  necessity  of  insulating  the  catenary  cables  from  each  other,  and 
from  the  supporting  structure,  is  evident.  Catenary  cables,  parallel  to 
the  contact  line,  have  not  yet  been  adopted  by  three-phase  roads. 

Berlin-Zossen  contact  line  construction  with  three  11,000-volt  wires 
in  a  vertical  plane  was  a  failure.  The  complication  and  cost  were  too 
great;  yet  there  were  no  switches  from  the  main  line.  The  side  pres- 
sure between  the  bows  and  the  contact  lines  was  very  light. 

Valtellina  Railway,  and  Great  Northern  Railway  trolley  wires  are 
usually  supported,  near  each  pair  of  poles,  by  two  independent  steel  span 
cables,  and  the  latter  are  spread  about  39  inches.  When  brackets  are 
used  the  two  trolleys  are  supported  from  two  independent  steel  span 
cables,  spread  about  13  inches,  each  cable  supporting  a  trolley  wire 
from  an  insulated  hanger. 

Simplon  terminal  yard  construction  is  designed  to  support  two  trolleys  from  two 
cross-suspended  wires  stretched  between  light  tubular  steel  supports.  Vertical  steel 
supports  are  in  tripod  form,  and,  where  they  straddle  6  tracks,  a  horizontal  tie  bar 
is  placed  between  the  upper  ends  of  the  tripods.  The  uprights  are  fixed  to  earth 
plates  imbedded  in  two  feet  of  concrete,  and  take  up  a  very  small  portion  of  the  way, 
give  great  stability,  are  cheap,  and  do  not  obstruct  the  view  of  signals. 

Simplon  Tunnel  construction  involves  copper  plated  steel  cross  wires  stretched 
between  gun-metal  studs  grouted  into  the  face  of  the  tunnel,  the  cross  wires  being 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


451 


insulated  with  common  porcelain  and  drawn  tight.  The  studs  are  82  inches  apart. 
The  trolley  wire  is  secured  by  means  of  ebonite-covered  bolts  to  gun-metal  cross  bars, 
the  ends  of  which  are  screwed  into  bell-shaped  porcelain  insulators,  a  layer  of  hemp 
and  asbestos  being  interposed  between  the  screws  and  the  porcelain  at  each  end. 


FIG.  175. — GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY.     INSULATOR  SUPPORT  IN  CONCRETE  ROOF  OF  TUNNEL,  PARAL- 
LEL TO  THE  CONTRACT  LINE. 

These  porcelain  insulators  are  in  turn  screwed  into  gun-metal  end  caps  with  a  layer 
of  rubber,  which  is  imposed  to  give  elasticity  to  the  whole  insulator  and  thus  to  pre- 
vent a  fracture.  The  insulators  are  tested  to  40,000  volts,  while  the  maximum 
working  voltage  is  3300. 


FIG.    116. — GREAT   NORTHERN   RAILWAY,   CASCADE  'i  TUNNEL   YARDS.     VIEW   OF  SWITCHWORK. 

The  tunnel  line  is  12  1/2  miles  long.  Power  plants  are  placed  at  each  end.  Two 
trolley  wires,  each  100,000  cm.,  are  used  for  each  phase  to  avoid  the  handling  of 
heavier  wire  in  the  tunnel.  If  one  wire  breaks  or  becomes  defective  it  can  be  cut 
away  or  renewed  with  facility.  The  overhead  wires  are  arranged  in  zigzag  fashion,  to 
equalize  the  wear  along  the  collecting  bow. 


452 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Giovi  Railway  three-phase  contact  line  is  suspended  from  two  parallel  catenary 
cables  one  meter  apart.  Flat  suspender  links  are  used.  The  catenary  and  contact 
wires  are  supported  by  long  cantilevers  made  of  two  6-inch  I  beams  extending  from 
heavy  structural  steel  poles.  Light  gas  pipe  like  that  at  the  Simplon  yards  is  not 
used.  Hanger  supports  are  clamped  to  the  under  flange  of  the  cantilever  I  beams 
and  grip  a  high-tension,  horizontal,  spool  insulator  which  is  cemented  on  a  1.5-inch 
iron  pipe.  The  wire  hangers  are  clamped  to  this  insulator  and  to  the  contact  line 
below.  Each  hanger  has  a  pair  of  parallel-motion  links,  by  which  vertical  flexi- 
bility is  obtained.  See  photographs  by  Miller  in  Elec.  World,  Oct.  13,  1910,  page  863. 

Syracuse,  Lake  Shore  &  Northern  Railroad,  a  double-track  direct-current  road 
between  Syracuse  and  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  uses  catenary  construction  for  direct  current. 
Bridges  span  the  track  at  300-foot  intervals.  These  consist  of  two  "A"  frames, 
erected  in  concrete  foundations,  and  connected  by  a  30-foot  truss.  Angle  braces 


FIG.   177. — GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY  ANCHOR  BRIDGE  FOR  DEAD  END  OF  CATENARY  LINE. 
Trolley  poles  and  trolley  wires  over  each  locomotive   are  6  feet  apart. 

connect  the  frames  and  trusses.  Catenary  construction  consists  of  7/16-inch  galva- 
nized steel  strand  supported  by  a  2-piece  22,000  volt-porcelain  insulator.  The  sag 
is  6.5  feet  at  100°  F.,  and  5.5  feet  at  20°  F.  The  trolley  is  a  No.  4/0  cable,  supported 
by  hanger  rods  every  10  feet  horizontally.  Their  length  varies  from  4.5  to  77.5 
inches.  In  1909,  additional  catenary  construction  was  erected  and  a  500,000-cm. 
copper  feeder  cable  was  used  in  place  of  the  galvanized  steel  strand. 

Erie  Railroad  catenary  construction  on  a  37-mile,  11, 000- volt,  single-phase 
contact  line  between  Rochester  and  Mount  Morris,  New  York,  was  erected  in  1906. 

Steel  side  poles  are  used  around  extensive  terminal  yards.  Chestnut  poles  are 
used  on  the  main  line.  These  vary  in  length  from  35  to  55  feet,  with  an  8-inch  top. 
The  spacing  is  120  feet.  The  pole  brackets  are  of  3x3x108- inch  "T"  bars.  The 
bracket  insulators  are  double  petticoat  porcelain,  5  inches  high.  The  messenger 
cable  is  of  7/16-inch  galvanized  steel  strand,  tested  for  2250  pounds.  Hangers 
are  spaced  10  feet  apart  and  consist  of  5/8-inch  rods.  Trolley  wire  is  No.  3/0. 
Pneumatically  operated  pantographs  are  used. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


453 


The  conditions  of  service  are  severe,  because  the  line  work  is  badly  maintained 
and  because  the  steam  locomotives  of  thru  trains  and  all  freight  trains  run  on  the 
track  under  the  catenary.  Trouble  has  been  experienced  in  wind  storms  due  to  the 
wide  swing  of  the  trolley,  also  from  chafing  between  the  hangers  and  the  messenger. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  catenary  line  construction  is  used  on  22  miles 
of  the  4-track  New  York  division  between  Woodlawn  and  Stamford.  It  was  erected 
in  1906  for  11, 000- volt  single-phase  service. 

Anchor  bridges  used  on  the  New  York  Division  of  the  New  Haven  road  are  located 
about  every  two  miles  on  straight  track.  The  posts  are  61  feet  10  inches  on  centers. 
The  tracks  are  on  13-foot  centers.  The  base  is  built  up  of  plates  and  angles  which 
rest  on  concrete  pedestals.  The  latter  are  8  feet  deep,  7  feet  2  inches  wide  at  the 
base,  and  4  feet  6  inches  wide  at  the  top.  The  lower  cord  of  the  truss  is  24  feet  and 


FIG.  178. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  RAILROAD.     OVERHEAD  CONSTRUCTION. 

the  trolley  is  22  feet  above  the  head  of  the  rail.  The  bridges  carry  semiphores  for 
each  track,  oil  feeder  circuit-breakers,  trolley  line  circuit-breakers,  lightning  arresters, 
transformers,  etc.  See  drawings  in  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  April  14,  1906. 

Four-track  bridges  are  used  between  Woodlawn  and  New  Rochelle  and  6-track 
bridges  between  New  Rochelle  and  Stamford. 

Steel  bridges  300  feet  apart  carry  a  double-catenary  suspension  with  two  9/16- 
inch,  7-strand  galvanized  steel  cables,  which  have  a  6-foot  sag  between  bridges. 

Trolley  wire  of  4/0  copper  is  suspended  from  the  two  catenary  cables,  being  placed 
at  the  lower  apex  of  an  equilateral  triangle.  This  plan  of  suspension  prevents  side 
motion  of  the  trolley  wire  when  the  pantograph  is  swayed  by  changes  in  track  align- 
ment, but  it  provides  a  very  rigid  and  heavy  construction  for  the  high-speed  train 
service. 

In  operation,  the  pressure  from  the  heavy  pantograph  which  is  used  formed 
hard  spots  in  the  line,  and  gathered  up  the  slack  in  the  copper  in  kinks  at  hangers. 
The  copper  wire  wore  rapidly  at  the  suspension  point,  and  fractured.  In  1908  there 
was  added  a  horizontal,  grooved,  steel  contact  wire  supported  by  9-ounce  clips  from 
the  former  solid  copper  contact  wire,  at.  mid-points  between  messenger  hangers. 


454          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

The  steel  does  not  expand  or  kink  like  copper.  The  tension  in  this  steel  wire  does 
not  exceed  the  elastic  limit  of  the  steel  at  low  temperatures. 

The  maintenance  expense  per  mile  of  line  and  per  passenger  train-mile  is  reported 
to  be  decidedly  less  for  the  catenary  construction  than  for  the  third-rail  construction 
used  by  the  Hew  Haven  for  one-third  of  its  run. 

Harlem  River  catenary  construction,  for  62  miles  of  freight  yards,  embodies 
towers  along  each  side  of  the  tracks  on  about  250-foot  centers,  which  towers  are 
cross  connected  by  7/8-inch  steel  cable,  which  usually  spans  6  to  9  tracks.  Sus- 
penders are  on  10-foot  centers  and  support  a  porcelain  insulator,  below  which  are 
suspenders  for  a  2/0  steel  contact  line.  Two  additional  cross  catenary  spans  connect 
the  towers  to  steady  the  contact  line.  There  is  no  catenary  parallel  to  the  contact 
line.  See  drawings  by  Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911. 


FIG.  179. — NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  AND  HARTFORD  RAILROAD  OVERHEAD  CONSTRUCTION. 


New  York,  West  Chester  and  Boston  4-track  catenary  construction  embodies 
steel  bridges  on  300-foot  centers,  7/8-inch  main  messenger  strand,  from  which  5/8- 
inch  messenger  strand  is  suspended  at  two  points  50  feet  from  each  tower.  Hangers 
are  placed  on  10-foot  centers  and  support  a  4/0  copper  wire  and  a  4/0  steel  contact 
wire.  The  four  messenger  cables  are  cross-connected  by  41-foot  3-inch,  5.5-pound 
per  foot  I-beams,  at  points  50  feet  each  side  of  each  tower. 

Boston  and  Maine  4-track  yard  construction  embodies  two  latticed  steel  towers 
at  each  side  of  the  track,  top  connected  by  a  5/8-inch  steel  strand;  a  large  sag; 
5/16-inch  soft  steel  strand  suspenders;  and  insulators  in  the  suspenders,  below 
which  is  a  4/0  copper  wire  and  a  4/0  contact  wire.  Between  the  insulator  und  the 
trolley  a  5/8-inch  horizontal  cross-strand  is  connected  to  steady  the  4  trolleys, 
the  ends  being  connected  to  the  two  towers.  The  catenary,  parallel  to  the  trolley, 
usually  extends  from  the  insulator  but  on  some  of  the  work  the  catenary  is  omitted. 

Boston  and  Maine  2-track  construction  embodies  300-foot  spans,  5/8-inch  steel 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


455 


messenger  strand,  suspended  from  insulators  clamped  to  the  lower  cord  of  the  bridge 
truss,  a  4/0  copper  trolley  wire  and  a  4/0  phono  contact  wire. 

Catenary  construction  in  the  tunnel  embodies  a  catenary  suspension  wire, 
1/2-inch  round  rod  suspended  on  10-foot  centers,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  double 
hanger  for  two  4/0  contact  wires. 

CATENARY  CONSTRUCTION  DATA. 


Name  of  railway. 

Type 
of 
support. 

Span 
in 
feet. 

Messenger 
cable 
diameter. 

Hanger 
centers 
usad. 

Trolley 
wire 
No. 

No. 
of 
tracks. 

Catenary 
sag 
normal. 

New  Haven: 
1906  

.     Bridge  .  . 

300 

2-9/16" 

10' 

4/0 

4 

6'-3" 

1908  

.    Bridge  .  . 

300 

2-9/16" 

10' 

4/0 

4 

6'-3" 

1910  

.    Arch.  .  .  . 

300 

4-1  i 

10' 

4/0 

6 

10'-')" 

Harlem  Yards  

.    Cable  .  .  . 

250 

1-7/8" 

10' 

2/0 

6  to9 

N.  Y.  West.  &  Boston  
Boston  &   Maine  
New  Canaan  Branch  
Grand  Trunk 

.    Biidge  .  . 
.    Bridge  .  . 
.    Bracket  . 
Bridge 

300 
300 
150 
250 

1-1  &  1" 

i-i" 

1-7/16" 
1-5/8" 

10' 
10' 
14' 

4/0 
4/0 
4/0 

4 
2 
1 

1  to  8 

8'-0" 
8'-0" 

Erie  R.  R  

.    Bracket  . 

120 

1-7/16" 

10' 

3/0 

1 

Washington,      Baltimore 
Annapolis 

ft 
Bracket 

150 

1-3/8" 

16' 

4/0 

1 

Syracuse,     Lake      Shore 
Northern  
Rock  Island  Southern  
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  
&  South  Bend 

&   Bridge  .  . 
.  ;  Bridge  .  . 
.  !  Bracket  . 
.    Bracket. 

300 
300 

150 
167 

1-7/16" 
1-3/4" 
1-7/16" 
1-8/16" 

10' 
30' 
15' 
14' 

4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 

2           / 
2           1 
1 

6.5'  @  100° 
5.5'©20° 

Peoria  Ry.  &  Terminal  
Colorado  &  Southern  
Galveston-Houston  
Seattle  &  Everett  
Visalia  Electric  

.    Span  .... 
.    Bracket  . 
.    Bracket  . 
.    Bracket  . 
.    Bracket  . 
Bracket 

100 
120 
150 
140 
120 
328 

1-11/16" 
1-7/16" 
1-7/16" 
1-7/16" 
1  7/16" 

14' 
10' 
15' 
20' 
11' 
16' 

3/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
4/0 
1/0 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

6tolO 
13'-0" 
I'-O" 

Midland   England 

Bridge 

3/0 

2 

London,   Brighton  
&  South  Coast  .    .  . 

.     Bridges  . 

180 

2-3/8" 

10' 

4/0 

2 

5.0'@50° 

i 

Suspenders  from  single  messenger  cables  usually  vary  in  length  from  6  to  20  inches  per  span. 

A  copper  contact  wire  is  used  in  all  the  above  cases,  except  for  the  1908  New  Haven  work 
wherein  a  4/0  steel  contact  wire  was  suspended  from  the  copper  wire.  The  New  Haven,  Seebach- 
Wettingen,  Midland,  Cologne-Bonn,  Blankanese-Ohlsdorf,  and  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  use  a 
double  catenary.  Phono-electric  contact  wire  is  used  on  the  Colorado  &  Southern,  near  Denver. 

Grand  Trunk  uses  two  300,000  cm.  trolleys  in  the  tunnel,  attached  to  the  tunnel  shell  at  in- 
tervals of  12  feet. 

Brackets  are  usually  2  1/4x2  l/4x5/16-inch,  T-steel,  11  feet  long. 

Trolley  tension  is  usually  2000  pounds  and  messenger  tension  is  2200  pounds. 


THIRD -RAIL  CONTACT  LINES. 

American  and  European  third-rail  lines  with  length  of  track,  number  of  motor 
cars,  and  location  of  third-rail  were  listed  under  <:  History  of  Electric  Traction." 

A  conductor  of  large  cross-section,  one  which  was  decidedly  more 
substantial  and  which  had  more  contact  surface  than  the  overhead 
copper  trolley,  is  used  to  transmit  and  to  deliver  low-voltage  currents. 


456  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  electric  roads  which  use  what  is  now 
called  the  "third-rail  system"  are:  A  positive  third-rail  contact  line, 
track  rails  for  the  return  circuit,  low  voltage,  large  currents,  direct 
current,  for  local  and  important  traffic,  or  long-distance  and  light  traffic. 

Third  rails  were  at  first  common  track  rails,  but  the  rail  section  has 
been  changed  slightly  in  shape  to  suit  the  contact  shoe,  and  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  steel  has  been  purified  to  increase  the  conductivity, 
and  modified  to  obtain,  a  soft  steel  which  wears  slowly.  The  current 
carrying  capacity  and  the  resistance  of  a  100-pound  steel  rail,  well 
bonded  at  joints,  approximates  that  of  a  copper  cable  which  has  a  cross- 
section  of  1,000,000  circular  mils. 

Overhead  third-rail  conductors  were  tried  by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Railroad  at  Baltimore  in  1896,  but  were  soon  abandoned.  An  unyield- 
ing rigid  contact  was  found  to  produce  chattering  and  sparking. 

The  Buda-Pest  Stadtbahn  Aktien  Gesellshaft,  an  underground  road 
2.4  miles  long,  uses  two  overhead  contact  rails  attached  to  the  roof  of  the 
tunnel  for  positive  and  return  current,  the  current  being  collected  by 
means  of  a  rather  flexible  pantograph. 

Overhead  third-rail  conductors  are  now  used  in  freight  switching 
yards,  for  terminals  at  Brooklyn,  for  the  Steinway  tunnel,  etc. 

Third-rail  voltage,  between  the  third-rail  and  the  track  rails  is  com- 
monly 600  volts.  This  voltage  does  not  produce  objectionable  leakage 
of  electricity  even  when  the  third  rail  is  covered  temporarily  with 
water.  A  man  in  normal,  healthy  condition  will  not  be  killed  by  the 
current  which  will  pass  from  the  third  rail  thru  his  body  to  the  track 
rails  or  ground,  from  accidental  contact.  The  danger  from  contact 
by  workmen  is  much  decreased,  when  660  to  800  volts  are  used,  if  the 
third  rail  is  protected  by  plank,  terra-cotta,  vitrified  fibre,  etc. 

The  use  of  1200  volts  on  third  rails  increases  the  leakage  materially. 
Accidental  contact  with  a  1200-volt,  direct-current,  third-rail  line  is 
most  dangerous  to  life.  In  mountain  roads,  where  the  fall  of  heavy 
wet  snow  often  exceeds  12  inches  in  a  few  hours,  the  ordinary  snow 
'plow  could  not  be  used,  because  the  third  rail  would  be  in  the  way; 
and  even  if  the  third  rail  were  4  feet  away  from  the  track  rail  it  would 
still  be  in  the  way,  and  it  would  not  be  tolerated  by  railroad  operators. 

Insulation  for  third-rail  supports  at  first  was  wood,  boiled  in  par- 
affine.  It  wore  and  burned,  and  was  discarded  for  reconstructed  granite, 
which  disintegrated.  Porcelain  has  been  adopted.  The  annual  breakage 
from  leakage,  blows,  rail  movement,  derailment,  etc.,  is  about  1  per 
cent. 

Supports  for  third  rails  rest  on  the  extended  ties  so  that  the  track- 
rail  and  third-rail  alignment  remains  in  the  same  plane.  Insulator  sup- 
porting distances  vary.  New  York  Central  uses  11-foot  centers;  Long 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  457 

Island,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan  Central,  10-foot;  other  roads,  9- 
to  8-foot.  The  third  rail  is  placed  between  the  double  tracks,  to 
standardize  and  in  order  that  the  off-side  may  be  used  for  the  unloading 
of  materials. 

Disadvantages  of  the  third  rail  for  railroads  are: 

1.  Danger  is  increased  for  track  employees,  trespassers  on  right-of 
way,  passengers  at  stations,  trainmen  at  shunting  yards,  and  teams  at 
freight   terminals.     The   third   rail   is   located   alternately  on  different 
sides  of  the  track  to  suit  cross-overs,  curves,  and  physical  restrictions; 
and   as  a  result  its  location  is  uncertain  and  danger  exists,  as  the  rear 
brakeman  or  guard  who  is  sent  back  on   the    run  at  night  to  protect 
the  train  soon  finds.     The  coupling  of  cars  and  the  crossing  of  yards  in 
a  hurry,  are  made  more  dangerous.     Risk  is  necessary  during  the  unload- 
ing of   freight   at   sidings,    the   quick   handling   of   materials,  and   the 
renewals     of     track,    particularly    at     night.     Wrecks     become     more 
dangerous.     Derailment  of  a  train  may  be  followed  by  fires  from  electric 
power.     Replacement  of  rails  requires  additional  time   for   emergency 
repairs. 

2.  Restrictions  are  made  on  clearance  of  foreign  cars,  damaged  cars, 
snow  plows,  and  wrecking  cranes,  particularly  at  tunnels  and  bridges. 
The  distance  from  the  third  rail  to  the  track  rail  should  exceed  32  inches 
for  car  clearance,  but  this  distance  is  seldom  obtained. 

3.  Complication  occurs  where    complete    control  of   electric   power 
for  trains  is  absolutely  necessary,  namely  in  freight  yards  and  switching- 
points,  at  turnouts  and  crossovers,  and  at  ladder  tracks  or  puzzle  switches. 
Xo  gaps  can  be  jumped  in  freight  service.     There  is  enough  of  complica- 
tion, risk,  danger,  and  hurry,  without  that  which  is  added  by  a  600-volt 
third-rail  at  the  side  of  the  track.     The  overhead  third-rail  construction 
required  at  crossing  switches,  22  feet  out  of  the  way,  is  so  heavy  that  the 
supporting  bridges  increase  the  complication  and  danger  because  the 
heavy  structures  near  the  rails  obstruct  the  view  of  the  track  and  signals. 

4.  Derail  switches  and  dwarf  switches  are  harder  to  install  and  to 
operate;  and  frequently  they  cannot  be  seen,  on  account  of  the  obstruction 
of  the  view  by  the  third  rail. 

5.  Leakage  thru  broken  insulation  increases  the  danger,  particularly 
at  night.     Many  insulators  are  broken  by  accidental  falling  of  metal 
across  the  third  rail.     Block  signal  systems  may  thus  be  made  tempo- 
rarily unserviceable. 

6.  The  use  of  1200  to  1500  volts  on  third  rails  increases  the  danger 
from  fire,  danger  during  snow-plow  operation,  deaths  by  shock,  leakage 
to  signal  circuits,  burning  of  insulators,  etc. 

7.  Cost  of  third-rail  construction  in  freight  yards  is  three  times  as 
great  as  the  cost  of  overhead  high-voltage  contact  lines. 


458  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Return  conductors  are  the  track  rails  and  supplementary  copper 
feeders  which  form  the  return  circuit.  The  rail  resistance  loss  is  often 
negligible  in  high-voltage  electric  systems  wherein  a  large  part  of  the 
current  " returns"  to  the  power  plant  thru  the  earth.  With  low-voltage 
systems  the  loss  usually  exceeds  3  per  cent,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  rail 
joints  must  be  carefully  connected  by  expensive  rail  bonds,  except  in  three- 
wire  neutral-track  systems. 

Automatic  block-signal  circuits  require  the  use  of  one  of  the  rails  of 
each  single  track. 

Fourth  rails  are  used  by  London  Electric  Railways  Company,  to 
reduce  the  loss  in  voltage  drop  along  the  earthbed  rail  return,  which, 
by  Board  of  Trade  Rules,  to  prevent  electrolysis,  must  not  exceed  7  volts 
and  must  be  an  insulated  return.  Fortenbaugh  in  a  paper  to  A.  I.  E.  E., 
Jan.,  1908,  states  the  objections  to  fourth  rails. 

A  treatise  on  return  conductors  would  include  the  following  subjects: 
Relative  resistance  of  steel  and  copper;  rail  bonds,  their  section,  length, 
location,  life,  and  maintenance;  impedance  and  resistance;  losses  in  energy; 
damage  by  electrolysis,  etc.  See  references  which  follow. 


COST  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 

Insulators  for  high-voltage  transmission  lines  are  made  in  several 
types  as  noted  below.  The  factor  of  safety  desired  controls  the  cost. 
Factory  prices  average  about  as  set  forth  in  the  following: 

12,000-  to  22,000- volt,  3-shell,  pin-type $   .40  to  $   .50 

33,000-  to  44,000-volt,  3-shell,  pin-type 50  to  .75 

44,000-  to  55,000-volt,  3-shell,  pin-type 75  to  1 .00 

60,000-  to  66,000-volt,  4-shell,  pin-type 1 .00  to  1 . 10 

20,000-  to  25,000- volt,  1-disk,  susp.-type 75  to  1 . 25 

60,000-  to  75,000- volt,  3-disk,  susp.-type 2.25  to  3.00 

20,000-  to  25,000-volt,  1-disk,  cone-type 1 . 00  to  1 . 50 

Each  malleable  insulator  pin,  with  separate  ferrule,  extra .35 

Each  malleable  suspender  or  clamp  for  disk,  link,  or  cone,  extra .25 

Cost  of  poles  cannot  be  stated  for  a  general  case.  Length,  kind  of 
material,  freight,  and  foundations  are  the  variables. 

Towers  for  steel  transmission  lines  are  generally  made  of  angles  and 
channels  of  standard  section.  The  cost  of  fabricated  steel,  f.o.b  cars  at 
factory,  is  about  3  cents  per  pound,  and  3  1/2  cents  galvanized. 

Bridges  of  fabricated  structural  steel,  used  for  supporting  2-  to  6- 
track  catenary  construction,  cost,  f.o.b.  cars  at  factory,  about  3  cents 
per  pound. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES 


459 


COST  OF  THREE-PHASE  HIGH-TENSION  TRANSMISSION  LINES. 

Comparative  Data  per  Mile  of  Transmission. 


Type  of  construction. 


Wooden  poles.         Steel  towers. 


Voltage. 


13,000         60,000 


60,000 


Support,  50  poles  or  12  towers  

| 
.  .      $350 

$650 

$1800 

Cross  arm,  50  on  poles  ;  part  of  towers  

100 

380 

Telephone  line  material 

1         50 

50 

75 

Ground  wire  material  

35 

40 

100 

Insulator  pins  

..!         35 

130 

0 

Insulators  

..I         30 

550 

155 

Three  No.  O  wires,  erected  

.  .       1000 

1000 

1000 

Installation  of  wires,  guys,  and  insulators  .  .  . 

.  .         200 

200 

|          270 

Total  

$2000 

$3000 

1 

Towers  for  a  6-wire  transmission  line  cost  about  $2400. 

Estimate  omits  cost  of  right-of-way,  15  per  cent,  for  contractor's  profit,  5  per 
cent,  for  engineering  and  5  per  cent,  for  contingencies.  Change  for  actual  size  of 
wire  to  be  used. 


COST  OF  CATENARY  CONTACT  LINE. 


Name  of  railway. 


Heaviest  interurban 

Light  interurban 

Steam   R.  R.  electrification 
Steam  R.  R.  electrification 

New    York,    New    Haven 

Hartford.   Main  line. 
New    York.    New    Haven    & 

Hartford.  Harlem  Yard 
Hamburg-Altoona. . 

Seebach-Wettingen 

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheven 

ingen. 
Three-phase 

Two  4/0  wires.  No  catenary 


y. 

Voltage 
used 
one-phase. 

Brackets, 
bridges 
or  poles. 

No. 
of 
tracks. 

Spans 
in 
feet. 

11,000 

Bracket  

1-2 

150 

11,000 

Bracket  

1 

150 

Span  

1 

150 

ation  .  .  . 

'  11,000 

Bridge  

2 

300 

ation  .  . 

1  1  ,000 

Bridge  

4 

300 

,ven    & 

11,000 

Bridge  

4 

300 

,ven    & 

11,000 

Tower  and  cable  . 

Yards. 

250 

ards. 

6  to  9 

6,000 

Bridge  

2 

157 

12,000 

Wooden    pole  .  .  . 

1 

164 

leven- 

10,000 

Latticed  pole 

2 

157 

1     and  light  bridge 

6,000 

Bracket  

1 

150 

itenary. 

6,000 

Span.  . 

Cost  per 
single-track 
mile. 


$2150 
1800 
2300 
3000  to 
6000 
7000  to 

10000 

17000 

with  foundations 
1800 

5000 
4100 
5450 

5600 
8000 


460 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


COST  OF  CATENARY  CONTACT  LINES. 

Estimate  per  mile  of  Double  Track.     Comparative. 

Poles,  span  cable  hangers,  without  catenary $1100 

Poles,  brackets,  messenger  suspenders,  catenary 1300 

Bridges,  messenger,  suspenders,  catenary 1700 

Add  for  insulators  and  miscellaneous 250 

Add  for  two  4/0  copper  trolleys 2000 

Add  for  labor  and  tools 1200  to  1450 

Total  cost  per  double-track  mile $4800  to  $5400 

COST  OF  THIRD-RAIL  LINES  PER  MILE. 


Pounds 

Under-  or  over- 

Cost of 

complete 

work. 

Name  of  railway. 

per  yard. 

running. 

Material. 

Labor. 

Total. 

Michigan  United  Ry  
Estimate  by  Armstrong 

60 
70 

Over-running 

$3575 

920 

$3000 
4475 

California  Traction,  1200- 
volt. 
Boston  &  Eastern  

40 
90 

Under-running 
Protected,  u.-r. 

2748 

552 

3300 
4700 

Heavy  interurban  
Railroad  electrification 

70 
100 

Protected,  o.-r. 
Protected,  o  -r 

4000 
6000 

Steel  rails,  70  pounds  at  $35  per  2240-pound  ton  cost  $1950  per  mile. 

Michigan  United  Railway  Company  reports  that  its  third-rail  installation  cost  about  the  same 
as  a  4/0  trolley  with  one  500,000  cm.  feeder  on  35-foot  poles;  and  that  the  third  rail  has  50  per 
cent,  greater  capacity.  A  60-pound,  low-carbon  Carnegie  rail  costing  $35  per  ton,  had  a  capacity 
of  1,080,000  cm.  and  a  relative  conductivity  of  6.83.  It  was  installed  on  vitrified  clay  block 
insulators  for  a  total  cost  of  $3000  per  mile. 

Cost  of  maintenance  of  142  miles  of  third-rail  contact  line  on  the  West  Jersey 
and  Seashore  Railroad  for  1910  was  $10,864  or  $77  per  year  per  mile. 


LITERATURE. 
References  on  Power  Distribution. 

ROSENTHAL:  " Calculations  of  Transmission  Lines,"  McGraw,  1909. 

BERG:  " Electrical  Energy,  its  Generation,  Transmission,  Utilization,"  McGraw,  1908. 

DEL  MAR:  "Electric  Power  Conductors,"  Van  Nostrand,  1907. 

DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  for  Railways,"  Chapter  XX,  Van  Nostrand,  1909. 

A.  I.  E.  E.:  "Commitee  Report  on  High-tension  Transmission,"  McGraw,  1907. 

Young:  One-phase  Power  Transmission,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907. 

Ricker:  Substation  Location,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1905. 

Werner:  Spacing  of  Substations  and  Transformers,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  461 

Roberts:  Transmissions  for  Elec.  Rys.  in  Sparsely  Settled  Communities,  S.  R.  J., 

Oct.  20,  1906. 

Reports  on  Power  Transmission,  A.  I.  E.  E.  Committee,  1903  to  1911. 
Report  on  Overhead  Line  Construction,  Amer.  Elec.  Ry.  Assoc.,  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911, 

p.  964. 

Reports  on  Power  Distribution,  A.  S.  &  I.  Ry.,  Eng.  Assoc.  Committees,  1908-1909. 
Data  on  Trolley  Lines  and  Costs,  E.  T.  W.,  Oct.  16,  1909. 
Sprague:  Power  Transmission  by  Direct  Current,  E.  W.,  Dec.  30,  1905. 

References  on  Copper  and  Aluminum  Wire. 

Perrine:  Aluminum  Wire,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1900. 

Mershon:  Drop  in  Alternating-current  Lines,  Amer.  Elec.,  June,  1897;    A.  I.  E.  E., 

Dec.,  1904;  June,  1907. 
Specifications:  Hard-drawn  Wire  Copper,  Amer.  Soc.  for  Testing  Materials;  E.  R.  J., 

July  31,  1909;  Nov.  5,  1910,  p.  943;  Gen.  Elec.  Review,  Aug.,  1909. 
Fisher:  Data  on  Conductors  and  Underground  Cables,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 
Woods:  Efficiency  of  Trolley  Wire,  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  30,  1909. 
Franklin:  Copper  versus  Aluminum,  G.  E.  Review,  June,  1909. 

References  on  Electrical  Calculations. 

Baum:  Kelvin's  Law:  E.  W.,  May  25,  1907. 

Sayers:  Kelvin's  Law,  S.  R.  J.,  June  16,  1900,  page  586. 

Scott:  Evolution  of  High- voltage  Transmission,  Elec.  Rev.,  Jan.  10,  1903.  High- 
voltage  Power  Transmission,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1898;  E.  W.,  Nov.  26,  1898; 
Transmission  Circuits,  Elec.  Journal,  Dec.,  1905;  Feb.  and  May,  1906. 

Herdt:  Size  of  Conductors  in  Transmission  Lines,  E.  W.,  Jan.  2,  1909. 

Mershon:  Calculations  of  Lines,  Elec.  Journal,  March,  1907. 

Copley:  Constants  of  Single-phase  Railway  Circuits,  Elec.  Journal,  Nov.,  1908; 
Impedance  of  Railway  Circuits,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908,  p.  1171. 

Pender:  Solution  of  Alternating-current  Problems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908,  p.  1397; 
E.  W.,  Jan.  12,  and  Sept.  28,  1907;  Transmission  Line  Formulas,  E.  W.,  July  8, 
1909;  June  10,  1909. 

Franklin:  Transmission  Line  Calculations,  G.  E.  Review,  1909-10. 

Miller:  Transmission  Line  Constants,  G.  E.  Review,  1909-10. 

Huldschiner:  Voltage  Drop  with  one-  and  three-phase  Railways,  Elek.  Zeit- 
schrift.,  Dec.  1,  1910. 

Murray:  Constants  of  Single-phase  Ry.  Circuits,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911. 

References  on  Transmission  Lines. 

Specifications  for  Electric  Transmission  Lines,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  13,   1910,  p.  792. 

Bowie:  Long  Span  Pole  Lines,  E.  W.,  Aug.  25,  Sept.  29,  Nov.  17,  1906. 

Glaubitz:  Sags  and  Tensions  in  Transmission  Lines,  E.  W.,  March  25,  1909. 

Jenks:  Repairs  on  Live  Transmission  Lines,  E.  W.,  Aug.  5,  1909. 

Neall:  Towers  for  Transmission  Line,  E.  W.,  Aug.  5,  1909. 

Neall:  Transmission  Line  Engineering,  E.  W.,  July  1,  1909. 

Ryan:  Transmission  Line,  A  Mechanical  Structure,  E.  W.,  Feb.  29,  1908. 

Schock:  Timber  Preservation,  E.  R.  J.,  May  16,  1908. 

Winchester:  Tests  on  Wooden  Poles,  E.  W.,  March  16,  1911,  p.  667. 

Scholes:  Design  of  Transmission  Line  Structures,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907;  June,  1908 


462  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Nachod:  Temperature  Effects  on  Spans,  E.  W.,  Dec.  9,  1905;   Aug.  31,  1907,  p.  403; 

June  27,  1910,  p.  220. 

Kohlin:  Most  Economical  Span,  Elec;  Review,  Sept.  14  and  21  and  Dec.  28,  1906. 
Fowle:  Sleet  Loads  and  Wind  Velocities,  E.  W.,  Oct.,  27,  1910. 

References  on  Steel  Towers — Descriptive. 

New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River  R.  R.:  E.  W.,  Oct.  27,  1906,  p.  800. 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.:  E.  R.  J.,  June  10,  1911,  p.  1014. 

Connecticut  River  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  Sept.  9,  1909,  p.  606. 

Schenectady  Power  Co.:  Elec.  Review,  March  27,  1909,  G.   E.  Review,  May,  1909. 

Niagara,  Lockport  and  Ontario  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  April  29,  1905;   April  14,  July  21, 

1906;    May  2,  1908;   June  6,  1908;    Mershon,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907;    S.  R.  J., 

July  14,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Canadian  Niagara  Power  Co.:  Buck,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1907. 
Hydroelectric  Commission  of  Ontario: 
McCall  Ferry  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  Oct.  20,  1910. 

Southern  Power  Co.,  N.  C.:  100,000-volt,  E.  W.,  May  23,  1907;    G.  E.  Review,  Jan., 

1910;  E.  W.,  1910,  p.  741;  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1911;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 

Grand  Rapids-Muskegon :  72,000- volt  Lines  on  Wooden  Poles,  E.  W.,  Sept.  14,  1907; 

100,000-volt  Lines  on  Steel  Towers,  E.  W.,  Nov.  2,  1907;  Feb.  4,  1909;  Sept.  16, 

1909;  G.  E.  Review,  1909,  p.  86. 

Commonwealth  Power  Co.,  Michigan:  E.  W.,  July  14,  1910,  p.  99. 
Southern  Wisconsin  Power  Co.,  and  Milwaukee  Elec.  Ry.  &  Lt.  Co.,  E.  R.  J.,  Sept. 

26,  1908;  E.  W.,  Oct.  3,  1908;  E.  W.,  Sept.  23,  1909,  p.  707;  Drawings  in  Elec. 

Review,  Aug.  28,  1909;  E.  W.,  1910. 

St.  Croix  Falls-Minneapolis,  E.  W.,  Sept.  7,  1907;  Dec.  15,  1910,  p.  1419. 
La  Crosse  Water  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  1910,  pp.  783,  803. 
Telluride  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  July  15,  1909,  p.  147. 

Central  Colorado  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  Jan.  27,  1910,  p.  217;  June  30,  1910. 
Northern  Colorado  Power  Co.:  Journal  of  Electricity,  Aug.,  1910. 
Madison  River  Power  Co.,  Montana:  E.  W.,  Dec.  23,  1909. 
Great  Falls  (Montana)  Power  Co.:  Hibgen,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 
Great  Western  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  Sept.  16,  1909;  Jollyman,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 
Sierra  &  San  Francisco  (Stanislaus):  Journal  of  Elec.,  Sept.  4,  1909. 
California  Gas  &  Elec.  Corp.:  Baum,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June  28,  1907. 
Los  Angeles:  E.  W.,  Oct.  28,  1909;  E.  W.,  Aug.  31,  1907. 
Guanajuanto  and  Necaxa:  E.  W.,  Aug.  20,  1904;  Oct.  28,  1905,  p.  729. 

References'  on  Wooden  Pole  Lines — Descriptive. 

Indiana  Interurban  Practice:  S.  R.  J.,  June  18,  1904. 

Bear  River,  Utah:  E.  W.,  June  25,  1904. 

Seattle-Tacoma  Power  Co.:  Crawford  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1911. 

References  on  Insulators. 

DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  for  Railway,"  page  569. 
Harvey:  Porcelain  Manufacture,  Elec.  Journal,  June  and  Oct.,  1907. 
Hewlett:  General  Electric  Link  Insulators,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1907. 
Weicker:  Study  of  Suspension  Type  Insulators,  Elek.  Zeit.,  July  8,  1909. 
Skinner:  Specifications  and  Tests  for  Insulators,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1908. 
Denneen:  Specifications  for  Insulators,  S.  R.  J.,  May  30,  1908. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  463 

Tests  on  Trolley,  Line  Insulators:  A.  S.  &  I.  Ry.  Eng.  Assoc.;  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  9,  1909. 
Merriam:  Insulator  data,  G.  E.  Review,  Aug.,  1907,  Nov.,  1908,  March,  1909. 
Austin:  Design  and  Efficiency,  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  24,  1910,  p.  465;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 

References  on  Catenary  Construction. 

Mailloux:  Construction  in  Europe,  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  8,  1905;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  March,  1905. 
Varney:  Line  Construction  for  High- voltage  Railways,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  March,  1905. 
Mayer:  Catenary  Construction,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Feb.  and  Nov.,  1906;  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  1, 

1906,  p.  1062. 

Lyford:  Catenary  Trolley  Construction,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Oct.,  1908. 
Cravens:  Catenary  Trolley  Line  Construction,  Elec.  Review,  Oct.  2,  1909. 
Fender:  Relation  between  Deflection,  Tension,  and  Temperature  in  Wire  Spans,  E. 

W.,  Jan.  12,  1907;  Sept.  8,  1907;  July  8,  1909. 

Nicholl:  Single-phase  Catenary  Construction  and  Installation,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  5,  1907. 
Smith,  W.  N.:  Electric  Ry.  Catenary  Construction,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1910. 
Coombs:  Overhead  Construction  for  High-tension  Electric  Traction  or  Transmission, 

A.  S.  C.  E.,  Feb.  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  4,  1908;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  27,  1910,  p.  1563. 
Shelton:    Catenary  Construction  of  Trolley  Wire  for  Operating  Electric  Railways, 

E.  T.  W.,  Aug.  15,  1908. 

Hickson:  Design  of  Catenary  Lines,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  27,  1910. 
Report  on  Standardization,  A.  S.  &  I.  Ry.  Engr.  Assoc.,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  14,  1908. 
Eveleth:  Relative  Advantages,  Third-rail  and  Catenary,  S.  R.  J.,  May  11,  1907. 
Reports  of  High-tension  Transmission  Committee,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1904  to  1910. 
Thomas:  Sag  Calculations  for  Suspended  Wires,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 
Robertson:  Solution  of  Problems  in  Sags  and  Spans,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 
General  Electric:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  26,  1907,  p.  858;  G.  E.  Review,  Nov.,  1910. 
Westinghouse:  Varney,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  March  24,  1905;  S.  R.  J.,  April  1,  1905. 
A.  E.  G.:  Standards  adopted  for  European  Work,  E.  R.  J.,  March  5,  1910. 

References  on  Catenary  Construction — Descriptive. 

Long  Island  Railroad,  Suburban  Lines,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  13,  1909. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Experimental  Contact  Lines,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford:    Murray  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,   Jan.  1907;    Jan.  and 

Dec.,  1908;  April,  1911;  S.  R.  J.,  April  7  and  14,  1906;  March  30,  1907;  Dec.  19, 

1908. 

McHenry:  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  17  and  24,  1907. 

New  Canaan  Branch:  E.  R.  J.,  May  15,  1909. 

Stamford-New  Haven  and  New  Rochelle  extensions,  E.  R.  J.,  April  16,  1910. 

Standard  adopted  for  600-volt  branch  lines,  E.  R.  J.,  April  3,  1909;  Feb.  26,  1910. 
Boston  and  Maine,  E.  R.  T.,  July  1,  1911. 
Syracuse,  Lake  Shore  &  Northern,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  10,  1908. 
Erie  R.  R.,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  650. 

Denver  &  Interurban,  Lyford,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Aug.,  1909;  E.  R.  J.,  Sept.  5,  1908. 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend,  E.  R.  J.,  April  10,  1909. 
Illinois  Traction,  E.  T.  W.,  March  13,  1909. 
Visalia  Electric  Ry.,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  7,  1907. 
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1908,  p.  1700;   B.  I.  C.  E.,  March 

14,  1911. 

Midland  Railway,  England:  E.  R.  J.,  July  4,  1908. 
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf,  E.  R.  J.,  April  6,  1907. 


464  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  July  8,  1910. 

Seebach-Wettingen,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  6,  1909. 

Standardization:  Amer.  Elec.  Ry.  Eng.  Assoc.,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1088. 

References  on  Third  Rail. 

Capp:  Data  on  Conductivity,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1903. 

Fortenbaugh:  Conductor  Rail  Measurements,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908,  p.  1215. 

Langdon:  Fourth  Rails  for  English  Roads,  B.  I.  C.  E.,  June,  1903. 

Report:  A.  S.  &.  I.  Ry.  Engr.  Assoc.,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1088. 

Eveleth:  Relative  Advantages  and  Cost,  Third  Rail  vs.  Catenary,  S.  R.  J.,  May  11, 

1907. 

Farnham:  Protected  Third  Rail,  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  6,  1906. 
Sprague:  Electric  Trunk  Line  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1907. 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R.,  S.  R.  J.,  March  14,  1903;  July  30,  1904. 
New  York  Central  R.  R.,  Sprague,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  21,  1907,  p.  726;  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  9, 

1907,  p.  954;   Sept.  2,  1905;    West  Shore,  June  8,  1907,  p.  1002. 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Gibbs,  E.  R.  J.,  June  3,  1911,  p.  959. 
Philadelphia  &  Wesern  Drawings  of  Farnham  third  rail,  S.  R.  J.,  June  15,  1907. 
Michigan  United  Ry.,  E.  T.  W.,  Dec.  11,  1909. 
Central  California  Traction  Co.,  1200-volt,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909. 
Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton,  S.  R.  J.,  March  7,  1903. 
Underground  Electric  Rys.,  London,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908,  p.  1215. 

References  on  Current  Collection  at  High  Voltages. 

Somach:  Current  Collecting  for  Heavy  Rys.,  S.  R.  J.,  April  23,  1904. 

Kenyon:  High-tension  Current  Collection,  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  9,  1909. 

G.  E.  Data:    Recent  Improvements  in  Catenary  Line  Construction  and  Methods  of 

Installation,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  26,  1907,  p.  858. 

Nachod:  Design  of  Pantograph  Trolleys,  E.  W.,  June  10,  1905,  p.  1078. 
Finzi:  Pantograph  Collectors,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  11,  1906,  p.  228. 
Siemens:  Bow  Collectors,  The  Electrician,  June  26,  1908. 
Swedish  State,  E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  9,  1909,  p.  59. 

References  on  Lightning  Protection. 

Thomas:  Static  Strains  in  High-tension  Circuits  and  the  Protection  of    Apparatus, 

A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1905;  Present  Status  of  Protection,  E.  W.,  June  13,  1908, 
Jackson:    Investigation  of  Lightning  Protective  Apparatus,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.  28,  1906. 
Creighton:  Lightning  Protection,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  14,  1908,  p.  997;  March  27,  1909. 

References  on  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Disturbances. 

Taylor:  General  Electric  Review,  Aug.,  1907;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Oct.,  1909. 
Corey:  Railway  Signals,  Gen.  Elec.  Review,  July,  1907. 
Proceedings  of  Assoc.  R.  R.  Tel.  Sup'ts.,  June  19,  1907. 


TRANSMISSION  AND  CONTACT  LINES  465 


This  page  is  reserved  for  additional  references  and  notes  on  transmission 
and  contact  lines. 


30 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

STEAM,  GAS,  AND  WATER  POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY 

TRAIN  SERVICE. 

Outline. 

Distinguishing  Features : 

Capacity,  economy  of  operation,  relatively  constant  load,  relatively  small 
amount  of  equipment. 

Load  Factor  of  Railway  Loads : 

Train  movements  per  day,  hours  of  service  per  day,  acceleration  rates  used, 
kind  of  service,  length  of  division,  equalization  of  loads,  variety  of  service, 
electric  system  used. 

Steam  Power  Plants : 

Location,  water  supply,  coal  supply,  coal  handling,  furnace,  grate  surface, 
heating  surface,  water-tube  boilers,  steam  turbines,  condensers,  heat  insulation, 
supervision,  number  of  plants,  reliability  of  service,  cost  of  all  equipment, 
cost  of  power  per  kw-hr.,  installations  for  railways. 

Gas  Power  Plants : 

Reasons  for  limited  use,  conditions  which  favor  development,  present  status, 
cost  of  equipment,  cost  of  operation,  installations  for  railways. 

Water  Power  Plants : 

Water  supply  and  load,  water  power  available,  reliability,  cost  of  equipment, 
cost  of  power  per  kw-hr.,  installations  for  railways. 

Technical  Descriptions  of  Installations: 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford;  New  York  Central;  Interboro  Rapid 
Transit;  Hudson  &  Manhattan;  Long  Island-Pennsylvania;  West  Jersey  &  Sea- 
shore; Commonwealth  Edison;  Twin  City  Rapid  Transit;  Milwaukee  Northern; 
Great  Northern  Railway,  Cascade  Tunnel;  London  Electric  Railways. 

Literature. 


466 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE. 

DISTINGUISHING  FEATURES. 

Power  plants  which  supply  energy  for  electric  railway  train  service 
generally  have  at  least  four  distinguishing  features  or  characteristics : 

The  capacity  of  one  central  power  plant  is  used  to  provide  energy 
for  propelling  many  electric  trains  or  is  substituted  for  that  of  many 
steam  locomotives.  The  capacity  of  the  electric  power  plant  is  relatively 
un  imited  so  far  as  any  train  is  concerned,  and  the  whole  power  plant 
stands  behind  the  individual  electric  train.  The  maximum  output 
from  the  central  plant  is  large,  compared  with  the  capacity  of  a  steam 
locomotive,  a  power  plant  on  wheels.  Electrical  machinery  has  a 
limited  capacity,  but  generally  this  is  fixed  by  the  safe  heating  of  the 
mica  or  other  insulation  around  copper  conductors,  and  heavy  over- 
loads can  be  carried  for  long  periods  with  safety.  The  maximum  out- 
put of  a  steam  locomotive  is  limited  by  its  boiler  and  cylinders. 

Economy  in  operation  is  guaranteed  because  the  number  of  prime 
movers  at  the  power  plant  which  are  in  service  at  any  one  time  can  be 
so  varied  that  each  will  operate  within  its  most  economical  range  of 
load.  Operation  on  a  large  scale  reduces  the  items  of  labor,  of  mainte- 
nance, and  of  fixed  charges  per  unit  output.  These  are  the  essentials  for 
economy  of  power  production. 

Relatively  constant  loads  exist  at  the  central  plant  while  the  power 
service  furnished  by  the  single  locomotive  or  car  varies  continually 
over  a  wide  range.  "The  load  factor  or  average  load  of  trunk-line 
railways  will  be  from  60  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  load."  Stillwell. 
The  larger  the  electric  zone  and  the  greater  the  number  of  the  trains  in 
service,  the  more  constant  the  plant  load  becomes,  because  the  loads  of 
the  different  trains  are  distributed,  giving  a  low  value  for  the  maximum, 
and  further,  the  peaks  for  acceleration  do  not  occur  simultaneously,  and, 
all  of  the  trains  are  not  moving  all  of  the  time. 

Relatively  small  amounts  of  equipment  are  necessary,  for  the  above 
reasons.  The  power  plant  equipment  has  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  the 
total  or  maximum  capacity  of  the  steam  or  electric  motors  used  to  haul 
the  trains.  The  relation  of  the  rated  capacity  of  the  electric  power  plant 
to  the  capacity  of  the  motors  in  the  trains  is  shown  in  the  table  which 
follows. 

467 


468  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

RELATIVE  EQUIPMENT  OF  POWER  PLANT  AND  RAILWAY  MOTORS. 
Data  are  for  1910.     1  kw.  =  1.34  h.p. 


Name  of  railway  company. 

Capacity 
of    power 
plant.     24- 
hr,  h.  p. 

Capacity 
locomo- 
tives. 
1-hr.  h.  p. 

Capacity 
motor- 
cars, 
l-hr.  h.  p. 

Capacity 
motors, 
total 
h.p. 

Ratio  of  h.p., 
power  plant 
to  railway 
motors. 

Boston  and  Maine  

5,333 

6,300 

o 

6,300 

.85 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford: 

New  York  Division 

21,500 

42,480 

3,900 

46  380 

4fi 

New  York  Central: 

.  ^IO 

Hudson  and  Harlem  Divisions. 

53,333 

103,400 

60,000 

163,400 

.33 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  

24,000 

0 

64,400 

64,400 

.37 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.: 

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  and  Terminal. 
Long  Island  R.  R  

1 
|  44,000 

82,500 
0 

96,750   \ 
54,400  J 

233,650 

.19 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  

10,666 

0 

44,640 

44,640 

.24 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  

2,400 

0 

4,800 

4,800 

.50 

Erie  R.  R.,  Rochester  Division  

3,000 

0 

2,400 

2,400 

1.25 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

4,000 

11,600 

0     ' 

11,600 

.35 

Grand  Trunk,  Sarnia  Tunnel  

3,333 

4,320 

0 

4,320 

.81 

Michigan  Central,  Detroit  Tunnel.  .  .  . 

2,666 

6,600 

0 

6,600 

.41 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit, 

Minneapolis-St.  Paul  

67,000 

400 

174,000 

174,400 

.39 

Colorado  &  Southern: 

Denver  &  Interurban  Division  

2,680 

0 

5,000 

5,000 

.54 

Valtellina  Ry.,  Italy  

7,400 

7,200 

2,800 

10,000 

.74 

A  study  of  this  statistical  table  should  include  the  following: 
Reserve  equipment  in  power  plant,  and  in  locomotives  and  motor 
cars;  method  of  rating  railway  motors;  relation  of  kw.  to  kv-a.  output 
of  power  plant;  use  of  storage  batteries  to  equalize  the  loads;  use  of  steam 
power  as  a  reserve  for  water  power;  rapidly  changing  and  temporary 
conditions;  large  initial  power  plant  investment  for  considerable  increase 
in  the  train  service;  size  of  installation;  number  of  locomotives  in  service. 
A  further  study  of  the  reasons  for  the  relative  amounts  of  equipment 
would  include  the  ratio  of  average  and  maximum  power  plant  loads  to 
the  capacity  of  the  railway  motor  and  power  plant  equipment  in  service. 
For  ^  example,  on  the  New  Haven  road,  in  October,  1909;  the  railway 
power  plant  capacity  at  Cos  Cob  was  17,100  kw.,  the  peak  load  was  about 
11,000  kw.,  and  1000  kw.  were  used  for  lighting,  pumping,  and  other 
work,  leaving  a  10,000-kw.  load  for  20,  of  38,  electric  locomotives  which 
were  in  service  in  the  zone  fed  by  the  Cos  Cob  power  plant;  thus  the 
average  power  plant  load  for  each  1000-h.  p.  passenger  locomotive 
approximated  500  kilowatts. 

LOAD  FACTOR  OF  RAILWAY  LOADS. 

The  load  factor,  or  the  ratio  of  the  average  load  to  the  maximum 
load,  as  determined  daily  or  monthly  by  watt-hour  meters,  is  rela- 
tively high  at  an  electric  railway  power  plant;  and  as  a  result,  the  equip- 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       469 

ment  required  is  a  minimum  for  a  given  amount  of  energy  delivered. 
(The  load  factor  for  a  period  of  5  minutes  differs  from  the  load  factor 
for  1  hour,  1  day,  or  1  year;  and  for  accuracy  the  period  of  time  should 
be  specified.  Ordinarily  the  time  limit  is  for  a  period  of  1  hour,  because 
watt-hour  meters  at  central  power  plants  are  read  hourly.)  The  matter 
of  power  factor  is  of  importance  because  it  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the 
economy  of  power  service. 

The  load  factor  of  a  power  plant  depends  upon  the  number  of  train 
movements  per  day;  number  of  hours  of  service  per  day;  acceleration 
rates;  kind  of  service  furnished;  length  of  the  electric  division;  equal- 
ization of  the  load  with  other  power  plants;  variety  of  service  or  loads; 
electric  system  used  for  electrification,  etc. 

The  number  of  trains  is  of  first  importance.  There  is  no  advantage 
to  be  gained  by  replacing  steam  locomotives  with  electric  locomotives 
when  there  are  on'y  a  few  train  movements  per  day.  In  such  cases,  the 
interest  on  the  increased  cost  of  the  power  plant,  and  the  transmission 
line,  cannot  be  compensated  in  any  measure  by  the  physical  advantages 
of  electric  traction  and  the  saving  to  be  made  in  fuel;  but  with  6  freight 
trains,  6  passenger  trains  on  thru  service,  6  passenger  trains  in  local 
service,  and  8  switchers,  the  load  factor  is  raised,  and  physical  and  finan- 
cial advantages  are  gained. 

Total  number  of  hours  of  service  per  day  affects  the  load  factor. 
In  24-hour  electric  railway  train  service  the  load  factor  easily  exceeds  50 
per  cent.,  which  is  about  the  maximum  obtained  in  18-hour  street  railway 
service.  Electric  lighting  plants  have  the  greater  part  of  their  load 
within  a  period  of  4  hours  and  the  load  factor  is  about  25  per  cent. 

Acceleration  rates  used  in  different  kinds  of  service  affect  the  load 
factor,  but  only  to  a  small  extent.  In  railway  practice  the  accelerating 
rate  varies  universally  as  the  train  weight,  and  the  tractive  effort  required 
in  accelerating  heavy  trains  is  not  materially  different  from  that  of  lighter 
trains,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table. 

TRACTIVE  EFFORT  FOR  DIFFERENT  RAILWAY  SERVICES. 


Accelerating         Tons 

Tractive 

Tractive 

Kind  of  train  service. 

rate  in                per 

effort 

effort  at 

m.  p.  h.  p.  s.        train. 

acceleration. 

full  speed. 

Rapid  transit 

1  25 

160 

20  000 

2  800 

Short  train  

.70 

250 

17,500 

3,500 

Local  passenger  

.40 

400 

16,000 

4,400 

Thru  passenger  

.25 

600 

15,000 

6,000 

Way  freight  

.10 

1500 

15,000 

10,000 

Thru  freight  

.05 

2800 

14,000 

16,800 

470          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Tractive  effort  (acceleration  rate  X  100)  X  m.  p.  h./375  =  h.  p. 

The  greater  number  of  trains  in  rapid  transit  and  suburban  service 
compensate  for  the  higher  tractive  effort  per  train  during  acceleration. 

Kind  of  service  affects  the  load  factor.  For  example,  the  load  fac- 
tor of  a  passenger  terminal  of  a  railroad  is  low.  The  passenger  service 
is  hard  to  handle  with  economy  because  trains  are  bunched  during  the 
morning  and  evening,  and  because  the  total  hours  of  heavy  service  are 
18,  rather  than  24,  per  day.  Freight  service,  however,  is  well  distributed 
during  the  night  and  day.  Trains  leave  early  in  the  morning,  between 
6  and  7  A.  M.,  and  usually  arrive  at  their  destination  between  4  and 
5  P.  M.,  or  before  the  heaviest  passenger  traffic  starts.  If  a  single- 
track  line  is  used,  or  if  the  traffic  is  heavy,  the  train  dispatchers  keep 
the  line  uniformly  busy,  during  the  24  hours.  With  a  small  change  in 
the  schedule,  the  peak  load  may  sometimes  be  radically  decreased  with- 
out changing  the  value  of  the  service  rendered. 

Length  of  the  division  affects  the  load  factor.  The  load  factor  of  the 
power  plant  which  furnishes  service  for  a  short  division  or  for  a  short 
terminal  is  generally  low,  even  with  a  large  number  of  trains.  It  might 
be  30  per  cent,  on  a  10-mile  terminal  division,  while  if  two  adjacent 
divisions  were  added,  forming  a  total  of  100  miles,  and  if  the  freight  ser- 
vice were  included,  the  load  factor  might  be  80  per  cent.  Obviously 
it  is  about  as  easy  to  handle  a  50-mile  division  as  to  handle  a  5-mile 
tunnel. 

When  a  large  central  power  plant  supplies  energy  to  40  electric 
trains  on  long  freight  and  passenger  runs,  day  and  night,  the  condi- 
tions change  and  the  business  is  handled  with  economy. 

New  Haven  Railroad  Company's  power  plant  at  Cos  Cob  has  a  poor 
load. factor  and  bad  fluctuations  in  load.  About  20  electric  locomotives 
haul  heavy  passenger  trains  on  20  miles  of  11,000-volt  road.  (A  short 
trolley  road  with  20  cars  has  an  equally  poor  load  factor.)  When  the 
electric  zone  reaches  to  New  Haven,  and  the  freight  and  switching 
work  is  included,  the  percentage  of  the  fluctuations  will  decrease;  the 
load  will  extend  over  more  hours  of  the  day,  and  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  run  a  4000-h.  p.  turbo-alternator  from  midnight  to  morning,  prac- 
tically without  load. 

Many  railroads  have  now  spent  $1,000,000  at  tunnels  for  the  elec- 
trification of  about  6  miles  of  route,  using  about  6  locomotives,  to  haul 
all  freight  and  passenger  trains  thru  a  long  tunnel  and  over  connect- 
ing grades,  to  gain  in  capacity  and  to  avoid  dangerous  operation. 
The  net  saving  in  operating  expenses,  about  $100  per  day,  cannot 
pay  one-third  of  the  interest  and  depreciation  on  the  capital  invested. 
When  a  second  million  dollars  has  been  spent,  for  the  electrification  of 
an  adjacent  division  and  terminal  yards,  economy  will  be  expected, 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       471 

because  the  load  factor  of  the  entire  plant  will  be  radically  increased, 
and  because  the  investment  will  be  utilized  during  more  of  the  time. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  has  a  serviceable,  reliable,  and  expensive 
power  plant  at  Port  Huron.  A  1000-ton  freight  train  is  accelerated,  then 
there  is  a  short  run  on  the  level,  followed  by  coasting  and  by  a  run  up 
a  2  per  cent,  grade.  The  number  of  trains  in  operation  at  one  time, 
with  six  66-ton  locomotive  units,  is  not  more  than  two.  Economy 
cannot  be  expected  until  10  to  20  passenger,  freight,  and  switching 
trains  are  in  service  at  one  time  to  equalize  the  boiler  and  turbine  loads. 
Difficulties  and  handicaps  exist,  as  with  the  6-mile,  6-car  street  railway, 
in  1890.  The  relative  results  of  electric  train  operation  are,  however, 
decidedly  better  than  with  steam  locomotives;  but  the  mileage  of  the 
electric  division  must  be  increased  for  real  economy. 

Equalization  of  the  loads  of  two  or  more  power  plants  which  feed  a 
150-mile  or  a  longer  division  increases  the  load  factor,  if  the  two  plants  are 
connected  thru  feeders  or  even  thru  the  contact  line,  because  the  peak 
loads  or  fluctuations  of  the  load  on  the  two  power  plants  will  be  equal- 
ized or  divided  among  the  power  plants  to  the  East  and  to  the  West, 
even  tho  they  are  100  miles  apart.  Incidentally  this  interconnection 
increases  the  reliability  and  also  the  ability  to  handle  peak-load  service 
under  the  conditions  which  arise  after  a  storm  has  damaged  tracks, 
bridges,  equipment,  and  transmission  lines. 

Storage  batteries  may  be  used  to  equalize  the  load.  Plans  have  been 
developed  to  pump  water  to  heights  during  light-load  periods  and  to 
release  it  thru  Pelton  water  wheels  during  the  heavy-load  periods.  Other 
plans  involve  a  fly  wheel  connected  to  a  large  motor  to  store  up  energy  and 
return  it  on  demand  to  carry  a  temporary  peak  load.  Elec.  World, 
Feb.  23,  1911,  p.  487;  Tatum:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April  12,  1911. 

On  the  Italian  State  Railway 's  Mont  Cenis  three-phase  road,  between  Modana 
and  Turin,  water  power  is  furnished  thru  the  following  frequency  changer  outfit. 
One  2200-kv-a.,  50-cycle,  48,500/7000- volt,  three-phase  transformer;  one  2500-h.  p., 
7000- volt,  50-cycle  induction  motor;  a  44-ton  fly-wheel;  a  2000-kv-a.,  500-r.  p.  m., 
3500- volt,  16  2/3-cycle,  three-phase  generator;  and  one  three-phase  commutator 
motor  for  regulating  the  speed  of  an  asynchronous  motor  between  400  r.  p.  m.,  and 
500  r.  p.  m.  The  fly  wheel  stores  kinetic  energy  to  such  an  extent  that  when  the 
speed  drops  from  500  r.  p.  m.  to  400  r.  p.  m.,  about  1000  h.  p.  can  be  given  up 
for  1  minute  to  care  for  locomotive  load  fluctuations.  The  three-phase  commutator 
motor  permits  the  asynchronous  motor,  with  which  it  is  connected  in  cascade,  to 
approximate  unit  load  factor. 

Variety  of  service  or  of  loads  is  an  advantage.  The  load  factor  is 
increased  by  handling  electric  service  for  lighting,  street  railways,  shops, 
or  city  water  pumping,  coal  handling  at  docks,  and  hoisting  at  wharves, 
bridges,  and  elevators  located  along  the  line.  It  is  frequently  observed, 
in  electric  railway  train  diagrams,  that  there  is  a  sag  in  the  total  load 


472  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

about  6  P.  M.  daily;  for  the  freight  trains  are  in,  the  switchers  are  rest- 
ing, and  for  an  hour  or  so  some  of  the  heavy  trains  are  not  started. 
This  fact  can  be  used  to  advantage  because  the  peak  loads  of  street  and 
suburban  railways,  and  the  electric  lighting  loads  occur  at  this  time. 
The  minimum  boiler  capacity  is  thus  required  for  the  combined  peaks 
and,  with  the  excellent  load  factor,  economical  service  can  be  provided. 

The  electric  system  used  affects  the  load  factor.  For  example,  when 
using  the  three-phase  or  single-phase  system  for  regeneration  of  energy 
on  mountainous  grades,  a  train  going  down  the  grade  hauls  a  train  up  the 
grade,  and  thus  decreases  the  peak  loads.  When  a  sudden  load  comes 
on  the  power  plant,  a  sluggishly  designed  governor  on  the  prime  mover 
causes  it  to  slow  down,  and  the  three-phase  locomotive  assists  the  power 
plant  temporarily  by  a  kind  of  fly-wheel  action.  The  instant  the  gener- 
ators are  slowed  down  by  any  sudden  load,  all  the  motors  on  the  line  are 
operated  temporarily  by  the  inertia  of  their  railway  trains,  and  the  power 
taken  from  the  line  is  temporarily  decreased. 

Waterman  states  that  on  the  three-phase  Valtellina  road  in  Italy, 
with  5  or  6  light  trains  running  simultaneously,  the  ratio  of  peak  to 
average  load  is  1.75,  or  that  the  load  factor  is  57  per  cent.  Studies  of 
the  Valtellina  power  plant  economies  indicate  that  on  account  of  the 
improved  load  factor  the  three-phase  system  can  be  operated  with  a 
smaller  power  plant  capacity.  In  real  railroading,  this  gain  by  fly-wheel 
action  would  be  much  more  than  overbalanced  by  the  great  overloads 
that  occur  when  the  speed  of  three-phase  motors  is  maintained,  with  the 
drawbar  pull,  on  the  up-grade  work  in  rough  rolling  country. 

Direct-current  and  single-phase  sj^stems  produce  the  highest  power- 
plant  load  factor.  The  product  of  speed  and  torque  is  such  that  the  power 
is  nearly  constant.  Acceleration,  and  up-grade  runs,  which  require  high 
torque  are  compensated  by  lower  speeds.  The  speed  of  the  series  motor 
and  the  power  developed  depend  on  the  voltage  applied  to  the  motor. 

Three-phase  systems  affect  the  load  factor  adversely.  In  the  poly- 
phase motor  the  speed  remains  constant  with  increase  of  torque  required 
on  the  up-grade;  the  power  rises,  and  the  relation  of  average  to  maximum 
load  becomes  lower,  which  is  bad  for  the  economical  production  of  power. 
The  load  varies  over  wide  limits.  On  a  2.2  per  cent,  grade  it  is  5  times 
as  high  as  on  the  level.  In  accelerating,  the  power  required  is  20  per  cent, 
greater  than  in  running  at  full  load,  even  when  slip-ring  motors  are  used, 
and  the  rate  of  acceleration  is  low.  Great  Northern  Railway  one-speed 
locomotives  take  full  rated  power  from  the  instant  of  starting. 

The  load  factor  of  a  power  plant  affects  the  economy  in  operation,  fuel, 
labor,  maintenance,  and  investment.  This  point  is  obvious.  The  data 
which  follow  under  Cost  of  Power  show  the  remarkable  variation  in  the 
cost  of  power  with  a  change  in  the  load  factor. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       473 

STEAM  POWER  PLANTS. 

Location  of  steam  power  plants  is  governed  largely  by  the  water  and 
coal  supply.  The  power  plant  may  be  placed  at  almost  any  supply 
point  on  the  railroad  division,  providing  it  is  known  that  ultimately  the 
adjacent  divisions  will  be  electrified.  The  center  of  gravity  of  the  load 
is  generally  not  the  best  point  for  the  power  plant  since  the  length  and 
cost  of  the  transmission  lines  and  the  losses  in  lines  do  not  govern  plant 
economy,  or  the  total  cost  of  operation. 

Water  supply  which  is  convenient  and  suited  to  maximum  economy 
of  boiler  operation  is  obtained.  Sufficient  water  for  condensing  the 
steam  is  usually  essential. 

Coal  supply  is  placed  where  there  is  ample  storage.  It  is  not  rehauled 
and  redistributed  to  locomotive  units.  The  coal  is  of  a  cheap  grade,  cost- 
ing much  less  than  the  lump,  or  mine-run  coal  burned  on  a  moving  steam 
locomotive.  In  the  production  and  sale  of  coal,  parts  called  screenings, 
slack,  and  culm  are  readily  burned  by  using  mechanical  stokers,  but 
they  cannot  be  burned  on  locomotives;  yet  these  screenings  can  be 
obtained  for  from  20  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  lump  coal,  and  they 
contain  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  maximum  heat  units.  Expenses  are 
thus  reduced,  and  natural  resources  are  conserved,  when  they  are  used. 

Lignite  coal  can  be  utilized  where  it  is  abundant  and  cheap.  It  slacks  quickly 
and  loses  its  heat  units  when  broken  or  exposed  during  transportation.  Lignite 
cannot  be  burned  in  locomotive  furnaces,  unless  it  is  treated  or  briquetted.  In  the 
Dakotas,  Montana,  Wyoming,  and  Washington,  the  Northern  Pacific,  Great  Northern, 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound,  and  "Soo"  railroads  could  use  to  advantage  the 
immense  deposits  of  lignite  for  electric  traction,  and  the  power  plants  could  be  located 
at  mines.  Electrification  has  repeatedly  received  consideration  by  these  North- 
western roads,  which  now  use  Pittsburg  coal.  Incidentally,  the  cost  of  boiler-tube 
repairs  and  of  washing  out  of  boilers  in  which  alkali,  foaming,  and  bad  waters  are 
used  are  now  a  heavy  maintenance  expense. 

The  cost  of  good  coal  is  ordinarily  50  to  75  cents  per  long  ton  at  the  mine,  and  the 
cost  of  transportation,  rehandling  at  docks,  coal  depots,  etc.,  forms  the  larger  part 
of  the  cost.  Power  plants  can  be  located  to  advantage  at  coal  mines  or  at  docks,  to 
save  the  cost  of  handling  and  of  freight  haulage.  It  is  obviously  cheaper  to  transmit 
the  energy  from  coal  by  wires  than  to  transport  the  coal  itself  on  freight  cars. 

Electric  railway  plants  are  now  being  built  at  coal  mines.  Eifel  Bahn,  a  double- 
track,  112-mile  road  which  is  to  run  from  Cologne  to  Treves,  will  obtain  power  from 
lignite  coal  fields.  Many  European  roads  now  utilize  lignite  and  peat  for  fuel. 
The  money  is  kept  in  the  state  or  country.  Northern  Colorado  Power  Company 
generates  power  at  a  lignite  coal  mine  and  6000  kilowatts  are  transmitted  66  miles 
to  several  raijways,  2000  kilowatts  being  used  by  Denver  and  Interurban  railroad. 
Electric  railway  power  plants  are  located  at  mines  near  Scranton,  Pa.,  Seattle,  Wash., 
Girard,  Kansas,  etc,  and  opportunities  for  similar  installations  are  abundant  in 
Eastern  Pennsylvania  and  in  both  Northern  and  Western  Illinois. 

Coal-  and  ash -handling  devices  are  used  in  steam  power  plants,  to 
eliminate  the  labor  required  to  handle,  store,  and  crush  the  coal,  and  to 


474          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

remove  ashes.  Money  spent  for  such  equipment  pays  well.  Expert 
firemen  are  obtained  to  supervise  the  operation  of  boilers.  The  cost 
of  handling  coal  from  the  car  to  the  bunkers  is  about  8  cents  per  ton. 

Furnaces  of  modern  steam  power  plants  are  of  the  stoker  type.  The 
coal  is  broken  up  and  is  fed  to  the  stoker  by  machinery,  and  the  ashes 
are  cleaned  out,  regularly  and  automatically,  without  opening  the 
furnace  doors  and  chilling  the  furnace  by  cold  air.  The  proportions  of 
air  and  coal  are  well  regulated,  and  the  draft  is  varied  automatically 
to  assist  in  producing  maximum  economy.  Combustion  is  perfected. 
The  combustion  chamber  is  high  and  it  is  not  restricted  in  volume. 
The  coal  is  first  volatilized,  the  carbon  is  combined  at  the  right  time 
with  the  hydrogen  of  the  air;  the  hydro-carbon  then  unites  with  oxygen, 
and  the  carbon  which  is  floating  in  the  hydrogen  flame  does  not  come 
in  contact  with  the  relatively  cold  tubes  or  plates  until  combustion  is 
completed.  As  a  result,  smoke  is  avoided.  The  furnace  is  surrounded 
by  fire  brick  and  tile.  If  the  tubes  and  other  heating  surface  are 
within  5  feet  of  the  grates,  they  are  covered  with  tile.  After  the  coal 
ignites,  the  gases  travel  a  distance  of  6  to  8  feet  under  an  incandescent 
tile  arch.  Baffles  are  placed  in  the  combustion  chamber  to  hasten  the 
mixture  of  the  air  and  gases  as  they  leave  the  fire  at  times  of  overload, 
and  the  stratification  of  the  gases,  which  naturally  prevails,  is  prevented. 
This  furnace  design  increases  the  economy  and  capacity  of  the  boiler. 

Grate  surface  is  such  that  the  number  of  square  feet  per  square  foot 
of  heating  surface  is  several  times  larger  in  the  stationary  boiler  than  in 
the  locomotive  boiler.  A  great  output  for  sudden  overloads  is  thus 
possible  and  cheap  grades  of  coal  can  be  burned  efficiently. 

Heating  surfaces  of  boilers  are  of  ample  area,  and  the  gases  leave 
the  boilers  at  low  temperatures.  Each  boiler  unit  has  from  5000  to 
9000  square  feet  of  heating  surface  and  this  reduces  the  cost  of  the  unit. 
Radiation  and  maintenance  are  a  minimum. 

Water-tube  boilers  are  used,  because  it  is  easy  to  keep  the  inside  and 
outside  of  the  tubes  clean,  and  thus  to  maintain  the  high  efficiency. 
Water-tube  boilers  are  rated  at  10  square  feet  of  heating  surface  per 
h.  p.,  but  they  are  capable  of  withstanding  about  100  per  cent,  overload 
continually,  and  are  so  operated  in  the  largest  central  stations. 

High  steam  pressures  increase  the  thermal  efficiency  of  the  turbines, 
without  the  excessive  repairs  and  radiation  of  locomotive  boilers. 

Superheat,  with  its  thermal  advantage  for  the  prime  mover,  becomes 
practical  in  central  station  boilers  and  prime  movers. 

Feed-water  heaters  and  waste-gas  economizers  increase  the  efficiency 
of  the  boiler  plant  from  12  to  20  per  cent. 

Steam  turbines  are  used  in  the  power  plant  because  of  their  economy 
of  steam.  They  have  the  following  important  features: 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       475 

Poppet  valves  with  an  exact,  quick-acting  mechanism  and  minimum 
wearing  surface,  admit  the  steam  thru  large  openings. 

Cylinder  condensation  is  a  minimum.  The  walls  are  not  heated 
and  cooled  as  in  reciprocating  engines. 

Utilization  of  the  energy  available  in  the  steam  is  excellent  because 
of  the  wide  limits  which  are  practical  for  expansion.  The  total  energy 
in  steam  at  150  pounds  gage  pressure  is  about  1195  B.  t.  u.,  of  which 
about  321  B.  t.  u.  can  be  utilized  between  this  pressure  and  a  28-inch 
vacuum.  A  gain  in  energy  of  33  per  cent,  is  obtained  when  the 
vacuum  is  increased  from  24  to  29  inches. 

Steam  turbines  in  sizes  up  to  20,000  kw.,  direct-connected  to  electric 
generators,  have  superseded  engines. 

Condensers  are  used,  and  they  increase  the  capacity  and  the  economy 
of  the  prime  mover  fully  25  per  cent.  The  auxiliary  equipment  to  pro- 
duce a  28-inch  vacuum  requires  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  of 
the  prime  mover.  A  simple  jet  or  barometric  condenser  is  preferable, 
but  a  surface  condenser  is  more  often  advantageous.  When  the  water 
contains  salt,  sewage,  alkali,  or  minerals,  condensed  steam  can  be  used 
over  and  over  again  in  the  boiler  to  prevent  the  foaming  which  accom- 
panies alkali  waters,  the  pitting  and  corroding  of  steel,  or  the  deposit  of 
hard,  porcelain  scale  in  the  boiler  tubes. 

Heat  insulators  surround  the  furnaces,  boilers,  piping,  and  prime 
movers.  Radiation  losses  and  cylinder  condensation,  which  are  large 
in  steam  locomotives,  are  relatively  small.  The  central  plant  is  pro- 
tected from  the  elements  and  from  the  cold  winds. 

Operators  supervise  the  production  of  the  power,  and  do  not  work 
by  brute  force.  The  firemen  can  become  expert,  and  their  entire  time 
can  be  given  to  the  economical  production  of  steam.  The  boiler  room 
becomes  the  important  place  for  the  scientific  production  of  power. 
Coal  and  flue-gas  analyses,  checks  on  the  temperatures,  and  continual 
tests  are  practical,  and  of  economic  value  in  the  large  central  station. 
Meters  assist  in  checking  results,  and  comparative  data  are  readily 
'and  continually  obtained. 

Number  of  power  plants  used  depends  largely  upon  the  reliability  of 
service  which  is  desired.  Two  interconnected,  well-separated  plants 
are  necessary  for  important  service.  Economical  limits  of  power  trans- 
mission are  not  reached  by  radial  feeders  100  miles  long,  or  the  length  of 
a  railroad  division.  Prudence  may  dictate  that  two  power  plants  per  150 
miles  of  route  are  necessary;  yet  many  electric  railways  have  only  one 
power  plant  for  300  miles  of  single  track. 

Railroads  must,  of  course,  combine  their  interests,  and  use  one  power 
plant  to  supply  many  railroads  and  many  routes,  to  avoid  duplication  in 
power  equipment,  and  also  to  obtain  high  load  factors  and  economy  in 


476  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

power  production.  Union  railroad  terminals  illustrate  the  present  joint 
use  of  heat,  power,  and  light  from  one  power  plant.  Many  electric  rail- 
roads now  purchase  electric  power  from  unaffiliated  power  corporations. 

Reliability  of  service  can  be  guaranteed  in  railway  power  plants.  A 
number  of  boilers,  turbines,  and  generator  units  are  required  for  econom- 
ical power  production,  and  trouble  at  one  unit  is  automatically  blocked 
off  and  isolated,  so  that  it  cannot  affect  continuous  service  from  the 
plant.  Two  or  more  power  plants  are  often  tied  together  by  duplicate 
transmission  lines,  so  that  in  case  of  trouble  assistance  can  be  obtained. 
The  contact  line,  however,  cannot  be  in  duplicate,  and  it  must  therefore 
be  of  the  simplest  character. 

Cost  of  equipment  varies  with  the  size  and  to  some  extent  with  the 
type  of  equipment,  and  always  with  the  degree  of  reliability  which  is 
desired  of  the  complete  installation. 

Steam  turbines  and  electric  generators  are  designed  to  have  maximum 
efficiency  at  about  rated  load.  They  can  carry  an  overload  of  50  per  cent, 
for  2  hours,  following  the  full  rated  load,  with  safety,  and  can  carry  25 
per  cent,  overload  continually  with  a  small  reduction  in  efficiency. 
Electrical  equipment  is  purchased  and  is  accepted  only  after  a  test  with 
a  24-hour  full-load,  during  which  the  temperature  rise  is  less  than  50°  C. 
as  measured  by  a  thermometer.  Insulation  of  mica,  tape,  and  com- 
pounds are  not  deteriorated  by  a  temperature  of  75°  C. 

The  data  available  show  that  a  complete  modern  steam  railway  plant 
can  generally  be  constructed  for  the  following: 

COST  OF  STEAM  POWER  PLANTS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

100,000-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete $  60  per  kw. 

40,000-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete 70  per  kw. 

20,000-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete 80  per  kw. 

10,000-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete 90  per  kw. 

5,000-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete 100  per  kw. 

2,500-kilowatt  plants  cost,  complete 140  per  kw. 

Station  buildings  and  land  add  from  $10  to  20  per  kw. 

A  large-sized  boiler,  complete,  costs $14  to  20  per  h.  p. 

One  boiler  h.  p.  is  used  for  2  kw.,  when  15  Ib.  of  steam  are  used  per  kw.-hr. 
Chimneys  cost  from  $4  to  $6  per  h.  p.,  depending  upon  permanence,  not  on  size. 

5000-kilowatt  turbo-generators  cost,  complete $30  per  kw. 

8000-kilowatt  turbo-generators  cost,  complete 25  per  kw. 

14,000-kilowatt  turbo-generators  cost,  complete 20  per  kw. 

Large  rotary-converter  substations  cost,  complete 40  per  kw. 

Large  motor-generator  substations  cost,  complete 44  per  kw. 

Large  transformer  substations  cost,  complete 8  to  10  per  kw. 

The  relative  cost  of  steam  power  plants,  from  an  average  of  the  best 
comparable  data  obtainable,  is:  Water  power  plants,  100;  water  and 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       477 

steam  plants,  125;  steam  turbine  plants,  155;  gas  producer  and  engine 
plants,  180. 

The  cost  of  power  will  depend  largely  upon : 

a.  Load  factor  or  uniformity  of  load.     (See  load  factor,  page  468.) 

b.  Economy  of  steam  per  h.  p.  hr.     Steam  turbines  in  larger  sizes 
consume  10  pounds  of  steam  per  i.  h.  p.  hr.,  or  15  pounds  per  kw-hr.; 
compound  condensing  Corliss  engines  show  at  best  12  pounds  of  steam 
per  i.  h.  p.  hr. ;    modern   Mallet   compound  steam  locomotives  use  24 
pounds  per  i.  h.  p.  hr.  and  the  ordinary  simple  steam  locomotive  in  good 
condition  averages  fully  30  pounds  per  i.  h.  p.  hr.     The  relative  steam 
consumption  in  the  four  cases  is  10,  12,  24,  30. 

Steam  in  turbines  expands  28  to  35  times;  in  Corliss  condensing 
engines  20  to  25  times,  and  in  simple  and  compound  steam  locomotives 
3  to  5  times.  The  ratios  are  7:  5:1. 

c.  Cost  of  coal  per  ton.     The  cheapest  grades  of  coal  are  used  at  large 
electric  power  plants. 

d.  The  magnitude  of  the  plant.     Many  economies  are  incidental  in 
operation  on  a  large  scale. 

e.  Interest  on  the  cost  of  the  plant.     This  forms  a  large  item  in  the 
cost  of  service,  and  therefore  it  is  important  to  reduce  the  amount  and 
cost  of  the  equipment  used,  to  have  it  reliable,  and  to  work  it  hard. 
Since  electric  railway  service  is  generally  increasing,  the  design  of  the 
plant  should  be  such  that  equipment  can  be  added  as  needed,  and  with 
an  increase  in  the  economy  of  fuel  and  labor. 

The  cost  of  steam-electric  power  varies  with  the  load  factor,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  example  and  table.  Basis:  Steam  power  plant 
capacity,  10,000;  cost  per  kilowatt  installed  complete,  $100;  coal  con- 
taining 12,000  B.  t.  u.  per  pound  of  combustible,  $2  per  2000  pounds; 
fixed  charges  for  interest,  depreciation,  and  taxes,  12  per  cent,  per  annum. 


COST  OF  STEAM-ELECTRIC  POWER  PER  KW-HR.  ESTIMATED  FOR 
VARYING  LOAD  FACTORS. 


Load 

Ratio 

Steam  per 

Cost  of 

Cost  of    i     Other 

Operating 

Fixed 

Total 

Factor.        of  evap. 

kw-hr. 

coal. 

labor.          items.           charges. 

charges. 

cost. 

10 

8.0 

24  Ib. 

.60* 

.13* 

.12* 

.85* 

1.40$ 

2.25* 

25 

8.5 

19 

.45 

.07 

.08 

.60 

.56 

1.16 

50 

9.0 

18 

.40 

.05 

.07 

.52 

.28 

.80 

75 

9.0 

17 

.38 

.04 

.07 

.49 

.21 

.70 

100 

9.0 

16 

.36 

.03 

.07 

.46 

.14 

.60 

See  companion  table  on  Cost  of  Hydro-electric  Power,  page  484. 


478 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


COST  OF  STEAM-ELECTRIC  POWER  PER  KW-HR. 
AT  LEADING  RAILWAY  PLANTS. 


Name  of  railway. 

Cost    of 
coal  per 
2000  Ib. 

Operating  cost  at 
B  t  u 

Total  cost  at 

Load 
fac- 
tor. 

Year 
ending 
June. 

per 
kw-hr.      Power 
house. 

Con- 
tact 
line. 

Power 
house. 

Con- 
tact 
line. 

Boston  Elevated  
Boston  &  Worcester  
New  Haven: 
Consolidated,  New  Haven. 
Cos  Cob. 
New  York  Central  
Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit.  .  .  . 
Interboro,  Rapid  Transit.  .  . 
New  York  Edison  

$3.20 

4.58 

3.75 

3.15 
2.80 
2.51 
2.18 
2.23 

81« 
.  76 

60 

4 

£ 

£ 

.37 

1910 
1906 

1908 

1909 
1909 
1908 
1908 
1910 

1908 

2  .  60         .48 

58 
56 
60 

70 
!        .59 
l        .54 

1.09 

1.46 
1.15 
.65 

1.02 

1.00 



West  Jersey  &  Seashore.  .  .  . 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  
Philadelphia  R.  T  
Harrisburg  Pa 

.35 

"55"  :: 

R5 

Pittsburg  Rys  
International,  Buffalo  
Ohio  Electric  Ry  
Indiana  Union  Traction  
Kokomo,  Marion  &  West.  .  . 
United  Rys.,  Detroit  
Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati.  . 
Chicago  City  Ry  
Commonwealth,  Chicago.  .  .  . 
Chicago  &  Milwaukee.  ..... 
Milwaukee  Electric  Ry  
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit.  .  .  . 
Paris-Orleans                              I 

1.04 
2.25 

1.65 

1.80 
1.60 
1.78 
2.74 
2.26 

60 
:        .62 
.  73 
.  53 
.69 
.51 
.  65 
.  64 
28,000     
53,306           .62 
48,625           .59 
44,000           .66 
.  80 

.91 
.91 

.68 

1.34 
2.40 



.88 

'      1909 

1907 
1909 
.41         1910 
1909 
1910 
.55         1910 
I      1905 
1905 

Paris  Versailles 

1.24 

Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  records  show:  Pounds  of  coal  per  kw-hr.  at  the 
power  house  2.6,  or  3.2  pounds  of  coal  per  drawbar  h.  p.  at  the  train.  Its  former 
compound  steam  locomotives  averaged  7  pounds  of  coal  per  drawbar  horse  power. 

Cost  of  power  is  seldom  controlled  by  the  size  of  the  plant,  or  by  the  cost  of  coal ; 
but  depends  largely  upon  the  average  daily  load  factor,  as  .noted  in  the  table, 
page  477. 

Load  factor  is  denned  as  the  ratio  of  the  average  power  output  for  the  year  to  the 
maximum  output  for  one  hour,  both  being  measured  by  watt-hour  meters. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       479 
COST  OF  POWER  AND  OUTPUT  OF  ELECTRIC  RAILROAD  PLANTS. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Operating 
cost  of 
power  plant. 

Total          i 
kw-hr. 
produced. 

Cost  per 
kw-hr. 
cents. 

Year 
ending 
June. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 

$167,098 

1908 

412,715 

1909 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River. 

126,495 

21,800,000 

.580 

1909 

Pennsylvania  R.  R  : 

450  059 

1909 

Long  Island  

198,610 

28,500,000 

.697 

1908 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  

149,754 

25,300,000 

.592 

1908 

153,450 

28,312,500 

.542 

1910 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  

159,929 

1910 

Interboro  Rapid  Transit  

2,172,810 

402,085,000 

.543 

1908 

Albany  Southern 

7,982  000 

874 

1909 

Erie  R.  R.,  Rochester  Division  

16,154 

1909 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

71,462 

1909 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  

724,500 

116,868,000 

.620 

1910 

Colorado  &  Southern  

14,000 

1909 

STEAM-ELECTRIC  POWER  PLANT  INSTALLATIONS  FOR 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  TRAINS. 


Name  of  railway. 


Boston  Elevated  Ry. : 

Elevated  Division 

Massachusetts  Electric 

Rhode  Island  Providence 

Shore  Line  Electric,  New  Haven 

Boston  &  Maine:  Hoosac  Tunnel 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford: 
New  York  Div.,  17,000  kw.  in  1910. 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River: 
Harlem  Division,  Port  Morris    .  .  ) 
Hudson  Division,  Kings  Bridge. .  .    f 

Manhattan  Elevated,  74th  Street 

Interborough  Subway,  59th  Street 

Hudson  &  Manhattan 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit:  El.  Div 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.: 

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  and  Terminal  \ 
Long  Island  R.  R.  J 
West  Jersey  &  Seashore 

Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley 

Baltimore  &  Ohio .  . 


Kilowatts 
installed. 


60,000 

10,000 

18,500 

6,000 

4,000 

33,100 

40,000 

60,000 
90,000 
18,000 


32,500 

8,000 
5,000 
3,000 


Motor 
cars. 


Loco-   Mile- 
motives,   age. 


225 

2,015 

830 

12 

0 


137 

895 
910 
200 
659 


361 

108 

35 

0 


0 
5 

44 


0 

0 

0 

15 

33 
2 
0 
2 

12 


26 

933 

318 

52 

22 

100 

150 

119 

85 

18 

107 

95 
164 
154 

50 

7 


480 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


STEAM-ELECTRIC  POWER  PLANT  INSTALLATIONS  FOR  ELECTRIC 
RAILWAY  TRAINS.— Continued. 


Name  of  railway. 

Kilowatts 
installed. 

Motor 
cars. 

Locomo- 
tives. 

Mile- 
age. 

Baltimore  •&  Annapolis  Short  Line.  .  .  . 

1,800 

12 

0 

35 

Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  

3,000 

23 

1 

85 

Erie  R.  R.,  Rochester  Division  

2,250 

6 

0 

40 

Grand  Trunk  Ry.  : 

St.  Clair  Tunnel  &  Terminal  

2,500 

0 

6 

12 

Michigan  Central  R.  R.  : 

Detroit  River  Tunnel  

2,000 

0 

6 

19 

Fort  Wayne  &  Wabash  Valley  

8,500 

200 

0 

212 

Indianapolis  &  Cincinnati 

3,000 

25 

o 

116 

Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend  .... 

4,500 

24 

0 

117 

Commonwealth  Edison,  Chicago  : 

244,000 

2000 

0 

1250 

Twin  City  Rapid  Transit 

46,000 

800 

2 

380 

Minneapolis  &  St.  Paul. 

East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban  

5,500 

170 

2 

181 

Rock  Island  Southern  

5,000 

10 

1 

82 

Central  London  

7,100 

68 

40 

13 

London  Electric 

44,000 

383 

4 

168 

Great  Northern  &  City  

3,440 

35 

0 

7 

Great  Western,  M.  &  W.  L  

6,000 

40 

0 

11 

Metropolitan  Railway  

20,500 

130 

11 

60 

City  &  South  London  

3,850. 

0 

52 

16 

London,  Brighton  &  S   C 

Purchased. 

46 

0 

62 

Mersey  Ry  

3,750 

24 

0 

10 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire: 

Li  verpool-Southport 

10,750 

80 

o 

82 

North-Eastern         

9,000 

62 

6 

.    82 

GAS  POWER  PLANTS. 

Gas  engines  and  gas  producers  are  used  to  a  very  limited  extent  for 
electric  railway  power  for  the  following  reasons: 

Cost  is  high  because  the  intermittent  action,  and  instantly  applied 
high  pressures  used,  increase  the  strains,  size,  and  weight  of  the  engines. 
Cost  varies  from  $150  to  $180  per  kilowatt  for  a  complete  gas  and  electric 
plant,  or  50  per  cent,  more  than  the  cost  of  a  complete  steam  turbine 
plant.  Cost  of  gas  engines  and  producers,  without  electric  generators, 
is  twice  that  of  turbines  and  boilers.  Speeds  are  slow  in  the  best  designs, 
and  this  increases  the  cost  of  the  engine,  electric  generator,  foundations, 
floor  space  and  the  power  building. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       481 

Operation  with  electric  generators  in  parallel  is  difficult  without 
excessive  rotating  weights,  but  is  easier  with  15  than  with  25  cycles. 

Reliability  is  questioned  in  all  cases.  Two  spare  prime  movers  are 
desirable  in  gas  power  plants,  while  one  is  usual  in  steam  or  hydraulic 
service.  However,  gas  engines  in  the  Edgar  Thomson  Works  and  in 
the  U.  S.  steel  plants  run  for  months  without  an  hour's  delay. 

Manufacturers  and  users  lack  experience  with  the  large  units  of  3000 
to  15,000  kilowatts  required  for  railway  plants. 

Overload  capacity  of  gas  engines  are  small,  compared  with  overload 
capacity  of  steam  engines  and  steam  turbines. 

Producer  and  engine  manufacturers  have  not  worked  together  in 
the  past,  but  complete  outfits  are  now  built  by  one  manufacturer. 

Conditions  and  location  which  favor  the  development  of  power  from 
gas  producers  and  engines  are  those  wherein: 

1.  Low  grades  of  coal  and  lignites  are  available  in  original  deposits, 
or  as  waste  in  mining. 

2.  Cost  of  power,  or  fuel,  or  freight,  is  relatively  high.     Transporta- 
tion facilities  to  handle  low-grade  fuel  may  not  be  available,  in  which 
case  plants  may  be  located  at  mines   and  power  may  be  transmitted  by 
wires  over  mountains. 

3.  Natural  gas  from  coke  fields,  blast  furnaces,  etc.,  is  available,  and 
cheap,  and  wherever  expenditures  for  gas  producers  are  avoided. 

Economy  of  fuel  is  shown  by  the  records  of  four  2000-kw.  units  at  the 
Illinois  Steel  Company's  plant,  operating  on  blast-furnace  gas,  wherein 
only  15,000  B.  t.  u.  per  kw-hr.  at  the  switchboard  are  used.  A  gas 
producer  with  75  per  cent,  efficiency  would  raise  the  unit  consumption, 
with  coal,  to  20,000  B.  t.  u. 


GAS-ELECTRIC  POWER  PLANT  INSTALLATION. 


Name  of  railway.           Year 
placed. 

Mile-     No.  of 
age.      units. 

H.  p. 

total. 

Kw.        Name  of 
total.         engine. 

Name  of 
producer. 

Kind  of 
fuel. 

Boston  Elevated  

1 
1906 

20 

2 

1220 

700 

Cross  ley  . 

1 
!  Loomis  .  .  . 

Bit.    coal. 

Elmira  Water,  Light  & 

1904  ' 

27             1 

1400 

750 

Crossley  . 

None  

Nat.  Gas. 

R.  R. 

Warren  &  Jamestown.  .  . 

1905 

42             2 

940 

500 

West.  .  .  . 

None  

Nat.  gas. 

Western  N.  Y.  &  Penn.  . 

1906 

93 

3 

1500 

900 

West.  .  .  . 

!  None  

Nat.  gas. 

Philadelphia  Rapid  Tr.  . 

1911 

1 

940 

500 

West.  .  .  . 

Wood  .... 

Anth.coal. 

Charlotte  Electric  Ry.  .  . 

1908 

2 

1620 

1080 

Snow.  .  .  . 

Loomis.  .  . 

Bit.    coal. 

Georgia  Railway  &  Elec  . 

1907   | 

166 

1 

3000 

2000 

Snow.  .  .  . 

:  None  

Nat.  gas. 

Milwaukee  Northern  .... 

1907 

60 

3 

6000 

3000 

Allis  

Loomis.  .  . 

Bit.    coal. 

Union  Traction,  Kansas  . 

1907 

39 

1000 

None  

Nat.  gas. 

Missouri  &  Kansas  

1908 

20 

2 

672 

400 

Buckeye. 

None  

Nat.  gas. 

Midland  Ry.,  England.  .  . 

1908 

18 

3 

750 

450 

West.  .  .  . 

Mond  .... 

Bit.    coal. 

31 


482  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

WATER  POWER  PLANTS. 

The  general  characteristics  of  power  plants  which  were  outlined  at 
the  beginning  of  this  chapter,  namely  capacity,  economy,  relatively  con- 
stant load,  relatively  small  amount  of  equipment  and  load  factor, 
apply  to  water  power  plants. 

Utilization  of  water  power  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  electric 
traction.  Water  power  is  usually  cheaper  than  steam.  The  energy  can 
be  utilized  for  18  or  more  hours  of  the  day,  because  the  load  factor  of  the 
electric  railway  is  higher  than  for  electric  lighting.  Electric  railway 
companies  can  purchase  power  at  a  lower  rate;  or  they  can  afford  to  pay 
more  for  a  given  water  power  development,  because  they  need  more  and 
are  able  to  use  it  to  a  better  commercial  advantage. 

Steam  railroads  are  purchasing  many  of  the  best  water  powers  in  the 
country.  Their  heavy  loads,  excellent  load  factor,  and  the  economy  to 
be  gained  with  hydro-electric  power  justified  this  action. 

Water  supply  varies  with  the  season  and  rainfall,  while  the  total 
daily  load  required  for  railway  trains  is  relatively  constant.  Water 
turbines  are  most  efficient  at  full  load  and  the  overload  capacity  is  small. 
Uniformity  of  water  supply  of  and  demands  for  power,  may  be  gained  in 
several  ways: 

a.  Water  may  be  stored.     Dam  sites  at  the  power  plant,  and  reser- 
voirs at  the  upper  reaches  of  the  river,  provide  for  the  efficient  use  of  the 
water  and  also  of  the  water  power  investment.     Storage  of  water  is  often 
obtained  by  flooding  pasture  land  during  the  winter  months  only.     Stor- 
age of  water  in  a  300,000-gallon  elevated  steel  tank  is  provided  by  the 
Great  Northern  Railway  for  its  Cascade  Tunnel  electric  railway  plant 
to  equalize  the  flow  and  pressure. 

b.  Electrical  energy  may  be  stored  in  chemical  batteries 

c.  Mechanical  energy  may  be  stored  in  fly  wheels,  as  is  now  done  in 
electric  hoisting,  for  use  during  short  peak  loads.     (See  Load  Factor.) 

d.  Power  may  be  regenerated  by  single-phase  or  three-phase  railway 
motors  on  heavy  grades,  so  that  a  down-grade  train  will  furnish  most  of 
the  energy,  required  to  haul  the  up-grade  train. 

e.  Train  schedule  may  be  revised  so  that  trains  do  not  bunch  during 
a  few  hours  of  the  day  to  form  a  high  peak  load. 

f .  Other  plans  were  referred  to  in  the  section  on  Load  Factor. 
Water  power  is  available  in  sufficient  quantities  to  provide  energy  for 

most  of  the  train  service  in  Ontario,  Northern  New  York,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Minnesota,  Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  Montana,  and  the  Pacific  Coast 
states.  This  energy  will  be  utilized  in  the  future  by  electric  railroads. 
In  mountainous  districts  energy  can  be  developed  at  a  low  cost  and 
this  is  particularly  fortunate  since  the  cost  of  steam  power  is  highest 
in  mountain  service. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       483 

Reliability  of  water  power  plants  is  often  questioned.  Many  failures 
have  occurred.  Some  of  the  causes  are  listed : 

Concealment  of  facts,  or  deliberate  lying  by  promoters;  incompetent 
engineering  work  by  inexperienced  men;  insufficient  detail  in  plans  and 
specifications;  lack  of  provision  for  local  and  head  water  storage;  lack 
of  good  and  uniform  foundations;  dams  built  on  sand;  lack  of  sheet 
piling  above,  in,  below,  and  running  the  full  length  of  the  dam;  lack  of 
solid  material  at  the  ends  of  the  dam;  poor  cement;  bad  concrete; 
insufficient  steel  reinforcing;  bad  setting  of  good  concrete,  with  poor 
management;  improperly  built,  graded  approaches  to  dams;  inadequate 
provision  to  prevent  damage  by  ice  shoving;  insufficient  spillway;  con- 
gested discharge  area;  high  ratio  of  flood  to  low  water  discharge, 
especially  in  small  streams  and  in  mountain  streams;  lack  of  flowage 
data  covering  many  years. 

(Note. — In  the  northwestern  states  the  absolute  minimum  flowage  in  winter  is 
found  to  average  about  0.1  C.  F.  S.  per  square  mile  of  drainage  area.  The  low 
flowage  occurs  in  February,  and  averages  0.2  C.  F.  S.  while  the  average  flowage  during 
the  winter  months  and  during  the  dry  summer  months  averages  about  0.3  C.  F.  S. 
per  square  mile  of  drainage  area.  Stillwell  gave  data,  for  other  parts  of  the  country, 
to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1910.) 

Equipment  cost  of  water  power  plants  for  railways  varies  widely 
but  depends  upon: 

Cost  of  site,  reservoir,  and  flowage  lands;  head  or  fall  of  water;  constancy  of 
flowage;  amount  of  power  developed;  distance  from  railway  or  lake  transportation; 
permanency  of  construction ;  length  of  transmission ;  brokerage,  risk,  and  watered  stock. 

Quantitatively,  the  cost  of  complete  hydraulic  plants  averages  from 
$100  to  $200  per  kilowatt  installed.  Relatively,  the  cost  of  water  power 
plants,  from  a  fair  average  of  all  available  data,  is  80  per  cent,  of  the 
cost  of  steam  power  plants.  Installation  cost  of  hydro-electric  plants, 
including  substations,  but  not  distributing  lines,  varies  from  $200  to 
$250  per  kilowatt  of  delivered  power.  A  reserve  steam  plant  alone  costs 
an  additional  $75  per  kilowatt.  Wooden  flumes  with  a  capacity  of  200 
second  feet  may  cost  $30,000  per  mile  and  have  an  annual  charge  for  in- 
terest, depreciation,  and  maintenance  of  20  to  25  per  cent.  Tunnels  in 
lieu  of  flumes  may  cost  $100,000  per  mile,  but  the  annual  charge  is 
nearer  7  per  cent. 

The  cost  of  hydro -electric  power  varies  with  the  load  factor,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  example  and  table. 

Hydro-electric  plant  capacity,  10,000  kilowatts;  cost  per  kilowatt  in- 
stalled complete  $200;  fixed  charges:  interest,  6  per  cent.;  depreciation, 
4;  taxes,  2;  total,  12  per  cent.,  or  $24  per  kilowatt  per  year. 

Operating  expenses,  repairs,  renewals,  and  wages  vary  from  $17,500 
per  year  with  uniform  load  to  $13,000  per  year  with  lightest  load. 


484 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

COST  OF  HYDRO-ELECTRIC  POWER. 

Estimated  for  Varying  Load  Factors. 


Load 

Operating 

Fixed        Cost  per 

Cost  per 

factor.           charges.           charges. 

i        ,            e.  11.  i). 

kw-hr. 

year. 

I                     i 

10 

.160 

2.740 

2.900  $  18.95 

25 

.06 

1.10 

1.16         18.95 

50 

.03 

.55 

.58 

18.95 

75 

.02 

.37 

.39         19.12 

100 

.02 

.28               .30 

19.60 

Cost  of  steam-electric  power  per  kw-hr.  (see  table  page  477)  is  usually  lower  than 
the  cost  of  hydro-electric  power  when  the  load  factor  is  less  than  25  per  cent. 

HYDRO-ELECTRIC  POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAYS. 


Name  of  railway. 

Kilowatts 
installed. 

Motor 
cars. 

Locomo- 
tives. 

Railway 
mileage. 

Albany  Southern  R.  R  
Schenectady  Ry 

45 
157 

1 
0 

62 
133 

Ottawa  Electric  Ry  
West  Shore  R.  R 

600 

150 
21 

0 
0 

45 
114 

Ontario  Power  Co.  : 
Erie  R.  R.   . 

2,250 

6 

0 

40 

Lockport;  Rochester;  Syracuse 

14  500 

Niagara  Gorge  Ry 

1,000 

28 

0 

32 

Niagara  Falls  Power  Co.  : 
International  Ry  
Tonawanda  Ry 

10,500 
1,000 

950 

2 

0 

374 

Electrical  Development  Co  : 
Niagara,  St.  Catharine  &  Toronto.  . 
Toronto  Ry.  Company  

750 
13,000 

16 

850 

3 
2 

50 
114 

Canadian  Pacific  R.  R.  : 
Hull-Aylmer  Division  
Montreal  Street  Railway  
Grand  Rapids   Michigan   Rys 

2,000 
9,600 
11  000 

30 
1000 

2 

2 

26 
224 

Indiana  &  Michigan  Electric  
Illinois  Traction  (Marseilles) 

8,000 
2,700 

150 
600 

Milwaukee  Electric 

6000 

398 

0 

137 

\Visconsin  Traction  Company 

3  000 

T.  C.  R.  T.,  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul.  . 
Duluth-Superior  Traction  . 

16,000 
1,500 

800 
119 

2 

0 

380 

76 

\Vlnnipeg  General  Power 

4  000 

40 

Denver  &  Interurban  R   R 

2,000 

16 

54 

Montana  Power  Transmission  

6,000 

80 

0 

50 

POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       485 
HYDRO-ELECTRIC  POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAYS.— Continued. 


Name  of  railway. 

Kilowatts          Motor 
installed.             cars. 

Locomo- 
tives. 

Railway 
mileage. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  
Washington  Water  Power 

40,000              582 
21*000              130 

14 
0 

287 
98 

Seattle  Electric  

15,000              289 

1 

170 

Puget  Sound  Electric  

100 

10 

200 

Portland  Ry.,  Light  and  Power  
Oregon  Electric  
Great  Northern  
United  Rys.,  San  Francisco  
Los  Angeles-Pacific  
Pacific  Electric 

15,000              309 
2,250                24 
7,500                  0 
26,800              425 
7,500              523 
675 

7 
3 
4 

20 

472 

80 
6 

260 

700 

French  Southern  .  

38,000                30 

7 

75 

Valtellina  Ry.,  Italy  

4,150                10 

6 

70 

TECHNICAL  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  INSTALLATIONS. 
NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD  RAILROAD. 

Power  plant  is  installed  at  Cos  Cob,  on  the  main  line  of  the  New 
York  division,  at  an  outlet  of  a  river,  and  on  a  navigable  bay.  The 
location  is  30  miles  east  of  Xew  York.  In  1910  the  plant  contained: 

Twelve  boilers,  525-h.p.  each,  with  125°  superheat,  200  pounds 
pressure;  with  Roney  stokers,  Green  economizers,  and  induced  draft; 
four  Parsons- Westinghouse  steam  turbines;  three  3700-kw.,  11,000-volt, 
25-cycle  alternators;  and  one  6000-kw.,  11,000-volt,  25-cycle  alternator. 

The  alternators  are  three-phase  star-connected.  Two  legs  are  used, 
the  remaining  leg  being  idle.  Transformers  and  substations  are  not  used 
between  the  generators  and  locomotives,  i.  e.,  the  station  feeds  a  11,000- 
volt  contact  line  directly. 

The  1910  power  service  included  the  supply  of  electrical  energy  to 
about  20  of  42  locomotives  and  4  of  6  motor  cars  for  all  electric  passenger 
trains  on  the  4-track,  22-mile  road  between  Woodlawn,  X.  Y.,  and  Stam- 
ford, Connecticut,  and  1000  kilowatts  for  street  railways,  shops,  pump- 
ing, and  signals.  Energy  is  purchased  from  the  New  York  Central  for 
the  service  between  Grand  Central  Station  and  Woodlawn,  12  miles. 

In  the  1910  power  service  three  alternators,  with  a  single-phase 
rating  of  3700  kv-a.  at  80  per  cent  p.  f.,  or  5500  kv-a.  three-phase, 
carried  about  1000  amperes  at  11,200  to  13,500  volts.  The  power  factor 
was  .75  maximum,.  65  average,  and  less  for  minimum  loads.  Three  alter- 
nators were  used  on  the  peak  loads,  during  which  1700  amperes  ex- 
isted for  30  seconds  followed  by  400  amperes.  High  peaks  occurred  on 


486  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Saturdays.  The  peak  load  was  12,000  kilowatts  yet  the  minimum  load 
at  night  averaged  500  kilowatts.  The  peaks  varied  from  20  to  30  per 
cent,  above  and  below  the  average  load,  during  daylight  hours. 

Every  passenger  locomotive  is  in  service  during  the  evening  load. 

Economy  of  the  station  is  low  because  the  line  is  so  short  that  there 
is  no  railway  load  from  midnight  to  morning,  during  which  time  a  3000 
turbo-alternator  and  all  boilers  are  used;  and  because  the  average 
number  of  locomotives  in  service,  about  20,  is  small.  The  peak  loads 
are  hard  on  the  furnaces  and  the  boiler  economy  is  reduced. 

The  extension  of  the  road  to  New  Haven,  73  miles,  the  electrification 
of  63  miles  of  freight  yards  on  the  Harlem  River  Branch,  and  the  con- 
struction of  the  New  York,  West  Chester  &  Boston  Railroad,  in  1911, 
required  the  addition  of  four  4000  kw.  turbo-alternators. 

Reference. 

Coster:  Electric  Journal,  Jan.,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1907;  Murray:  A.  I.  E.  E., 
1908-9-10-11. 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL  &  HUDSON  RIVER  RAILROAD. 

The  plants  of  this  company  are  located  on  opposite  sides  of  Manhat- 
tan Island,  the  Port  Morris  station  on  the  East  River  and  the  Kings- 
bridge  station  on  a  slip  leading  from  the  Hudson  River  near  the  load 
centers  of  the  Harlem  Division,  and  on  the  Hudson  Division.  The 
Kingsbridge  station  is  practically  a  reserve  duplicate  plant  and  is  used 
as  a  substation. 

Each  plant  now  contains  16  of  twenty-four  625-h.  p.  boilers,  with 
Roney  stokers;  and  4  of  six '5000-kilo watt  Curtis,  25-cycle,  three-phase, 
11,000-volt  turbo-alternators. 

The  energy  is  distributed  at  11,000  volts  pressure  by  underground 
cables  and  by  overhead  steel  transmission  towers  to  9  rotary  converter 
substations  along  the  Harlem  and  the  Hudson  electric  divisions. 

The  load  factor  of  the  plants  is  only  50  per  cent.,  the  routes  being 
short,  and  the  power  being  used  at  present  for  suburban  passenger  and 
terminal  service.  The  peak  load  is  only  20,000  kw. 

References. 

S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  11,  1905;  Sept.  29,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

INTERBORO  RAPID  TRANSIT  COMPANY. 

The  Interboro  plants  supply  energy  for  the  Manhattan  Elevated 
Railroad  from  the  Seventy-fourth  Street  station,  and  for  the  New  York 
Subway  from  the  West  Fifty-ninth  Street  station,  on  Manhattan  Island. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       487 

The  Seventy-fourth  Street  station  contains  sixty-four  500-h.  p., B.  &  W. 
boilers  with  Roney  stokers,  economizers,  and  superheaters;  and  eight 
Allis-Westinghouse,  5000-kilowatt  engine-generator  units. 

The  Fifty-ninth  Street  station  contains  sixty  600-h.p.  B.  &  W. 
boilers  with  Roney  stokers  at  the  front  and  also  at  the  rear  of  the 
boilers.  Economizers  and  superheaters  are  used.  The  generating  equip- 
ment consists  of  nine  Allis-W^estinghouse  5000-kilowatt  engine  generators, 
each  with  a  5000-kilowatt  Curtis  exhaust  steam  turbine  with  induction 
generators.  The  recent  introduction  of  the  exhaust  steam  turbines  did 
not  increase  the  size  of  the  building,  but  improved  the  fuel  economy  33 
per  cent.  Pennsylvania  semi-bituminous  coal  is  used,  which  has  about 
14,250  B.  t.  u.  The  thermal  efficiency  of  the  engine-turbo  unit  is  20 
per  cent. 

Generators  are  25-cycle,  three-phase,  11,000-volt.  The  energy  is 
transmitted  at  11,000  volts,  to  direct-current  converter  substations. 
The  peak  load  of  the  two  plants  exceeds  177,000  kw. 

References. 

Manhattan,  Pegram  and  Baker:  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1901;  Subway,  Van  Vleck:  S.  R.  J., 
Oct.  8,  1904;  Oct.  12,  1907;  Aug.  14,  1909;  Stott:  Elec.  Journal,  May,  1905; 
Aug,  1907. 


HUDSON  &  MANHATTAN  RAILROAD. 

The  power  plant  is  well  located  in  Jersey  City  near  the  center  of  the 
New  York  City,  Hoboken,  Jersey  City,  and  Newark  load. 

The  generating  equipment  consists  of  two  3000-kilowatt  and  two 
6000-kilowatt  turbo-alternators  of  the  vertical  Curtis  type.  Units  are 
installed  on  a  basis  of  one  chimney  and  four  900-h.  p.,  B.  &  W.  boilers 
per  6000-kilowatt  generator.  The  present  plant  is  designed  for  16 
boilers.  Green  fuel  economizers  are  used  for  each  group  of  boilers. 

Three  substations,  each  containing  four  1500-kilowatt,  600-volt 
rotary  converters,  have  been  installed. 

Motive  power  is  supplied  to  200  motor  cars  of  320-h.  p.  capacity  each 
for  the  most  important  tunnel  and  rapid  transit  service  in  America. 

Reference. 
E.  R.  J.,  March  5,  1910. 

A 

LONG  ISLAND  RAILROAD. 

The  power  plant  is  located  in  Long  Island  City  on  the  East  River 
advantageous  to  fuel,  and  it  is  near  the  center  of  the  combined  loads  of 


488 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


the  Long  Island  Railroad  and  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnel  and  Terminal 
Railroad.  Thirty-two  564-h.  p.  B.  &  W.  boilers  have  Roney  stokers. 
Sixteen  duplicate  boilers  can  be  added  in  the  present  building.  Natural 
draft  is  used.  The  cheapest  low-grade  fuels  are  burned  to  advantage  in 
the  furnaces.  Three  5500-  and  two  8000-kilowatt  turbo-alternators 
deliver  11,000-volt,  3-phase,  25-cycle  energy  to  transmission  lines  which 
distribute  energy  to  many  660-volt  converter  substations. 
The  plant  can  be  extended  to  house  100,000  kw.  capacity. 

Load  peaks  in  July,  1910,  exceeded  16,000  kilowatts;  after  the  Penn- 
sylvania locomotives  and  Pennsylvania-Long  Island  motor-car  trains 
were  added,  in  1910,  the  load  peak  increased  to  30,000  kw. 

Reference. 

E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  4,  1905;  October  12,  1907;  Gibbs,  June  3,  1911. 


FIG.  180. — PENNSYLVANIA-LONG  ISLAND  RAILROAD  POWER  PLANT. 
Three  5,500-kilowatt  Westinghouse  turbines  and  25-cycle,  3-phase,  11,000-volt  alternators. 


WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE  RAILROAD. 

The  power  plant  is  located  on  the  main  line  of  the  electric  division  of 
the  road  between  Atlantic  City  and  Philadelphia,  at  Westfield,  8  miles 
south  of  Philadelphia. 

The  station  contains  eight  358-h.  p.  Stirling  boilers,  with  stokers. 

Generating  equipment  consists  of  four  2000-kilowatt,  6600-volt,  25- 
cycle,  three-phase  Curtis  turbo-alternators. 

The  energy  is  transmitted  at  33,000  volts  to  eight  675-volt  converter 
substations,  located  along  the  75  miles  of  road,  by  70  miles  of  duplicate 
33  000-volt  transmission  line.  The  capacity  of  these  substations  is  17,000 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       489 

kilowatts.     The  loss  between  the  station  switchboard  and  the  substation 
output  varies  from  20  to  24  per  cent. 

References. 

S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  10,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907;  Gibbs,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  March  25,  1910. 

COMMONWEALTH  EDISON  COMPANY,  CHICAGO. 

The  main  Quarry-Fisk  street  power  plant  has  these  features : 

Boiler  units  are  rated  550  h.  p.  each,  but  are  worked  up  to  1100  h.  p. 
Chain  grate  stokers  feed  coal  under  the  mud  drums,  reversing  the  usual 
direction  of  flue  gas  travel.  The  draft  which  is  produced  by  steel 
chimneys  is  0. 75  inches,  water  gage.  Coal  used  is  a  high-volatile,  Illinois 
screening.  A  boiler  efficiency  of  63  per  cent,  is  obtained.  The  coal  con- 
sumption is  60  pounds  per  square  foot  of  grate  surface  per  hour. 

Steam  turbine  units  consist  of  ten  12,000-kilowatt  and  six  14,000- 
kilowatt  units.  The  maximum  output  is  184,000  kilowatts  on  peak 
load  in  winter.  Six  20,000-kilowatt  turbines  were  ordered  in  1910  for  its 
new  Northwestern  power  plant.  The  economy  of  the  present  plants  is 
stated  to  be  28,000  B.  t.  u.  per  kw.-hr. 

Energy  is  sold  to  every  railway  which  hauls  electric  trains  in  Chicago, 
at  $15  per  kw-year  of  maximum  demand,  plus  0.4  cent  per  kw-hour. 

TWIN  CITY  RAPID  TRANSIT  CO.,  MINNEAPOLIS. 

The  steam  plant  has  the  following  equipment : 

Twenty-eight  600-h.  p.,  B.  &  W.  boilers,  with  150°  of  superheat, 
175  pounds  pressure,  which  on  1-inch  draft,  operate  regularly  at  1100- 
h.  p.  capacity;  two  3500-kilowatt  Allis-Corliss  vertical  engines;  two 
5000-kilowatt,  and  two  14,000-kilowatt  Curtis  steam  turbo-alternators. 

In  the  rebuilding  of  this  plant,  erected  in  1902,  two  16-foot  by  220- 
foot  tile  and  brick  chimneys  have  been  replaced  by  four  14-foot  by 
263-foot  steel  stacks,  lined  thruout  with  4  inches  of  concrete;  the  Roney 
stokers  which  are  suitable  for  eastern  coals  were  replaced  by  chain  grate 
stokers  which  burn  either  northern  Illinois  or  Youghiogheny  screenings  to 
advantage;  grate  areas  have  been  increased  20  per  cent. ;  coal  is  now  stored 
and  flooded  in  concrete  cells  in  place  of  being  allowed  to  deteriorate  in 
huge  piles;  cast  iron  fittings  were  replaced  by  steel  fittings  and  nickel- 
bronze  valve  seats  for  the  superheated  steam;  and  the  four  vertical  cross- 
compound,  condensing  Allis-Corliss  engines  are  now  being  replaced  by 
14,000-kilowatt  5-stage  and  6-stage  vertical  Curtis  steam  turbines. 
Storage  of  heat  in  water  under  full  pressure  is  planned  for  peak  loads. 

Steam  consumption  of  the  steam  engines  is  22  pounds  per  kw.-hr. ; 
of  the  small  steam  turbines,  20  pounds;  of  the  14,000-kilowatt,  14  pounds. 

The  peak  load  at  the  power  plant  is  35,000  or  50  kilowatts  per  car. 


490 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


Two  water  power  plants,  with  16,000  kilowatts  capacity,  near  the 
steam  plant,  carry  the  body  of  the  railway  load. 

Power  has  been  distributed  since  1897  by  means  of  underground 
13  200-volt,  paper-insulated  cables,  to  11  converter  substations  in 
Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul,  and  long  interurban  lines.  The  efficiency 
between  the  alternating-current  bus  and  the  car  is  60  per  cent. 

Car  equipment  consists  of  eight  hundred  45-foot,  22-  to  25-ton,  steel- 
framed  motor  cars,  each  equipped  with  from  200  to  300  h.  p.  in  motors; 
and  there  are  twenty-two  45-foot  motor  cars  in  heavy  freight  service. 


FIG.   181.— TWIN  CITY  RAPID  TRANSIT   Co.     5000-KW.  CURTIS  STEAM  TURBO-ALTERNATORS. 

33-cycle,  13, 200- volts. 

The  33-cycle,  three-phase  system  was  chosen  in  1896,  at  which  time 
seven  700-kilowatt  alternators  and  five  600-kilowatt  660-volt  railway 
rotary  converters  were  purchased  in  connection  with  the  equipment  of 
the  first  water  power  plant.  Plans  were  made  to  combine  all  electric 
railway  and  lighting  power  plants  and  interests,  and  the  33-cycle  system 
was  not  only  suitable  for  the  railway  rotary  converters,  but  for  the 
arc  and  incandescent  lighting  in  the  city  of  Minneapolis.  Neither  25  nor 
60  cycles  would  have  been  satisfactory  for  the  combined  service. 

MILWAUKEE  NORTHERN  RAILWAY. 

This  power  plant  is  located  at  Port  Washington,  near  the  middle  of 
the  company's  58-mile  road  between  Milwaukee  and  Sheboygan,  Wis. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       491 

It  is  one  of  the  very  few  successful  gas  producer  and  gas  engine 
plants.  There  are  four  Loomis-Pettibone  bituminous  gas  producers 
which  burn  a  cheap  grade  of  Hocking  Valley  bituminous  slack  coal  and 
deliver  gas  with  about  125  B.  t.  u.  per  cubic  foot.  There  are  three  1250- 
kilowatt,  32x42,  4-cylinder,  twin,  tandem,  horizontal,  double-acting  Allis 
gas  engines,  each  direct-connected  to  25-cycle,  three-phase,  405-volt, 
107-r.  p.  m.  alternators.  Electric  power  is  furnished,  thru  transformers 
and  rotary  converters,  to  a  high-grade  interurban  railway. 


FIG.   182. — MILWAUKEE  NORTHERN  RAILWAY  POWER  PLANT. 

Two   1250  kilowatt  gas  engines  and  25-cycle,  3-phase,  405-volt,   107  r.p.m.  alternators,  built 
by  the  Allis -Chalmers  Company. 


FIG.   183. — GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY — CASCADE  TUNNEL  POWER  PLANT  EQUIPMENT. 

GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY. 

The  water  power  plant  used  to  propel  trains  thru  the  Cascade  Tun- 
nel is  located  30  miles  east  of  the  tunnel.  The  plant  was  designed  by 
Mr.  J.  T.  Fanning  of  Minneapolis. 

The  equipment  consists  of  three  4000-h.  p.  horizontal  Smith  turbines, 


492  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

each  direct-connected  to  a  2500  kv-a.,  6600-volt,  25-cycle,  375  r.  p.  m. 
alternator.  The  units  have  a  large  overload  capacity,  for  train  ser- 
vice. Four  transformers  raise  the  voltage  from  6600  to  33,000  volts. 
Each  transformer  is  rated  844  kilowatt  but  will  operate  at  100  per 
cent,  overload  for  1  hour  with  a  reasonable  rise  'n  temperature. 

The  head  of  water  is  185  feet.  To  equalize  the  pressure  due  to  fric- 
tion and  inertia  of  the  water  in  an  8.5-foot  stave  pipe  line,  11,000  feet 
long,  between  the  dam  and  the  power  plant,  a  360,000-gallon  steel  tank 
is  connected  to  the  foot  of  the  pipe  line.  The  water  is  lowered  12  feet 
when  a  2000-ton  train  is  accelerated,  and,  when  the  load  is  thrown  off,  the 
water  is  relieved  by  an  inside  overflow  pipe  having  a  funnel-shaped  head. 
The  regulation  of  the  suddenly  applied  5000-h.  p.  load  was  the  hardest 
of  the  many  problems  involved.  About  21,000  tons  of  water  moving 
at  the  rate  of  8  to  10  feet  per  second  cannot  be  retarded  quickly.  The 
surge  tank  takes  care  of  the  work  safely  and  without  waste  of  large 
amounts  of  energy  or  of  water. 

LONDON  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

The  Chelsea  power  plant  of  the  company  in  London  is  one  of  the 
largest  electric  railway  plants  in  the  world.  It  feeds  the  Great  Northern, 
Piccadilly,  and  Brompton  Railway;  the  Charing  Cross,  Euston  &  Hamp- 
stead  Railway;  Baker  Street  and  Waterloo  Railway;  Metropolitan  and 
District  Railway;  and  other  railway  and  power  loads. 

Eight  5500-kilowatt  Parsons  steam  turbo-alternators  are  installed. 

The  alternators  are  33-cycle  11,000-volt  units  and  feed  common 
600-volt  rotary  converter  substations. 

LITERATURE. 
Text  Books  on  Steam  Power. 

PARSHALL  AND  HOBART:  "Electric  Railway  Engineering,"  Chapter  V. 

HOBART:  "Heavy  Electrical  Engineering,"  English  practice  in  detail. 

DAWSON:  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  Chapter  XXI,  English  practice. 

BERG:  "Electrical  Energy,"  McGraw,  1908,  Section  II,  Efficiency  of  Prime  Movers. 

GEBHARDT:  "Steam  Power  Plant  Engineering,"  Wiley,  1909. 

FRENCH:  "Steam  Turbines,"  McGraw,  1908. 

WEINGREEN:  "Electric  Power  Plant  Engineering,"  McGraw,  1910. 

REEVE:  "Energy,"  McGraw,  1909. 

KOESTER:  "Steam-Electric  Power  Plants,"  Van  Nostrand,  1909. 

ENNIS:  "Applied  Thermodynamics,"  Van  Nostrand,  1911. 

Cost  of  Steam  Power  Plants. 

Review  in  E.  W.,  Feb.  4,  1909;  E.  R.  J.,  March  27,  1909. 

Stott:  Power  Plant  Economies,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  1906,  Dec.  18,  1909. 

Bibbins:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July,  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  19,  1907. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILAVAY  TRAIN  SERVICE       493 

Cost  of  Power. 

Boston  &  Worcester  Ry.,  S.  R.  J.,  May  4,  1907,  p.  760. 

N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.  (Consolidated  Ry.),  S.  R.  J.,  March  3,  1906. 

New  York  Central,  Wilgus,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  March  18,  1909. 

Harrisburg.  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  28,   1907. 

West  Jersey  and  Seashore,  Wood  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911. 

Chicago  Edison  Contracts  with  Railways,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  31,  1908,  p.   1291. 

Steam  Turbines. 

Steinmetz:  Theory  of  Prime  Movers,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.  1909.  Discussion  of  cost  of 
steam  power,  economy,  investment,  reliability,  and  thermodynamic  efficiency. 

Berg:  Losses  in  Transformation  of  Energy  in  Coal  to  Electrical,  G.  E.  Review, 
July,  1910. 

Reports  to  Amer.  Eiec.  Ry.  Assoc.,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15,  1908,  p.  1097. 

Kirkland:  Energy  of  Steam,  G.  E.  Review,  Dec.,  1908. 

Goodenough:  Relative  Economy  of  Turbines  and  Engines,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  20,  1906. 

Bibbins:  Recent  Developments  in  Steam  Turbine  Power  Station  and  Cost  of  Power, 
S.  R.J.,  Oct.  19,  1907. 

Emmet:  Steam  Turbines,  Reasons  for  Existence,  G.  E.  Review,  Jan.,  1908. 

Burleigh:  Steam  Turbines,  G.  E.  Review,  Nov.,  1910. 

Text  Books  on  Gas  Power. 

JUNGE:  "Gas  Power,"  McGraw,  1908. 

JUPTNER:  "Heat  Energy  of  Fuels,"  McGraw,  1909. 

SUPPLEE:  "The  Gas  Turbine,"  Lippincott,  1910. 

LEVIN:  "Modern  Gas  Engine  and  Gas  Producer,"  Wiley,  1909. 

References  on  Gas-Electric  Power  Plants. 

Catalogs:  Allis,  Snow,  and  Westinghouse  Companies. 

Bibbins:  On  Design  and  Operation,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  20,  1903;  Sept.  30,  1905. 

Alden  and  Bibbins:  on  Economy,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Dec.,  1907;  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  21,  1907. 

Anderson  and  Porter:  Large  Gas  Engines,  Inst.  of  Elec.  Eng.,  London,  Feb.,  1909; 

Elec.  Review,  N.  Y.,  May  8,  1909. 
Tuttle:  Gas  Producers,  E.  R.  J.,  May  16,  1908. 
Harvey:  Gas  Producers,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Oct.,  1908. 

Boston  Elevated  R.  R.,  Winsor,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  20,  1906;  Oct.  19,  1907. 
Warren  and  Jamestown,  N.  Y.:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  17,  1906;  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1906; 
Western  N.  Y.  &  Pennsylvania:  E.  R.  J.,  July  18,  1908. 
Charlotte  (N.  C.)  Electric  Ry.:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May,  1910. 
Milwaukee  Northern:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  7,  1907. 
Midland  Railway,  England:  E.  R.  J.,  July  4,  1908. 

Text  Books  on  Water  Power. 

MEAD:  "Water  Power  Engineering,"  McGraw,  1908. 

FRIZELL:  "Water  Power,"  Wiley,  1908. 

FANNING:  "AVater  Supply,"  Van  Nostrand,  1902. 

MERRIMAN:  "Hydraulics,"  Wiley,  1904. 

CHURCH:  "Mechanics  of  Fluids,"  Wiley,  1898. 

BEARDSLEY:  "Design  and  Construction  of  Hydro-electric  Plants,"  McGraw,  1908. 


494          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

VONSCHON:  "Hydro-electric  Practice,"  Lippincott,  1908. 
HUTCHINSON:  "Water  Power  and  Transmissions,"  Van  Nostrand,  1907. 
THURSO:  "  Turbine  Practice, "  Van  Nostrand,  1905. 

LYNDON:  "Development  and  Distribution  of  Water  Power,"  Wiley,  1908. 
HOYT  AND  GROVER:  "River  Discharge,"  Wiley,  1907. 
WEGMAN:  "Design  and  Construction  of  Dams,"  Wiley,  1908. 
KOESTER:  "Hydro-electric  Development,"  McGraw,  1909. 
ADAMS:  "Electric  Transmission  of  Water  Power,"  McGraw,  1906. 

References  on  Water  Power. 

Reports:  U.  S.  Geological   Survey;  U.    S.    Census;    Weather    Bureau;    U.  S.  Army 

Reports. 

Stillwell:  Conservation  of  Water  Powers,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1910. 
Osgood:  Organization  and  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1907. 
Darlington:  Development  and  Cost,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April,  1906. 
Herschell:  Notes  on  Water  Power  Plants,  E.  W.,  Jan.  14,  1909. 
Horton:  Redevelopment  of  Water  Power,  G.  E.  Review,  March,  190S. 
Mead:  Valuation  of  Water  Powers;  a  report  to  Wisconsin  State  Commission,  Dec., 

1909;  E.  W.,  Dec.  23,  1909,  p.  1514;  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Jan.,  1903. 
Beardsley:  Financial  Aspect;  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1910. 
Burch:  Turbine  Testing,  Elec.  World,  Dec.  22,  1900. 

Storer  and  Rushmore:  Load  Factor  and  Design,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  March,  1906. 
Henry:  High  Head  Water  Powers,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Sept.,  1903. 
Adams:  Stave  Pipe,  A.  S.  C.  E.,  1898,  p.  676. 
Sale  of  Power: 

Harvey:  Elec.  Age,  Sept.,  1906. 

Storer:  Elec.  Age,  Aug.,  1906;  Eng.  Record,  Nov.  3,  1906. 

Parsons:  Eng.  Record,  54-161;  S.  R.  J.,  June  30,  1906. 

Fowler:  E.  W.,  Sept.  7,  1907,  p.  456. 

References  on  Water  Power  Plants. 

Niagara  Falls:  Electric  Railway  Power  Load,  E.  W.,  Oct.  21,  1909. 

Grand  Rapids-Muskegon  Power  Co.:  E.  W.,  Sept.  16,  1909. 

Great  Northern  Power:  Duluth,  Elec.  World,  1900-1908;  July  28,  1906. 

St.  Anthony  Falls,  Minneapolis:   Burch,  N.  W.  Ry.  Club,  April  10,  1900;  S.  R.  J., 

Aug.  11,  1900;  American  Electrician,  May,  1898. 
Twin  City  Rapid  Transit:  S.  R.  J.,  May,  1898,  Mar.  1  and  Aug.  11,  1902,  E.  R.  J., 

June  5,  1909. 

Great  Northern  Railway,  Cascade  Tunnel:  Hutchinson,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 
Southern  California:  E.  W.,  July  29  and  Oct.  28,  1909. 
Utah:  E.  W.,  July  15,  1909. 

Great  Western  Power  Co.,  California:  E.  W.,  Aug.  26,  Sept  16  and  23,  1909.      - 
Valtellina  Ry.,  Italy:  Load  Diagrams,  etc.,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  26,  1905. 


POWER  PLANTS  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAIN  SERVICE        495 


This  page  is, reserved  for  additional  references  and  notes  on  power  plants 
for  railway  train  service. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION. 

Outline. 

Essential  Considerations : 

Reasons  for  procedure,  impracticable  electrifications,  opportunities  in  general, 

opportunities  on  mountain  grades,  electrification  of  established  steam  roads, 
Collection  of  Data : 

Maps  and  profiles,  train  service,  steam  locomotives,  freight  and  passenger  cars, 

operating  expenses,  limits  on  the  work. 
Deductions  from  Data : 

Analysis  of  the  operation  of  the  road,  energy  required  for  trains. 
Cost  of  Electrification : 

Power  plants,  transmission   and  contact  lines,  substations,  electric   motors, 

cost  of  steam  equipment  of  steam  roads. 
Cost  of  Electrifications  Completed. 
Errors  to  be  Avoided : 

Amount  of  equipment,  freight  service,  number  of  substations,  maintenance  of 

both  steam  and  electric  service,  lack  of  appreciation  of  steam  railroad  problems. 
Electrical  Engineers  for  Railroads. 
Literature. 


496 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION. 
IN  GENERAL. 

The  electrification  of  railroads  demands  a  consideration  of  the  rea- 
sons for  utilizing  electric  power,  and  requires  information  on  the  methods, 
systems,  and  practice  by  which  definite  results  have  been  accomplished. 
This  information  has  already  been  gathered,  in  some  measure,  in  the 
previous  chapters. 

ESSENTIAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Economy  is  the  primary  consideration  for  procedure  in  electrification. 
The  objects  in  view  in  electrification  are  to  save  coal  rather  than  to  gain 
relief  from  smoke;  to  accelerate  a  train  economically,  not  at  two-thirds 
cut-off;  to  gain  speed  rapidly  so  as  to  reduce  the  losses  in  braking  which 
accompany  high  maximum  speeds;  to  avoid  friction  and  excessive 
weights;  to  prevent  waste  in  steam  when  heavy  freight  trains  are  hauled 
up  the  grades  at  good  speed;  to  use  rotary  motion  in  place  of  reciprocating, 
because  track  pounding  is  decreased;  to  reduce  the  cost  of  labor  and 
maintenance  per  ton-mile;  to  render  efficient  service  at  the  congested 
freight  and  passenger  terminals;  to  save  time  in  classifying  of  cars;  to 
keep  the  yards  cleared  so  that  the  freight  does  not  accumulate;  and 
finally  to  furnish  all  practical  facilities  for  safe  and  concentrated  working 
at  terminals. 

Gross  and  net  earnings  are  radically  increased  when  electric  trans- 
portation methods  are  used,  which  fact  cannot  be  questioned  after  a  con- 
sideration of  the  results  which  were  outlined  in  Chapter  III.  Financial 
considerations  always  demand  first  attention.  Electrification  hinges  on 
the  extent  of  the  returns  which  can  be  made  from  a  given  expenditure. 

Financial  reasons  are  generally  combined  with  physical.  Electricity 
has  already  furnished  a  solution  of  difficult  and  important  transportation 
problems.  Developments  and  applications  have  now  furnished  the 
financial  experience  needed.  Electric  passenger  trains,  to  be  profitable, 
require  unlimited  tractive  effort  for  rapid  acceleration  and  for  grades. 
Suburban  trains,  interurban  roads,  and  local  railways,  which  are  feeders 
and  distributors  for  railroads,  have  increased  their  net  earnings  by  the 
adoption  of  electric  service  and  methods.  Electric  power  for  tunnel 
service,  with  steep  grades  and  heavy  traffic,  furnishes  both  the  physical 
and  the  economical  results  desired,  and  these  results  are  very  much 
better  than  with  steam  traction. 

32  497 


498  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Physical  and  financial  advantages  of  electric  power  for  train  haulage 
were  discussed  at  length  in  Chapter  III,  and  the  physical  and  financial 
advantages  of  motor  cars  and  of  electric  locomotives  were  considered  in 
Chapters  VI  and  VII. 

The  reasons  for  the  electrification  of  tunnels,  subways,  and  terminals 
are  obvious.  Elevated  roads  now  operate  heavier  electric  trains,  at 
higher  speeds  over  light  supporting  structures.  Motor-car  trains  have 
quickly  superseded  suburban  steam  trains,  because  the  former  are  more 
flexible,  and  frequent  stops  can  be  made  with  economy.  Water  power 
was  a  factor  in  the  electrification  of  roads  near  Albany,  Buffalo,  Grand 
Rapids,  Minneapolis,  Spokane,  Seattle,  Denver,  Los  Angeles,  in  the 
mountains,  and  elsewhere.  The  solution  of  many  of  the  problems,  in 
real  heavy  transportation,  required  an  increase  in  capacity,  i.  e.,  drawbar 
pull  and  speed.  The  reason  why  electric  traction  for  trunk  lines  is  to 
follow,  for  freight  and  passenger  traffic,  is  because  electric  traction  has 
inherent  physical  advantages,  and  can  handle  traffic  comparable  with 
existing  or  heavier  service  with  higher  economy. 

A  broad  policy  exists  on  the  part  of  almost  every  railroad  to  use 
improved  methods  in  transportation  wherever  it  pays. 

Reasons  for  Procedure  in  Electrification  are  now  Summarized : 

Economy  of  operation  on  trunk  lines.     Saving  in  power,  wages,  and  maintenance. 

Cheaper  power  from  fuels;  lignite  and  culm  fields,  low  grades  of  coal.  Blast  furnace 
or  coke  gas  for  engines.  Natural  gas  for  boilers,  or  for  engines. 

Cheaper  power  from  water  power,  for  mountain  grades  and  ordinary  roads. 

Capacity,    drawbar   pull  and  speed,  for  rapid  transit  and  dense  passenger  service. 

Economy  and  capacity  on  mountain  grade  railroads  and  in  heavy  freight  haulage. 

Smoke  nuisance,  exhaust  noise,  and  fire  risk  avoided;  tunnel  and  switching  railways. 
Elevated  railways  in  large  cities.  Suburban  and  resident  district  railways. 
Mill,  factory,  dock,  and  industrial  railways. 

Compulsory,  for  safety  and  comfort,  at  railroad  terminals  and  yards. 

Passenger  and  freight  traffic  on  city  streets,  with  electric  motive  power. 

Financial  situation  relieved.     Lost  traffic  regained;  new  business  induced. 

Prevention  of  competition;  control  of  railway  situations. 

Policy  of  general  improvement,  local  or  national;  water  power  vs.  importation  of 
foreign  coal;  standardization  for  state  railways  in  Europe;  saving  in  time  of 
passengers  and  hastening  of  freight;  passenger  service  made  attractive  and 
enjoyable. 

Demand  for  frequent  and  rapid  suburban  service,  "  resulting  both  from  the  increase 
in  population  and  the  education  which  the  public  has  now  received;  and  the 
necessity  for  increasing  the  carrying  capacity  and  speed  of  trains,  without 
excessive  capital  expenditure."  Dawson:  re.  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast. 

Promotion  and  development  of  roads,  lands,  water  powers,  etc. 

These,  then,  are  the  reasons  which  cause  rai  road  engineers  to  study 
the  subject  of  electrification  attentively,  to  think  out  the  best  methods 
of  procedure  in  the  application  of  electric  power  and,  at  an  opportune 
time,  to  act  for  railroads.  Specific  cases  are  now  cited. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 
REASONS  FOR  ELECTRIFICATION  OF  STEAM  RAILROADS. 


499 


Name  of  railroad. 


Route        Total 
miles.      mileage. 


Primary  or  important  reason  for  use 
of  electric  power. 


Boston  &  Maine: 

Concord  &  Manchester  Division .  . 

Hoosac  Tunnel 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford: 
New  York  Division 

Harlem  River  Yards 

Manhattan  Elevated 

New  York  Central. . . 


Long  Island 

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal. 


West  Jersey  &  Seashore 

Delaware  &  Hudson 

Albany  Southern 

West  Shore  R.  R 

Erie  R.  R 

Lacka wanna  &  Wyoming 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis 

Grand  Trunk  Ry.,  St.  Clair  Tunnel. 
Michigan  Central,  Detroit  Tunnel  .  . 

Toledo  &  Western 

Cincinnati,  George.  &  Portsmouth.  . 

Illinois  Traction  Company 

East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban. 

Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 

Colorado  &  Southern 

Rock  Island  Southern 

Fort  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  Southern 
Waterloo,  Cedar  F.  &  Northern 

Salt  Lake  &  Ogden 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire 

Great  Northern,  Cascade 

Northern  Pacific,  Everett  Division. 

Northwestern  Pacific 

Southern  Pacific 

Pacific  Electric 

Havana  Central,  Cuba 

Mersey  Ry.,  England 

North -Eastern  Ry.,  England 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire 4 

London,  Brighton  &   South 

Coast. 

Swedish  State 

Paris- Versailles 

French  Southern  Ry 

Bernese  Alps  Ry., 

Prussian  State  Rys 

Swiss  Federal  Rys 

Italian  State  Rys 


17 

8 

35 

13 
38 
44 

62 

15 

75 


38 
44 

37 

25 

31 

4 

25 
4 
6 

59 

41 

460 

20 

6 

4 

64 

52 

70 

30 

35 

204 

4 

9 

20 
30 
40 
50 
5 
37 
40 

23 

93 
11 
65 
52 

38 
141 


30  Interurban  traffic. 

22          Limiting  point  of  service,  Fitchburg  Division. 

100  Compulsory     for     terminal.     Economy     for 

dense,  long-distance  traffic. 
63          Economy  in  yard  service. 
119          Lost  traffic  to  regain;  economy  in  operation. 
150          Compulsory  for   terminal  service;    economy 

of  land;  better  service. 

164          Dense  local  traffic.     Economy  of  operation. 

95  Tunnel  grades;  city  terminals;  suburban  traf- 
fic. 
154          Increased  earnings  for  a  long  route.     To  fore- 

I     stall  a  proposed  parallel  competitor. 

245  ,  "Largely  a  protective  measure." 
62          Water  power;  interurban  lines. 
114         "Recognizing     the    evils   of     competition." 

Utilization  of  existing  tracks. 
40         Competition  prevented. 
50         Grades;  development  of  a  new  road. 

34  J  Grades;  development  of  a  new  road. 
7         Tunnel  and  terminal  service. 

35  Many  reasons.     See  Chapter  XV. 
12         Tunnel  and  terminal  service. 

19  Tunnel;  saving  in  time. 
84         Inter  urban  freight  service. 
57  i  Improvement  of  road. 

560          New  business  and  interurban  traffic. 

181  I  Coal  haulage  to  and  in  St.  Louis. 

20  Suburban  traffic  to  Evanston,  Illinois. 
4          Grades  on  Black  Hills  Division. 

74  Use  of    water    power    for  grades  on  Denver 

Division. 

82  |  Utilization  of  waste  coal. 

141  ;  General. 

100  I  General. 
55         General  serviceability. 

287  I  Land  development;  water  power. 

6  |  Tunnel. 

10  ,  Competition  prevented. 
34         General  serviceability. 
100         Heavy  suburban  traffic. 
600         Heavy  interurban  traffic. 

73  :  Freight  haulage. 

10  !  Tunnel  and  to  regain  traffic. 
82         Increase  in  capacity. 
82          To  regain  lost  traffic;  to  furnish  frequent  and 

'    economical  service. 
'    62          Competition;    loss   of   traffic.     Capacity    for 

dense  traffic.     Best  use  of  investment. 
1 10         Water  power;  economy  in  freight  haulage. 
16         Tunnel  grades  near  terminals. 

75  Water  power;  mountain  freight  haulage. 
55          Water  power;  mountain  grade  haulage. 

108         General  economic  development. 

52  i  Water  power;  grades;  tunnels. 

250  |  Water  power;  mountain  grade  haulage. 


In  each  case  there  was  a  combination  of  reasons. 


500  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Impracticable  electrifications  must  be  considered,  to  avoid  waste  of 
money  and  effort,  particularly  so  while  there  are  so  many  good  oppor- 
tunities for  the  advantageous  application  of  electric  traction.  Im- 
practicable cases,  when  analyzed,  are  generally  shown  to  be  those 
wherein  the  investment  for  the  large  electrical  equipment  cannot  be 
used  regularly. 

Traffic  may  not  be  sufficiently  heavy  to  give  body  to  the  load. 
There  is  no  economy  operating  Km  a  short  line;  or  of  making  large  in- 
vestments for  a  small  amount  of  work. 

Railroads  must  have  10  trains  each  way  per  day  or  haul  1,000,000 
ton-miles  daily,  per  100-mile  division,  before  electrification  is  practical. 

Electric  power  should  not  be  used  on  a  small  scale,  "to.  try  it  out," 
because  economies  to  overbalance  the  fixed  charges  cannot  be  effected; 
nor  is  it  necessary  any  longer  to  experiment  with  equipment.  Skilled 
and  experienced  men  are  now  available.  Calculations  can  be  predicted 
with  accuracy  as  in  other  lines  of  engineering. 

Traffic  may  not  be  sufficiently  regular.  Electrification  for  passen- 
ger service  alone,  from  the  terminal  of  a  city  of  less  than  300,000  people, 
is  financially  impracticable.  The  freight  and  switching  service  should 
always  be  added  so  that  during  the  24  hours  of  the  day,  the  entire  in- 
vestment may  be  utilized  steadily.  Traffic  cannot  be  regular  with  short 
roads.  Electrification  is  impracticable  for  an  intermittent  traffic, 
badly  bunched  business,  heavy  Sunday  excursion  and  light  week-day 
service,  infrequent  and  heavy  passenger  and  freight  service;  or  for  ir- 
regular train  service  on  long  grades.  Large  power  plants,  with  good 
load  factors,  are  necessary  for  economy.  Above  all,  the  power  plant, 
power  transmission  lines,  and  electrical  equipment  must  be  utilized 
regularly  to  reduce  the  fixed  charges  per  ton-mile  or  per  train-mile. 

Energy  required  for  trains  may  not  be  capable  of  being  generated  at 
a  reasonably  low  sum  per  kilowatt  hour,  on  account  of  the  traffic  limita- 
tions, a  low  load  factor,  lack  of  condensing  water,  etc. 

Opportunities  generally  arise  for  the  use  of  electric  power,  or  are 
favored  by  those  situations  and  conditions  where  work  can  be  done  ef- 
fectively and  economically,  and  where  the  fixed  charges  on  the  added 
electrical  equipment  are  a  small  portion  of  the  operating  expenses. 
Opportunities  of  this  nature  are  developed  on: 

City,  suburban,  and  interstate  railways. 

Interurban  roads  on  an  existing  railroad   right-of-way. 

Railroads  with  light  bridges  or  structural  limitations. 

Dense  traffic  with  frequent  light  or  heavy  trains. 

Roads  which  are  worked  up  to  their  track  capacity. 

Locations  where  cheap  water  power  or  coal  or  gas  is  available. 

Roads  which  use  large  quantities  of  high-priced  coal. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         501 

Roads  where  the  water  supply  for  locomotives  is  bad  or  expensive. 

Branch  roads  when  electric  power  is  used  on  the  main  line. 

Parallel  roads,  already  built  to  obtain  and  retain  new  traffic. 

New  lines,  to  prevent  competition  or  to  lower  rates. 

Situations  where  by-products  of  electrification  can  be  saved  as  when 
the  railroad  load  can  be  smoothed  out  by  the  use  of  live  steam  for  power, 
pumping,  light,  production  of  ice,  etc.,  and  of  exhaust  steam  for  heating, 
during  the  hours  of  non-peak  load. 

Terminal  railways  to  reduce  the  number  of  train  movements;  to 
handle  traffic  in  materially  less  time;  to  prevent  congestion;  to  utilize 
the  expensive  real  estate  efficiently,  to  superimpose  tracks,  offices,  and 
warehouses/  over  the  tracks,  sub-tracks,  etc. 

Roads  which  can  carry  out  electrification  on  a  large  scale. 

Wherever  more  than  250  h.  p.  are  required  per  mile  of  single  track, 
the  electric  locomotive  can  replace  the  steam  locomotive  with  decided 
economy  and  advantage.  Leonard. 

Power  equipment  used  per  mile  of  single  track,  given  in  a  table  on 
Steam-Electric  Power  Plant  Installations,  page  427,  for  many  railroads 
is  over  1000  h.  p.  per  mile  of  single  track. 

Mountain -grade  electrification  deserves  consideration  where  there  is 
heavy  traffic  because  of  the  physical  and  financial  advantage  to  be 
gained.  The  work  done  up  to  this  time  has  been  limited. 

Steam  locomotives  of  the  largest  size,  including  many  Mallet  com- 
pounds, are  now  used.  In  mountain  grade  service  the  steam  locomo- 
tive is  unsatisfactory  because: 

a.  Weight  per  h.  p.  output   is  twice  that    of   electric   locomotives 
and  the  excessive  weight  destroys  track,  trestles,  embankments,  and 
roadbed.     Curves  must  be  well  crowned  to  prevent  a  runaway  train 
from   jumping   the   curves  and,   at   slow  speeds,  the  well-oiled  flanges 
of  drivers,  on  10- to  14-foot  rigid  wheel  bases,  grind  hard  against  the 
rail  head.     Curves  are  soon  destroyed  by  this  friction. 

b.  Complications  exist  in  articulated  locomotives  with  their  steam 
1  connections   and   the   multiplicity   of   mechanical   parts.     The   friction 

at  operating  speeds  is  high  and  exceeds  30  pounds  per  ton.     Many 
Mallets  will  not  drift  down  a   1.7  per  cent,   grade. 

c.  Maintenance  expenses  per  train-mile  are  enormously  high,   and 
are  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  advantage  gained.     Excessive  tempera- 
ture  strains   are  produced  in  the  fire   boxes  and  tubes.     The   cost  of 
maintenance  in  winter  is  from  15  to  35  per  cent,  greater  than  the  cost 
in  summer.     The  great  length,  weight,  and  vibration  result  in  enormous 
strains,  followed  by  leakage  and  breakage,  and  time  lost  on  the  road. 

d.  Speed  is  slow  because  the  capacity  to  haul  heavy  trains  is  lim- 
ited by  the  square  feet  of  heating  surface  in  the  boiler.     Traffic  is  de- 


502  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

layed  by  slow  speeds,  the  mileage  is  reduced,  and  the  equipment,  track, 
and  cars  are  thereby  increased.  The  investment  is  not  utilized  to  best 
advantage.  The  250-ton  Mallet,  with  two  firemen,  and  an  overloaded 
furnace,  hauls  only  800  to  900  tons  trailing  load  up  2.2  per  cent,  grades 
and  then  at  a  speed  of  only  10  to  8  miles  per  hour. 

e.  Radiation  of  heat  and  the  stand-by  losses,  on  the  cold  windy 
divisions,  require  a  large  proportion  of  the  total  coal  used.     The  loco- 
motives work  hard  for  a  short  time  and  are  then  idle  for  many  hours. 

f.  Economy  of  Mallet   compound  steam    locomotives  in  mountain 
service  is  low  because  the  steam  is  used  at  about  two-thirds  stroke,  and 
because  condensation  and  friction  are  excessive.     See  data  on  Southern 
Pacific  and  other  Mallet  locomotives  in  Chapter  II. 

Electric  locomotives  in  mountain  grade  service  are: 

a.  Light  in  total  weight,  and  in  weight  per  linear  foot. 

b.  Simple  in  construction,  and  somewhat  automatic  in  operation. 

c.  Maintained  at  a  much  lower  cost  per  train-mile  run,  because  of 
fewer  parts  and  lower  friction. 

d.  Efficient,  in  that  there  are  no  stand-by  losses. 

e.  Economical  in  the  use  of  steam  at  the  central  steam  power  plant; 
economical  in  the  cost  of  power  when  cheap  low-grade  coals  are  available, 
or  when  water  power  is  available  in  the  mountains. 

f.  Safe  in  tunnel  operation,  safety  being  promoted  by  regeneration 
of  electrical  energy  in  braking  on  the  down-grade.     Wrecks  are  fewer. 

g.  Capable  of  hauling  the  heaviest  trains,  not  at  8  nup.  h.,  but  at  15; 
not  with  one  250-ton  locomotive  concentrated  at  the  head  or  behind 
the  train,  but  with  two  125-ton  locomotives  controlled  by  one  engineman 
and  his  assistant.     While  the  capacity  of  the  steam  locomotive  is  greatly 
reduced  by  cold  windy  weather,  the  capacity  of  the  electric  locomotive  is 
increased.     Capacity,  light  weight,  and  economy  are  combined. 

Operation  on  mountain  grades  and  on  ordinary  but  long  grades 
is  an  important  matter,  because  the  cost  of  steam  service  is  relatively 
high.  Economies  can  be  effected;  the  congestion  can  be  avoided;  the 
single  track  can  be  used  to  better  advantage;  the  cost  of  track  and  loco- 
motive maintenance  can  be  reduced;  the  wrecks  can  be  decreased;  and 
the  high  wages  paid  per  ton-mile  can  be  reduced.  The  limit  on  the  loads 
to  be  hauled,  and  on  the  speed,  can  be  placed  at  the  electric  power  plant. 
Railroads  on  heavy  mountain  grades  can  adopt  electric  traction  to  best 
advantage,  when  the  traffic  is  heavy  and  frequent,  and  the  grades  are  long 
and  steep. 

The  following  table  compiled  from  an  Interstate  Commerce  Report, 
and  from  other  sources,  shows  the  character  and  the  importance  of  the 
work  on  mountain  grades. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         503 
FREIGHT  HAULAGE  BY  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  ON  MOUNTAIN  GRADES. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Name  of 
mountain  or  grade. 

Length       Grade       Trains 
in  miles,     in  %.         daily. 

| 
Tonnage 
per  train. 

M.  p.  h.  on 

down- 
grade. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  .... 

Buffalo,  Rochester  & 
Pittsburg. 
Delaware,  Lackawan- 
na  &  Western. 

Sand  Patch,  Pa.  ... 
Grafton,  W.   Va.  .  . 
Bingham  
W.  Valley  
Clark  Summit 
Pocono 

19.5           1.70        60-100 
20.0          2.20          20-40 
7.8           1.50          60-80 
5.7           1.70     1  
7.3           1.48        60-100 
17  0           1  52 

1800-3000 
1800-2000 
2250-2500 
1500-1800 
2000-2300 
1500-2500 

15-16 
10-14 
13-15 
12-13 
14-16 
14-15 

Erie  R.  R  

Cowanda 

46          2  50 

1000-1400 

Delaware  &  Hudson  .  . 
Pennsylvania         

Big  Shanty  
Carbondale-Forest  C 
Forest  City  Ararat.  . 
Ararat-Oneonta  .  . 
Bellwood 

6.4          2.45       
6.0           1.36       
14.0     j     0.81       
75.0     i      1.00       
82          3  31         60-100 

1600-1750 
1400-1500 

1400-2200 

8-10 
14-16 

Tryone 

10  0          3  00 

1600-2000 

18-20 

Dunlo  

..4.5          3  .  50       

1500-1700 

12-13 

Gallitzen 

11  0           1  70 

1500-2000 

14-20 

to  2  38     !.  . 

Western  Maryland     .  . 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  .  .  . 

Philadelphia  &  Read. 

Pottsville  

Cumberland  
Thurmond-Ronce- 
verte. 
Ron.—  Allegheny  ... 
Flackville  

4.5          3.13       
6.5          1.19       
20  .  0          1  .  70      
36       

13.0             .57       
5  .  7          3  .  50       

700-1000 

3000 
1000-1500 

11-19 

10-12 
11-13 

Duluth,     Missabe      & 

Proctor  Hill 

60          2  00 

15  000  000  tons 

Northern. 
Chicago,      St.      Paul, 
Minneapolis  &  Omaha 
Chicago,        Milwaukee 
&  St.  Paul. 
Great  Northern  

Chicago,  Milwaukee  & 

Hudson,  Wise  
St.  Paul  

St.  Paul  
Butte  Hill  
Cascade  
Bitter  Root  

1.0       15-22 
1.0           1.50            30 

1.0           1.65           150 
12.0      |      2.20             10 
32.0      ;      2.20             10 
4.0          2  .  00       

per  year. 
1500-2000 

900-1500 

1300-1520     i 
1200-1850 
1000-1500 

15-18 
10-12 

10-12 
17-18 
15-20 

Puget  Sound. 
Colorado  Midland  

Hagerman 

38  2          3  13 

760 

18-20 

Ute  Pass 

95          3  50 

500 

18-20 

Denver  &  Rio  Grande 

Bingham  

9.0          2.00       
20          4  00 

600 

18-20 

14.0          2.20       
70          4  00 

1800 

650 
^ 

Sunny  Side  

18.0          2.46       
10.0           2.50       

850 
1800 

Tennessee  Pass 

21  0          3  00 

800 

Atchinson,  Topeka  & 

Tehachapi  . 

30  8          2  20 

1000-1500 

15-19 

Santa  Fe. 

Glorieta 

98          3  00 

950-1000 

15-22 

Canadian  Pacific 

Raton  Mt  i 

13.0          3.50       
15.0          2.20       
40           4  50             16 

1000     j 
1000     ! 
500-800 

19-22 
19-12 
5-8 

Northern  Pacific       . 

11  0           2  20             12 

1400-1600 

10-15 

Helena 

16.0     1     2.20            10 

1600-1800 

13-18 

Helena  
Missoula  
Cascade  

3.0           1.61             10 
15.0           2.20             12 
10.0           2.20             18 

1600-1800 
1600-1800 
1000-1500 

13-18 
12-18 
16-21 

Butte    Anaconda  &  P 

Cascade  
Butte 

6.0           1.42             18 
48          2  50             20 

1000-1500 
1000-1100 

15-21 

5-8 

504 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


FREIGHT  HAULAGE  BY  STEAM  LOCOMOTIVES  ON  SOME  MOUNTAIN 
GRADES.     (Continued.) 


Name  of  railroad. 

Name  of 
mountain  or  grade. 

Length 
in  miles. 

Grade 
in%. 

Trains 
daily. 

Tonnage 
per  train. 

M.  p.  h.  on 
down- 
grade. 

Butte,  A.  and  Pacific. 

Butte-Anaconda  .  .  . 
Anaconda.  .  . 

8.0 
6.7 

.41 
1.16 

8 
18 

3400-3600 
1900-2000 

12-14 
6-10 

Oregon  Short  Line 

Rock 

Many 

2  20 

Few 

Southern  Pacific 

Siskiyou 

18  0 

3  30 

Many 

800-1200 

11-12 

Shasta 

9  3 

2  20 

900-1400 

12-15 

Tehachapi 

30  0 

2  20 

800-1500 

14-20 

Sierra  Nevada  
Roseville-Summit.  . 

70.0 
87.0 

2.20 
1.50 

Many 
Many 

1050-1300 
1000-1200 

14-20 
7-10 

Speeds  noted  are  from  trainmen's  time  tables  and  show  the  inaxiumm  allowed  on  the  down- 
grade, which  speed  is  about  one-half  of  the  up-grade  speed.  Tonnage  is  the  ordinary  freight  train 
load  behind  the  head  locomotive.  Two  locomotives  are  common  per  train. 

See  profile  of  grades  of  important  railroads  in  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  July  21,  1911,  p.  111. 

Electrification  of  established  steam  roads  can  be  accomplished  to  much 
better  advantage  by  steam  railroads  than  by  new,  independent,  parallel 
electric  roads,  for  the  following  seven  reasons: 

Money  can  be  borrowed  by  steam  roads  at  lower  rates,  on  a  large  scale, 
and  with  minimum  delay  when  an  existing  road  banks  its  reputation, 
past  and  future,  on  the  outcome. 

Traffic  already  exists  and  haulage  of  freight  and  passenger  trains  can 
be  clearly  estimated.  The  economies  to  be  effected  are  more  definitely 
predetermined.  The  records  of  traffic  and  interchange  are  actual,  and 
what  is  needed  for  haulage  can  be  carefully  studied. 

Roadbed  is  completed,  and  electrification  s'mply  means  the  better  use 
of  the  investment,  yet  without  complication  for  either  steam  or  electric 
service.  Bridges,  terminals,  and  buildings  may  be  utilized. 

Car  equipment  is  already  in  service,  and  ready  for  haulage  with  elec- 
tric locomotives. 

Organization  is  perfected,  and  experienced  railroad  managers,  super- 
intendents, dispatchers,  and  well-trained  employees  govern;  not  a  set  of 
new,  unorganized  railroad  men. 

Investment  is  required  for  electrical  equipment  only,  or  approxi- 
mately 20  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  the  existing  steam  railroad.  A 
new  road  must  obtain  a  complete  outfit — terminal,  right-of-way,  roadbed, 
equipment,  offices,  organization. 

In  competition,  the  steam  road  which  uses  electric  traction  can  get 
and  also  keep  the  business  from  new  or  old  competing  roads. 

COLLECTION  OF  DATA  FOR  PROCEDURE  IN  ELECTRIFICATION. 

In  the  engineering  work  for  the  electrification  of  roads,  the  chief 
engineer,  the  electric  traction  engineer,  the  superintendent  of  motive 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         505 

power,  and  others,  usually  make  a  preliminary  report  to  the  manager  or 
president  on  the  use  of  electric  power  for  train  haulage  over  a  division. 

The  advantages  of  electric  traction  are  not  argued  by  these  men. 
They  have  already  in  mind,  for  the  specific  case  under  consideration, 
some  definite  physical  results  to  be  gained,  or  which  are  needed,  to 
facilitate  the  handling  of  traffic. 

The  work  to  be  done  is  first  outlined,  and  the  limits  and  character 
of  the  work  are  specified.  In  the  procedure  which  follows,  steps  are 
taken  to  determine,  in  a  logical  and  definite  way,  the  cost  of  the  elec- 
trification and  the  extent  of  the  financial  advantage  to  be  gained. 

Data  are  at  once  required  for  a  study  of  the  situation.  Most  of  these 
are  available  at  the  railroad  office,  but  some  of  the  facts  and  working 
conditions  must  be  obtained  from  inspections  along  the  division;  and 
the  valuable  experience  of  the  superintendents,  master  mechanics,  di- 
vision engineers,  and  others  in  charge  of  operation,  maintenance  of  ways, 
and  of  construction,  is  to  be  used.  If  the  road  is  not  already  in  oper- 
ation, the  data  cannot  be  obtained  directly,  and  conditions  on  many 
similar  roads  must  be  studied,  and  predeterminations  must  be  made. 
The  experience  of  other  roads  is  always  to  be  obtained. 

Information  is  generally  collected  on  the  following: 

1.  Maps,   profiles,   locations,   stations,   grades,   curves,   general   con- 
struction, rails  used,  trestles,  bridges,  tunnels,  sidings,  connecting  points, 
yards,  shops,  and  terminal  points  where  engines  and  crews  are  changed. 

2.  Train  service,   the   character,  volume,  and  direction  of   existing 
and  new  traffic,  and  changes  which  are  desirable  in  methods  of  working. 
Information  is  needed  on  the  number  and  weight  of  all  trains;  on  the 
average  and  the  maximum  number  of  trains,  on  the  suburban  traffic, 
on  the   intermittent  work,  fish  and  silk  trains,  harvest  and  state  fair 
business;  on  the  direction  of  ore,  coal,  grain,  and  lumber  traffic;  on  the 
prevailing  direction  of  empty  cars;   and  on  the  terminal   freight  and 
yard  service.     The  traffic  sheets  for  each  class  of  service  are  necessary 
to  get  the  number  of  .trains,  number  of  cars,  and  weight  of  each  train. 

Speeds  of  trains — the  scheduled  and  maximum  speeds.  The  speed 
records  of  each  type  of  train,  in  each  direction,  are  to  be  obtained  frorft 
a  Boyer  or  Shalter  recorder. 

3.  Characteristics   of   the   steam  locomotives   used,    as   outlined   in 
Chapter  II,  and  a  classification  of  the  number  used  on  each  division, 
the  heating  surface,  grate  surface,  coal  and  water  used,  cylinders,  dis- 
tribution of  weights,  and  the  outline  drawings. 

4.  Freight  and  passenger  car  data,  in  general;  and  details  on  the 
truck  equipment,  if  rapid  transit  at  terminals  is  involved. 

5.  Operating  expenses,   particularly  the  kind,   source,   and   cost  of 
different  fuels,  the  costs  per  ton-mile  and  per  train-mile  for  each  class 


506  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

of  service;  the  coal  and  water  for  switchers  and  not  tests  alone,  but 
averages. 

6.  Maintenance  and  repair  accounts  for  each  service. 

Other  data  will  be  required  for  consideration  of  details  and  for  the 
particular  problems  considered. 

Limits  must  be  placed  on  the  engineering  work  involved,  because 
a  clean-cut  report  is  required  on  the  specific  work  under  consideration. 
Too  many  details  and  side  issues  often  encumber  and  retard  progress 
in  forming  plans  and  recommendations. 

DEDUCTIONS  FROM  DATA. 

An  analysis  of  the  operation  of  the  railroad  must-  naturally  follow. 
Broad  problems  are  outlined  first.  The  relative  extent  of  each  service, 
the  relative  cost,  and  the  net  profits,  are  always  involved.  The  real 
nature  of  the  business  of  the  road,  and  of  the  traffic,  is  considered. 
An  estimate  of  the  rate  of  growth,  in  the  past  and  for  the  future,  is  made. 

Lower  cost  of  roadbed,  shorter  routes;  increased  capacity  of  road; 
cheaper  fuels,  coal  mines,  or  water  powers  which  are  available;  use  of 
exhaust  steam  in  winter;  electric  power  and  light  for  different  shops, 
elevators,  pumps,  manufacturing  plants;  street  railways,  branch  lines, 
and  interurban  feeders;  joint  use  of  power  plant  by  several  railroads, 
etc.,  each  receives  consideration.  The  financial  and  physical  results 
from  operation  of  other  roads  are  analyzed. 

The  energy  required  for  trains  now  receives  consideration,  as  out- 
lined in  Chapter  XI.  The  application  to  the  problems  of  the  particular 
road  are  made,  and  the  power  data  are  analyzed. 

a.  Train  sheets  are  drawn  for  the  proposed  service. 

b.  Tractive  effort  curves  are  rnade  for  each  type  of  train,  showing  the 
friction  at   different  speeds,  the   acceleration  rates   of  different  trains, 
tractive  effort  for  grades,  and  for  a  varying  number  of  freight  cars  or 
coaches  in  ordinary  trains.     Switching  service  receives  consideration. 

c.  Speeds  to  be  used  must  be  settled. 

d.  Power  required  for  each  train  is  now  plotted,  using  first  m.p.h. 
and  then   time   as   the   base,  and   mechanical  h.  p.  as  the  ordinate  of 
all  curves.     (The  requirements  for  ordinary  service  exceed  100  kilowatts 
per  mile  of  single  track;  and  40  watt-hours  per  ton-mile.) 

e.  Load  diagrams  of  all  trains  are  plotted  on  one  sheet  with  time  as 
a   base   and  h.   p.   or  kilowatts  as  the  ordinate.     On  this  diagram  all 
losses  are  added.     The  integrated  curve  is  used  to  determine  the  total 
load  at  any  time  of  the  day,  and  the  energy  required. 

f .  Distribution  of  the  energy  and  the  power  required  along  the  railroad 
divisions,  substations,  etc.,  now  receive  extended  consideration.     Trans- 
mission lines,  feeders,  contact  lines,  control  circuits,  maximum  number 
of  trains  between  substations,  and  other  details  of  the  electric  power 
installation  are  tabulated  and  plotted. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         507 

COST  OF  ELECTRIFICATION. 

Cost  of  electrification  is  an  important  subject,  because  the  minimum 
cost  for  a  suitable  construction,  and  maximum  economy  in  operation,  are 
the  essentials  in  transportation.  High  cost  of  electrical  equipment  is 
one  of  the  chief  handicaps  which  now  prevents  the  general  introduction 
of  electric  traction  on  railroads.  The  cost  of  individual  items  is  quite 
valueless  unless  there  is  a  clear  understanding  of  the  relation  of  the 
variables  which  are  involved. 

The  cost  of  electrification  depends  primarily  upon  the  following: 

1.  Density  of  traffic  to  be  handled. 

2.  Weight   of  individual   train   units,   the   speeds,   the   grades,    the 
reliability  desired,  and  the  amount  of  traffic  to  be  interchanged. 

3.  Length  of  the  route  and  tracks  to  be  electrified.     Length  of  route 
affects  the  load  factor  of  the  power  plant  and  the  best  utilization  of  trans- 
mission lines.     Length  affects  the  cost  of  electrification  per  mile  of  track. 

4.  The  electric  system  employed  for  the  service. 

The  cost  of  electric  traction  equipment  to  be  used  is  found  to  vary 
between  the  following  limits : 

A.  Power  plants,  25  to  40%,  average  30% 

B.  Lines  and  substations,  40  to  60%,  average  50% 

C.  Motor  equipment,  15  to  25%,  average  20% 

A.  Power  plants  are  either  steam  or  hydroelectric,  since  the  cost  of 
gas  engine  equipment  is  now  prohibitive.  The  cost  varies  from  25  to  40 
per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  electrification,  depending,  in  the  plant,  largely 
upon  the  load  factor,  and  relative  cost  of  B  and  C,  which  in  turn  vary 
largely  with  the  distance  and  the  density  of  traffic. 

Turbines,  three-phase  alternators,  transformers,  and  switchboards 
require  about  the  same  type,  size,  voltage,  and  arrangement,  for  each 
electric  system,  i.e.  they  are  not  affected  by  the  system. 

Direct-current,  600-  or  1200-volt  systems  generally  require  greater 
power  and  more  energy  than  other  systems  because  of  the  larger  losses 
in  contact  lines  and  rotary  converter  substations.  Single-phase  systems 
may  require  the  same  kv-a.  capacity  and  if  two  single-phase  circuits  of 
three-phase  alternators  are  used,  may  require  as  much  electric  genera- 
tor capacity  as  other  systems;  but  the  boiler  and  turbine  equipment 
required  for  the  eingle-phase  system  is  decidedly  less  than  for  other  sys- 
tems because  of  the  small  transmission  and  substation  losses.  Three- 
phase  systems  require  a  decidedly  larger  power  plant  equipment  where 
grades  are  encountered  in  ordinary  rolling  country  on  a  long  division  of 
a  common  railroad,  because  the  two  efficient  speeds  commonly  used  cause 
greater  fluctuations  in  the  load.  In  order  to  decrease  the  amount  and 
cost  of  equipment  per  ton-mile  hauled,  it  is  essential  that  the  load  factor, 
or  ratio  of  the  average  load  to  maximum  load  be  high. 


508          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

B.  Line   and  substation   cost   for  a   given  density  of  traffic  varies 
from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  electrification. 

Direct-current  systems  using  600-  or  1200-volts  require  expensive 
contact  lines  and  rotary  converter  substations,  and  are  thus  handi- 
capped for  main  line  railroading.  Substations  with  men  to  operate 
them  will  not  be  installed  where  they  can  be  avoided. 

Single-phase  systems  without  substations,  or  with  infrequent  sub- 
stations and  without  attendants,  require  the  minimum  expenditure. 
Overhead  contact  lines  and  feeders  are  decidedly  less  expensive  than  the 
overhead  or  third-rail  contact  line  and  feeders  for  a  600-  or  1200-volt 
direct-current  system.  The  impedance  loss  per  mile  at  25  cycles  for  one 
4/0  trolley  and  two  100-pound  track  rails  is  0.55  ohms.  With  an  ordi- 
nary train  requiring  2000  kv-a.  the  11,000-volt  contact  line  loss  is  only 
1  per  cent,  per  mile,  per  train.  Therefore,  for  heavy  traffic,  the  number 
and  cost  of  transformer  feeding  substations  and  the  contact  line  cost 
and  losses  are  greatly  reduced. 

Three-phase  systems  with  3000  volts  between  the  two  trolleys  as  used 
in  Europe,  or  6000  as  used  in  the  Great  Northern  Tunnel,  are  expensive 
because  the  cost  of  two  trolleys,  insulation,  and  installation  are  about 
twice  as  much  as  for  the  single-phase  system. 

If  catenary  construction,  parallel  to  the  two  trolleys,  is  employed  for 
safety  and  for  mechanical  reasons,  the  cost  of  three-phase,  two-trolley 
contact  lines  is  greatly  increased.  The  contact  line  loss  with  an  or- 
dinary train  requiring  2000  kv-a.,  and  with  6000  volts  between  the 
contact  lines,  is  3  per  cent,  per  mile,  per  train.  With  3000  volts  between 
the  conductors,  the  contact  line  loss  is  12  per  cent,  per  mile,  per  train. 

The  drawbar  pull  of  three-phase  motors  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
voltage  applied  to  the  motor.  For  example,  the  small  loss  of  12  per  cent,  in  the  volt- 
age to  the  motors,  which  may  be  expected,  means  a  decrease  of  23  per  cent,  in  the 
drawbar  pull;  it  is  therefore  essential  that  substation  transformers  be  frequent. 

Transformers  in  substations,  or  on  locomotives  and  cars,  cost  less 
in  single-phase  units  than  in  three-phase  units,  particularly  so  in  large 
sizes.  The  use  of  3000  volts  directly  on  the  stator  of  a  large  three-phase 
locomotive  motor  is  practical  with  careful  construction;  while  with 
6000  or  11,000  volts  on  the  line,  lower  voltages  are  required  on  the  stator 
of  three-phase  and  single-phase  motors. 

C.  Motor  equipments  for  electric  traction  vary  in  cost  from  15  to 
25  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  electrification. 

Shunt-wound,  direct-current  motors  or  two-speed,  three-phase  motors, 
with  transformers,  cost  most,  because  with  constant-speed  working,  in 
ordinary  rolling  country,  the  maximum  load  is  decidedly  large  com- 
pared with  the  average  load.  They  are  not  used  for  ordinary  rail- 
roading, for  rapid  transit,  or  for  switching  yards. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         509 

The  heating  of  motor  coils  varies  as  the  square  of  the  h.  p.;  that  is, 
if  the  speed  on  the  level  were  maintained  on  a  1  per  cent,  grade,  three  times 
as  much  power  is  required  as  on  the  level,  the  heating  effect  would  be 
nine  times  as  large,  altho  the  duration  of  the  period  of  heating  might 
be  reduced  one-half  as  compared  with  series  motors. 

Series  motors,  either  alternating-  or  direct-current,  protect  them- 
selves, by  slowing  down  in  some  measure  as  the  load  increases,  so  that  the 
output  from  the  motor  is  more  or  less  equalized,  and  a  much  smaller 
investment  is  required  to  do  an  average  amount  of  work. 

The  weight  of  three-phase  motors  is  lower,  the  efficiency  is 
higher,  and  the  cost  is  lower  per  rated  h.p.  than  other  motors.  Three- 
phase  motors  have  the  highest  cost,  per  average  h.p.  output,  in  service  on 
ordinary  grades  in  ordinary  rolling  country.  Single-phase  motors  will 
weigh  10  to  20  per  cent,  more  than  direct-current  and  three-phase 
motors,  because  of  the  extra  alternating-current  losses  at  commutators.  A 
low-voltage  rotor  in  a  three-phase  or  in  a  single-phase  motor  does  not 
increase  the  cost  of  the  motor,  and  it  increases  its  reliability. 

The  weight  of  single-phase  motors,  assuming  it  to  be  15  per  cent, 
greater  than  others,  may  add  5  per  cent,  to  the  locomotive  weight  and  1 
per  cent,  to  the  train  weight.  In  ordinary  freight  service  it  is  often 
necessary  to  place  ballast  on  direct-current,  three-phase,  and  single- 
phase  locomotives,  otherwise  the  torque  of  the  motors  slips  the  drivers; 
but  in  passenger  service  the  minimum  weight  of  motors  and  locomotives 
serves  to  best  advantage. 

Control  of  motors  affects  the  cost  of  motors.  Direct-current  motors 
require  resistance  to  reduce  the  voltage  during  acceleration,  at  which 
time  they  have  a  low  efficiency.  Three-phase  two-speed  motors  have 
a  decidedly  low  efficiency  during  acceleration.  Single-phase  motor 
control  is  efficient,  simple,  effective,  and  of  low  cost. 

The  cost  of  electrification  bears  some  relation  to  the  total  efficiency 
of  the  system.  It  is  assumed  that  three-phase  and  direct-current  mo- 
tors have  higher  efficiency  than  single-phase  motors,  but  the  great  differ- 
ence in  motor  control,  contact  line,  transformer,  and  transmission  line 
efficiency  is  in  favor  of  the  single-phase  system.  The  total  equipment, 
the  amount  of  power  required,  and  the  cost  of  railroad  electrification 
are  the  least  with  the  single-phase  system  in  almost  all  cases. 

Interchange  of  traffic  affects  the  cost  of  electrification,  since  some 
interchange  will  be  required  in  railroading.  The  motor  equipment 
can  be  chosen  to  run  on  direct-current  terminal  lines,  and  on  one 
trolley  of  three-phase  lines.  The  additional  cost  in  some  cases  must 
be  paid,  in  order  to  reap  the  advantages  of  interchange  of  traffic. 

The  cost  of  electrification  of  steam  and  electric  railroads  is  detailed, 
beginning  page  512. 


510 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  cost  of  equipment  of  steam  railroads  in  general  may  be  reviewed. 
The  Minnesota  State  Railroad  Commission,  after  working  30  months, 
summarized  the  cost  of  reproduction  and  present  value  of  the  railroads,  in 
Minnesota  to  June  30,  1907,  for  8100  miles  of  road  and  10,437  miles  of 
single  track,  as  follows: 

COST  OF  STEAM  RAILROADS.  STATE  OF  MINNESOTA. 


Items  listed. 

Cost  of 
production. 

Present 
value. 

Land  for  right  of  way,  yards,  and  terminals  
Grading,  clearing,  and  grubbing  
Protection  work  rip  rap,  retaining  walls  .  . 

$73,201,757 
56,006,782 
2,419  292 

$73,201,757 
56,006,782 
2  419  292 

Tunnels  

253,250 

215  262 

Cross  ties  and  switch  ties  .  . 

17,491,500 

9  627  539 

Ballast  

9,413,351 

9,413,351 

Rails  
Track  fastenings 

33,010,087 
5,936  740 

25,199,668 
4  543  054 

Switches,  frogs,  and  railroad  crossings  
Track  laying  and  surfacing  .  . 

1,389,363 
5,340  689 

962,741 
5  340  689 

Bridges  trestles  and  culverts 

19  567  524 

14  518  834 

Track  and  bridge  tools 

201,918 

151  488 

Fences  cattle  guards  and  signs 

2,768  394 

1  403  082 

Stock  yards  and  appurtenances  
Water  stations,  0  4  per  cent  .  . 

559,896 
1,606  164 

349,759 
1  144  535 

Coal  stations,  0  .  2  per  cent  
Station  buildings  and  fixtures  
Miscellaneous  buildings  

717,519 

5,855,258 
4,344,681 

507,713 
4,097,249 
3,403,171 

Steam  heat  and  electric  light  plants  
General  repair  shops 

797,484 
4,123  119 

656,069 
2  959  019 

Shop  machinery  and  tools  
Engine  houses,  turntables,  cinder  pits,  0.6  per  cent... 
Track  scales  

1,831,671 

2,837,988 
184,130 

1,484,756 
1,874,436 
129,474 

Dock  and  wharves,  including  coal  and  ore  docks 

6,065,496 

5,392,960 

Interlocking  plants  
Signal  apparatus  
Telegraph  and  telephone  lines  and  appurtenances  .... 
Adaptation  and  solidification  of  roadbed  
Engineering/  superintendence,  legal  expenses  
Locomotives,  4  per  cent  
Passenger  equipment  
Freight  car  equipment 

403,071 
155,766 
1,410,574 
11,743,007 
12,133,641 
17,090,953 
6,616,170 
46,911,106 

293,197 
126,217 
1,065,153 
11,743,007 
12,133,641 
12,608,422 
4,554,442 
34,068,005 

Miscellaneous  and  marine  equipment  
Freight  on  construction  material  
Contingencies  .  .  . 

1,370,166 
3,635,535 
17  869  703 

908,682 
3,635,535 
17,869,703 

Stores  and  supplies  
Interest  during  construction 

5,210,010 
31,261,419 

5,210,010 
31,261,419 

Total           

$411,735,194 

$360,480,160 

PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         511 

The  cost  of  the  motive-power  equipment,  steam  locomotives,  shops, 
and  water  and  coal  stations  was  only  5  per  cent.,  and  the  value  was 
only  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost  of  the  steam  railroads. 

Cost  of  the  motive  power  equipment  of  steam  roads  is  thus  a  very 
small  item  in  the  total  cost  of  the  road.  Assuming  that  the  total  cost 
of  a  railroad  without  the  motive  power  is  $38,000  per  mile  of  single 
track,  the  additional  cost  for  the  motive  power  will  be  about  $2000  per 
mile. 

Cost  of  electric  motive  power  ttnd  equipment  is  usually  as  follows: 
Power  plants  $90  to  $100  per  kilowatt;  contact  lines  for  one,  two,  and 
six  tracks,  $4000  to  $7000  per  single-track  mile,  and  for  yards  $1500  to 
$3000  per  single-track  mile;  locomotives  for  switching,  freight,  and 
passenger  service,  $20,000  to  $45,000  per  unit. 

Cost  of  electric  power  plants,  transmission  lines,  and  electric  locomo- 
tives, runs  from  $7000  to  $12,000  per  mile  of  main  line  track  or  $1,500,000 
for  a  100-mile  division  having  125  miles  of  track;  yet  this  is  only  11  to  17 
per  cent.,  to  be  added  to  the  total  cost  of  the  steam  railroad. 

There  is  then  a  relatively  small  difference  between  a  steam  and  an 
electric  railroad  so  far  as  first  cost  is  concerned. 

A  railroad  company  which  considers  electrification,  determines 
whether  the  added  interest,  taxes,  and  depreciation  of  $700  to  $1200 
per  mile  of  track  per  annum  will  be  more  than  compensated  by  an  in- 
crease in  gross  earnings  and  a  decrease  in  labor,  fuel,  and  maintenance. 

Electrification  expenditures  for  central  power  plants,  and  the  cost  with 
transformers  and  converters,  were  detailed  under  Steam,  Gas,  and  Water 
Power  Plants;  in  presenting  Transmission  and  Contact  Lines,  the  costs 
of  these  were  given;  and  under  Motor-car  Trains  and  Electric  Locomotives, 
the  cost  of  the  electric  motive  power  equipment  was  given.  The  relative 
cost  of  these  items,  and  the  things  which  influence  the  cost,  have  just 
received  consideration.  The  power  plant  costs  are  not  variable.  Lines 
and  substations  for  power  distribution  form  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  total 
cost  of  electrification,  and  this  subject  therefore  requires  the  greater  study. 

The  cost  of  electric  locomotives  with  their  power  plant,  shops,  and 
inspection  sheds  is  three  to  four  times  as  much  as  the  cost  of  steam  loco- 
motives with  their  coal  and  water  tender,  coal  and  water  depots,  pumping 
plants,  elevators,  ash  pits,  trestle  tracks,  round  house,  and  washing  plant. 

The  cost  of  electrification  for  a  particular  situation  requires  a  study 
of  the  features  governing  the  length  of  road,  density  of  traffic,  number 
and  weight  of  individual  train  units,  ratio  of  average  to  maximum  power, 
distribution  of  power,  and  the  number  and  kind  of  substations. 

The  cost  of  electrification  of  steam  railroads  is  being  gradually  reduced 
as  the  state  of  the  art  advances,  as  experimental  work  decreases,  and  as 
development  charges  are  spread  over  larger  amounts  of  equipment. 


512 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


COST  OF  ELECTRIFICATIONS  COMPLETED  OR  PROPOSED. 

The  actual  cost  of  electrifications  completed  is  extremely  hard  to  get. 
Railroads  usually  keep  data  on  cost  of  construction  behind  "  stone  walls." 
Estimates  are  often  required.  A  statistical  study  is,  however,  of  value, 
and  such  data  as  are  available  are  presented.  The  roads  are: 


Boston  &  Eastern page  512 

Boston  &  Albany 513 

New  Haven,  at  Boston , 514 

New  York  Central: 

Hudson  and  Harlem  Div 514 

Adirondacks   Divisions 515 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  516 

West  Jersey  and  Seashore 516 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line  517 

Grand  Trunk  Ry.,  St.  Clair  Tunnel  517 

Ohio  and  Indiana  Interurbans.  .  517 


Great  Northern  Ry: 

Cascade  Tunnel 518 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire 518 

Southern  Pacific  Company 519 

Paris-Orleans 519 

Paris  Metropolitan 519 

German  State 520 

Burgdorf-Thun 521 

Valtellina .  521 

Milan- Varese 521 

Summary 522 


BOSTON  &  EASTERN  RAILROAD,  PROPOSED  IN  1909. 


Item. 

Amount. 

Unit  cost. 

Total. 

P.  c. 

Power  station: 
Land,  wharf,  etc 

8000  kw. 

@    $100 
@          4 

$32  000 

Building,  stack,  intake  
Boilers,  engines,  generators  
Other  electrical  equipment  



@         20 

@        62 
(a).          4 

160,000 
496,000 
32  000 

35.0 

Miscellaneous           ... 

(a),        10 

80  000 

Transmission  line  

16       miles 

@  4000 

64,000  " 

Third  rail  

41  3  miles 

@  4,700 

194  100 

Track  bonding.                           .  . 

41  3  miles 

@      500 

20  650 

Transmission  cable  
Terminal  houses  

7       miles 
2 

@  7,920 
@   3  000 

55,340 
6  000 

28.0 

Converter  substations,   3  

10,000  kw. 

(5),        30 

300,000  > 

Cars,  with  4-200-h.  p.  motors  
Total  

50  cars 
41.3  miles. 

@  16,850 
@  55,270 

842,500 
$2,282^590 

37.0 
~l6o7(T 

The  road  is  now  under  construction  between  Boston  and  Beverly. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         513 
BOSTON  AND  ALBANY  RAILROAD,  BOSTON  TERMINAL  'ZONE. 

The  estimates  for  electrification  dated  October  31,  1910,  included 
20.9  miles  of  four-track  road,  9.89  miles  of  double-track  road,  and  25.0 
miles  of  single  track,  and  the  electrification  of  all  passenger  tracks  and 
some  of  the  local  freight  sidings  on  the  main  line,  to  handle  3,619  daily 
train-miles.  The  estimates  embraced  the  following: 


Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P.  c. 


Power  station  and 
three  substations. 

Transmission  lines. 

Third  rail  and  bom 

Electric  locomotives 

Motor  cars 

Trail  coaches 

Inspection  shops 

Contingencies. . . 

Track  and  static 

Tidal  wave  basi 
third  rail  from  water. 

Automatic  block-signal,  recon- 
struction. 

Less  credit  for: 

Steam  locomotives 

Coaches.  . 


ad 
ns. 
es  

22,500  kw. 
11,350  kw. 

s.  . 

onding  
;ives  

128  miles 
16 
62 

@  8 
@34 
@17 

,320 
,650 
829 

31 

@10 

,851 

•n  changes.  .  . 

ins  to  Drotect 

29 
113 


14,800 
6,000 


$1,859,500  24.8 

446,500  \ 
1,068,000  / 

554,400  ] 
1,105,400  I 

336,500  I 

350,000  j 

100,000 

940,000  \ 
60,000  f 


700,000 
7,520,300 

429,000 
678,000 


Total  for  29  miles  of  route 128  miles.       (a  50,000          §6,413,300 


20.1 

31.2 

1.3 
13.3 

9.3 
100.0 


The  Boston  and  Albany  is  owned  by  the  New  York  Central,  which 
in  its  report  to  the  Joint  Board  of  Metropolitan  Improvements  advocated 
the  use  of  the  third-rail,  1200-volt,  direct-current  system  for  the  Boston 
terminal  electrification. 


33 


514 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD  RAILROAD. 
BOSTON  TERMINAL  ZONE. 

The  electrification  costs  dated  November  15,  1910,  were  estimated  as 
follows : 


Item. 

Amount. 

Unit. 

Total. 

P.  c. 

Power  station 

60,000   kw 

@    $100 

$6  000  000 

18  3 

Transmission  and  overhead 

15.46m.  4-track 

@  40,000 

single-phase  contact  lines. 

128  07m  2-track 

@  20,000 

32  .  44  m.  1  -track 

@  7,000 

111.20m.  in  yard 

@  4,000 

461.  62  miles  total. 

@  8,340 

3,850,240 

11.8 

461.  62  miles  total. 

@  8,340 

3,850,240 

11.8 

1,817  000 

113 

@40,000 

4,520,000 

49 

@45,000 

2,205,000 

64.6 

232 

@  30,000 

6,960,000 

377 

@  13,300 

5,014,100 

635  602 

: 

1,750  000 

5  3 

461.62  miles 

@  70,950 

$32,751,942 

100.0 

Terminal,      inspection,     and 

repair  shops. 

Light  passenger  locomotives 
Heavy  passenger  locomotives 

Multiple-unit  motor  cars 

Multiple-unit  trail  cars 

Spare  parts  for  loco,  and  cars 
Automatic  block  signaling .  .  . 
Total.. 


Note. — The  high  cost  of  electrification  seems  to  be  caused  by  liberal  estimates  per 
unit,  also  by  no  credit  for  101  steam  locomotives  and  227  passenger  coaches  replaced, 
and  by  the  heavy  peak  load  for  5  to  6  P.  M.  passenger  trains.  If  the  freight  traffic 
had  been  added,  the  cost  per  ton-mile  would  have  been  radically  decreased. 

The  total  daily  train  mileage  was  estimated  as  17,286  or  2.5  times  that  of  the  New 
York  Central  electric  zone. 


NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  MOHAWK  &  MALONE  DIVISION,  ESTIMATE. 


Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P.  c. 


Power  station 12,390  kw. 

Transmission  and  contact  lines  ! 

Substations @        17 . 50 

Electric  locomotives Thirty       j  @  50,000. 00 

Miscellaneous . . 


Sum 

Less  steam  locomotives. .  . 


$95.00       $1,232,000  17.2 

2,860,000  \    ! 

630,000  / 

1,500,000  20.9 

934,000  13.1 


7,156,000 
436,000 


100.0 


Net  total 253  miles      @  26,561. 00       $6,720,000 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         515 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  CARTHAGE  &  ADIRONDACKS  DIVISION, 

ESTIMATE. 


Power  station,  steam  

.1 
1,230  kw. 

1 
@      $95  00 

$117  100 

9  2 

Transmission  and  contact  line 

690  000  1 

Substations,    16 

3  000  kw 

@        17  50 

105  000  J 

62.2 

Electric  locomotives 

4 

@  50  000  00 

200  000 

15  6 

Miscellaneous  

166  900 

13  0 

Sum 

1  279  000 

100  0 

Less  steam  locomotives 

4 

@  8  000  00 

32  000 

Net  total 61  miles       @20,443.00       $1,247,000 


NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  NEW  YORK  &  OTTAWA  DIVISION,  ESTIMATE. 

!  !  i 

Power  station 840  kw.     @      $95 . 00  $80,000  6.5 

Transmission  and  contact  line 678,000  1 

Substations @        17.50  105,000  / 

Electric  locomotives 4  @50,000.00  200,000  16.4 

Miscellaneous 159,000  13.0 


Sum 1,222,000          100.0 

Less  steam  locomotives 26,000        

Net  total 60  miles       @  19,934. 00       $1,196,000        


NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS  DIVISIONS. 

Item.  Amount.  Unit.  Total.  P.  c. 


Power  station,  steam ,  15,000  kw.     @      $95.00       $1,425,000  14.8 

Transmission  and  contact  line 4,228,000  \ 

Substations @        17 . 50  840,000  / 

Electric  locomotives 38  @ 50,000. 00         1,900,000  19.7 

Sundry 1,259,000  13.0 


Sum 9,652,000          100.0 

Less  steam  locomotives 42  @  11, 762  494,000        


Net  total 374  miles       @24,486.00       $9,158,000 

| 

Two  60, 000- volt  transmission  circuits  with  (4  No.  0  wires)  and  one  11, 000- volt 
contact  line  circuit. 

"The  enormous  cost  of  electric  equipment  and  the  heavy  increase  in  annual 
operating  cost  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  service  proposed  is  totally  unsuited  for 
economical  electric  operation,  long  hauls,  and  infrequent  heavy  units  being  diametric- 


516 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


ally  opposite  to  that  required  for  successful  electrification."  E.  B.  Katte,  Chief 
Engineer  of  Electric  Traction,  New  York  Central  Railroad,  in  a  report  of  New  York 
Public  Service  Commission,  Second  District,  1909. 

The  estimate  is  high,  at  $11,000  per  mile  for  transmission  and  contact  line;  and 
for  38  electric  locomotives  to  replace  42  steam  locomotives. 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL,  HUDSON  AND  HARLEM  DIVISIONS. 

No  data  as  yet  available.     See  totals  on  page  542. 

NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD. 

The  Electrification  Costs  on  the  New  York  Division  to  1911  Approximated. 


Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


Per  cent. 


Power  station  
Overhead    construction,    4- 
to  6-track  bridges. 
Feeders  and  track  bonding.  ... 
Passenger  locomotives  ! 
Freight  locomotives  
Motor  cars  .  . 

j 

12,000  kw.     @    $100 
22  miles       @  37,000 

88  miles        @      342 
41                  @45,000 
2                  @  75,000 
4                  @  12,  500 

$1,200,000            24.0 
814,000            16.3 

30,000 
1,845,000                  r 
150,000 
50,000 

Signals,  yards,  sundry  

911,000            18.2 

Total  for  22  miles  of  route,  j 

100  miles     @  $50,000 

$5,000,000          100.0 

The  estimate  does  not  include  the  Harlem  River-New  Rochelle  yards,  12.13 
miles  of  4-  to  6-track  road,  the  Stamford-New  Canaan  branch,  the  New  York,  West 
Chester  &  Boston,  or  the  Stamford-New  Haven  extension. 

WEST  JERSEY  AND  SEASHORE  RAILROAD. 


Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P.  c. 


Power  station: 
Bldg.,  stack,  coal  handling  

$354,900 

Equipment  .  .                                  18  000  kw.        (a)      $80 

640,000 

>    25.2 

Transmission  line,  6  No.  1  ;       70  m.           (m  3,455 

241,500 

Substation,  buildings  7                 
Equipment  17,000  kw.        @        25 

72,000 
419,560 

Contact  line: 
Third  rail,  unprotected  132                 @  4,235 
Trolley,  temporarily  20                 @  4,120 

557,636 
80,500 

>    37.4 

Track  bonding                       @       648 

102,659 

Cars,  wood,  47  tons,  480  h.p.,  1906.        93                 @  12,214 
Cars,  steel,  52  tons,  480  h.p.,  1906.        15               \@  19,500 
Car  repair  and  in  sheds               

1,135,900 
292,500 
46,674 

' 

>    37.4 

Total    150  miles.           26,300 

$3,943,829 

1000 

PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION"         517 
BALTIMORE  &  ANNAPOLIS  SHORT  LINE.     ESTIMATE. 

Total.  Per  cent. 


D.  c. 

t 

A.  c.      .      D.  c 

.          A.  c. 

Power  station  
Transmission  line  and   poles,  for  d.  c.  
(6  No.  2  wires). 
Substation  buildings  
Substation  with  converters  
Substation  with  transformers  
Bonding 

$21,000 
65,000 

15,000 
39,000 

18,000 
132,000 

$62,000             5. 
36,000   ! 

2           18.0 

(a  17.50  kw. 

3,000 

] 
8           38  .  6 

J 

0           43.4 
100.0 

8,000 
!    11,000        fb/ 

75,000       J 
149,300           27. 

Third  rail  

'AX    milps 

@$4000 
@   2273 

@  12,040 
©10,440 

Catenary  trolley,  poles,  and  wire.  ...    33  miles 
Nine  cars  completely  equipped  

Total  with  direct  current    33  miles 
Total  with  alternating  current.  .    33  miles 

107,300 

$397,300 

100 
$344,300      

GRAND  TRUNK  RAILWAY— ST.  CLAIR  TUNNEL.     ESTIMATED. 


Item. 

Amount. 

Unit. 

Total. 

P.  c. 

Power  station  

2500  kw 

•  @      $100 

$250  000 

i 
50 

Contact  line  
Locomotive  66-ton 

12  miles 
6  units 

%,     5,000 
(o    26  500 

60,000 
159  000 

12. 
32 

Sundry.  

31  000 

6 

Total  

12  miles 

$41  666 

$500  000 

100 

I 

The  transmission  line  is  short.  Single  track  is  used  except  at  termin- 
als, where  tracks  are  4  to  10  deep. 

OHIO  AND  INDIANA  INTERURBAN  RAILWAYS. 

About  5000  miles  of  track  have  been  built  in  these  two  states. 
Gross  earnings  are  29.5  cents  and  operating  expenses  15.8  cents  per 
car-mile. 

Cost  of  roadbed  was  $16,000;  power  plants,  $2,200;  transmission  lines 
and  substations,  $3,000;  trolley  line,  $1,600;  cars  $1,200;  general  expenses, 
$1,000;  total  $25,000,  per  mile.  Electrification  cost  was  thus:  Power 
station,  24.4  per  cent.;  transmission  lines  and  substations,  33.3  per  cent.; 
trolley  line,  17.9  per  cent.;  cars,  13.3  per  cent.;  and  sundry,  11.1  per  cent. 
This  average,  from  20  typical  roads,  was  obtained  in  1909.  Darlington. 


518          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY,  CASCADE  TUNNEL.     ESTIMATE. 


Item. 

Amount. 

Unit. 

Total. 

P.  c. 

Hydro-electric 

I 
power  plant  7500  kw. 

@        $160 

I 
$l,200,000j       74 

Transmission    line,    six    No.    0    wires,       30  miles  @       2,000  60,000 

33,000-volt. 

Overhead  line  material,  O.  B.  Co 6  miles     @       2,000  12,000 

Overhead  line,  balance  of  material  and       6  miles     @       3,500  21,000 

erection. 

Locomotives,  1900-h.  p.  each 4  units    -@     40,000  160,000j       10 

Sundry  items ! 167,000j       10 

j  i  

Total,  estimate 6  miles    |@ $270,000    $1,620,000      100 


This  makes  a  large  total  per  mile.     If  the  electric  zone  is  extended, 
the  investment  per  mile  will  be  decidedly  smaller. 


SPOKANE  &  INLAND  EMPIRE  RAILROAD.     ESTIMATES. 


Cost  of  electrification  compared. 


Direct 
current. 


Alternating 
current. 


Power  plant,  6000  kilowatts     

Transmission  lines  (60,000-volt) 

$122,640 

$140  000 

Feeders  
Bonding  of  rails 

474,600 
40,150 

19,800 
40,150 

Trolley  line  (two  No.  0000  conductors)  

343,100 

Trolley  line  (catenary  construction)    

306,600 

Transformer  substations 

.  . 

156,988 

Frequency  changing  stations  

106,400 

Rotary  converter  substations            .          .  . 

338,548 

Electrical  equipment  of  rolling  stock  

259,600 

286,250 

Total  for  162  miles  of  track 
Saving  of  single-phase  over  direct-current  .  .  . 

$1,578,638 

$1,056,188 
$522,450 

Electrification  plans  were  based  on  146  miles  of  main  line,  or  162  miles  of  track, 
and  the  use  of  either  the  3-phase,  60-cycle,  direct-current,  600- volt  rotary  converter 
system;  or  the  3-phase,  60-cycle,  motor-generator,  single-phase,  25-cycle,  6600- volt 
system. 

Power  at  60  cycles  was  available  at  an  electric  lighting  plant  but  required  that 
four  1000-kilowatt  frequency  changers  be  used,  consisting  of  3-phase,  60-cycle, 
4000- volt  induction  motors  coupled  to  25-cycle,  revolving  field,  single-phase  genera- 
tors. Storage  batteries  were  also  added  to  minimize  the  railway  load  peaks. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 


519 


If  the  frequency  changing  station  had  not  been  used  an  additional  $106,400 
would  have  been  saved.  Changes  were  made  after  the  contract  for  the  equipment 
was  closed,  and  it  is  now  considered  that  the  saving  effected  by  the  single-phase 
system  was  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  $800,000.  The  generation  of  energy  at 
25  cycles  at  a  new  water  power  plant  will  decrease  the  unit  cost  of  electrification. 


SOUTHERN  PACIFIC  COMPANY,  ALAMEDA,  CALIFORNIA:  1910. 


12-645-h.  p.  Parker  boilers @  $17 

2-5000-kw.  Westinghouse  turbo-generators @  38 

2  surface  condensers @  23,000 

44  multiple-unit  cars,  with  4-125-h.p.  motors @  8500 

6-750  kw.,  600- volt,  rotary  counters @  

The  work  will  not  be  completed  until  late  in  1911. 


$131,580 

380,000 

46,000 

$374,000 


PARIS-ORLEANS  RAILWAY:  1904. 


Item. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


P.  c. 


Power  station 

2000  kw.          @$206 
21.18  miles.!  @4900 
3                    

$412,000 
104,000 
215,000  \ 
463,000  j 

280,000  | 
16,000  J 

27.6 
52.5 
19.2 

Transmission  lines  

Transformer-converter    substations  . 
Contact  line 

37.  29  miles.  !@  12400 

11  1          •       •• 

Electric  locomotives     
Motor  cars              .               

5J 

Miscellaneous 

Total 

37.  29  miles.    @,  40,000 

$1,490,000 

100.0 

PARIS-METROPOLITAN  RAILWAY:  1904. 


Power  stations,  three 

Track  equipment 

Substations,  four 

Transmission  line 

Rolling  stock 

Miscellaneous 

Total  for  15.42  miles  of  track.  .  .  @ 340, 000 


2,405,800 
218,800 
505,800 
276,000 

1,693,200 
150,400 


46.0 


19.0 


35.0 


$5,250,000          100.0 


Note  the  high  cost  of  power  stations.     Data  of  1904  are  not  valuable. 


GERMAN  STATE  RAILWAYS. 


German  engineers  have  been  actively  engaged  in  the  study  of  electric 
power  for  the  Prussian  State  Railroad,  which  includes  21,016  miles  of 
single  track. 


520 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  present  electrification  plans  embrace  the  following: 

Central  power  plants,  125  miles  apart,  interconnected  to  allow  a 
mutual  rendering  of  assistance  in  case  one  is  disabled. 

Transmission  line  voltage,  50,000;  transformers,  at  intervals  of  25 
miles  along  the  line,  3000  kilowatt  for  single  track  and  5000  kilowatt 
for  double  track.  Contact  line  voltage,  10,000. 

Power  required  for  trains,  per  mile  of  double  track,  200  kilowatt. 

Power  required  for  trains,  per  mile  of  single  track,  120  kilowatt. 

Electric  locomotives  to  aggregate  64  per  cent,  of  the  number,  and  to 
have  73.8  per  cent,  of  the  empty  weight,  of  steam  locomotives.  Number 
of  electric  locomotives  required,  955  at  $16,000  each;  or  $.  1834  per  pound. 
Steam  locomotives  now  cost  $.1186  per  pound. 


Estimates  on  cost. 


Per  mile  Per  mile.       Electrification.1      Per 

single  track,    double  track.      Total  cost.  cent. 


No  power  plant    Would  cost 

l                          i 

Transmission  line 

$1530 

$2490            $42  500  000  1 

Transformer  equipment  

862 

1436              25,000,000  [ 

Contact  line,  21,016  miles  

3830 

167,500,000  J 

Locomotives  and  motor  cars.  . 

7358 

152,500,000 

i                          i 

20 
50 
30 


Estimates  by  Pb.  Pforr.     See.  U.  S.  Consular  Report,  No.  3411,  1909. 


ESTIMATE  ON  COST  OF  OPERATION  OF  GERMAN  RAILROADS. 


Items. 


Proposed 
electric 


Present 
steam, 
service.  service. 


Steam  power    3,481,000,000    kw-hr.,    @,    .833  . 

(including  fixed  charge  on  investment). 
Depot  service  oil  and  waste,  and  miscellaneous . 

Minor  accounts,  loss  by  fire  in  forests 

Enginemen  and  firemen  on  trains 

Maintenance  of  rolling  stock 

Added  interest,  $235,000,000  @5  per  cent 

Maintenance  of  lines  @  2  per  cent 

Maintenance  of  transformers  @  5  per  cent 

Maintenance  of  water  and  coal  stations .  . 


$29,000,000 


$26,000,000 


8,648,000      13,398,000 

0          1,750,000 

10,950,000  i  15,950,000 

8,500,000  |  10,500,000 
11,750,000  !. 


4,250,000 

1,250,000 

0 


1,250,000 


The  saving  in  coal  alone  is  estimated  at  $4,750,000  per  annum. 
The  saving  in  the  future  in  the  cost  of  double  tracking  and  by  the  use 
of  water  power  will  increase  the  advantage  of  electric  traction. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         521 
BURGDOKF-THUN  RAILWAY:  1899. 

1NTERURBAN   RAILWAY. 


Items. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total.      Per  cent. 


Power  plant,  estimate  
Transmission  line,  15,  500  -volt,  3-phase 
Transformers,  14  substations 

4,500  kw. 
24  miles. 
450  kw 

j 

$450,000 
26,600 
(«     $5            30  400 

72.8 

JIG    Q 

Contact  line,  2-wire,  3-phase,  750-  volt. 

8-mm. 

.    .                    66  500 

Motor  cars,  six  32-ton  .  

320-h.  p.  } 

....                  44,650 

7  3 

Locomotives,  two  33-ton  
Total  

300-h.  p.  / 
29  miles 

@  21,300  $618',150 

100  0 

•j                                        | 

VALTELLINA  RAILWAY:  1902. 


Items. 


Amount. 


Unit. 


Total. 


Per  cent. 


Power  plant . . 
Power  plant  n 
Line  construction 
Rolling  stock 
Total .  . 


7500-h.  p.      
machinerv                                                           .  . 

$500,000  \  ; 

140,000  /  ! 

51.6 

3tion  

340,000 

27.4 

260,000 

21.0 

67  miles  (a    $18,500 

"$17240^000 

Too.o 

MILAN- VARESE  RAILWAY:  1902. 


Items. 


Amount. 


Power  plant  with  storage  batteries 

Third  rail,  etc 1 

Motor  cars 25 

Locomotives 5 

Total 105. 7  miles 

Data  for  1902  are  not  verv  valuable. 


Unit. 


Total.        Per  cent. 


$240,000 

21.8 

460,000 

41.9 

340,000  \ 

36.3 

(a  $12,000 

60,000  / 

@  $10,400 

$i,Too7ooo 

100.0 

522          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
COST  OF  ELECTRIFICATION,  SUMMARY. 


Electric 

Estimated 

Cost  per 

Name  of  railroad. 

cost  of  elec- 

single- 

Notes  on  construction. 

trification. 

track  mile. 

Boston  &  Eastern  

41 

$2,282,590 

$55,270 

Proposed  600-volt  system. 

Boston  &  Albany  

128 

6,413,000 

50,000 

Proposed  1200-  volt  system. 

Boston  &  Maine  

22 

880,000 

44,000 

Hoosac  Tunnel  section. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 

461 

32,750,000 

70,950 

Proposed  Boston  Terminal. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 

to   1911  

100 

5,000,000 

50,000 

Woodlawn-Stamford,  Connecticut. 

N  Y    Westchester&  Boston 

63 

5,000,000 

New  York  to  White  Plains,  etc 

New  York  Central  

125 

10,700,000 

85,600 

f  N.  Y.  City  to  North  White  Plains. 
\  N.  Y.  City  to  Yonkers. 

New  York  Central 

374 

9  158  000 

24,486 

Adirondack  Division   estimate. 

Manhattan  Elevated  

118 

17,000,000 

144,000 

Elevated  R.  R. 

Long  Island                              .  . 

120 

11,000  000 

91,667 

Brooklyn-  Long  Island  . 

Pennsylvania                            .  . 

50 

20,000  000 

400,000 

Newark  New  York,  Long  Island. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  

150 

3,943,829 

29,300 

Philadelphia-  Atlantic  City. 

Annapolis  Short  Line  

33 

344,300 

10,433 

Baltimore-  Annapolis. 

Grand  Trunk  

12 

500,000 

41,666 

Port  Huron-Sarnia  Tunnel. 

Michigan  Central  

19 

950,000 

50,000 

Detroit-  Windsor  Tunnel. 

Ohio  &  Indiana  interurbans  .  . 

5000 

9,000 

Average  of  20  roads. 

Spokane  &  Inland  

162 

1,056,188 

6,520 

Without  power  plant. 

Great  Northern  

6 

1,200,000 

200,000 

Cascade  Tunnel. 

Southern  Pacific  



10,000,000 



Oakland  suburban  service. 

Swedish  State  

4,000,000 



To  be  completed  in  1914. 

Paris-Orleans  

37 

1,490,000 

40,000 

Completed  in  1904. 

Paris-Metropolitan  

15 

5,250,000 

340,400 

Completed  in  1904. 

German  State  



7,000 

Without  power  plant. 

Burgdorf-Thun,  interurban.  . 

29 

618,150 

21,300 

Year  1899.      Three  phase. 

Valtellina 

67 

1  240  000 

18  500 

Year  1902       Three  phase. 

Milan-  Varese  

105 

1,100,000 

10,400 

Year  1899.      Third  rail. 

Data  are  incomplete  and  approximate.  Short  lines  are  hardly  com- 
parable'with  long  lines,  because  local  or  short-haul  service  requires  heavy 
investment  per  mile.  In  some  cases,  e.  g.,  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  all  of 
the  tunnel  roads,  terminal  railways,  suburban  development,  etc.,  a  large 
investment  has  been  made  and  the  full  use  of  same  will  not  be  obtained 
until  extensions  are  completed.  In  two  cases  noted,  power  is  purchased, 
and  30  per  cent,  of  the  usual  investment  was  not  made.  Cost  of  cars 
which,  in  reality,  should  not  be  charged  against  the  cost  of  electrifica- 
tion, and  cost  of  track  and  terminal  changes  or  improvements  have  been 
included  in  the  cost  of  electrification.  Other  data  can  be  tabulated 
on  the  cost  per  ton-mile  hauled. 

ERRORS  TO  BE   AVOIDED. 

Errors  to  be  avoided  in  electrification  are  noted  briefly  as  follows : 

Electrification  should  not  be  compulsory  at  the  present  time.  Rail- 
roads should  be  given  time  to  make  an  honest  study  of  the  application  of 
electric  motive  power,  as  used  on  similar  or  longer  roads. 

Power  plant  load  factor  must  not  be  low.  This  was  considered  in 
detail  in  Chapter  XII,  which  see. 

Electrification  for  short  distances  should  be  avoided.     Electrification 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         523 

for  distances  less  than  twelve  miles  cannot,  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
problem,  produce  economical  results  and  a  profitable  financial  invest- 
ment for  the  railroad.  This  has  been  outlined  and  emphasized  thruout 
this  chapter  and  also  in  the  chapter  on  Power  Plants,  under  load  factor. 

Freight  haulage  should  not  be  neglected.  Net  earnings  from  freight 
are  large  and  persistent,  and  freight  haulage  by  electric  locomotives 
deserves  consideration  in  every  plan  for  electrification.  The  power  sta- 
tion, if  provided  for  passenger  requirements  only,  will  have  a  large  unused 
capacity  between  the  hours  of  peak  load,  which  could  be  utilized  for  the 
transportation  of  freight.  The  occupation  and  use  of  the  tracks  and 
electric  contact  line  by  passenger  trains,  during  these  hours  of  peak  load, 
prevent  the  operation  of  freight  trains  at  such  times;  while  at  other  hours 
the  freight  traffic  automatically  fills  in  the  load  valleys.  Thus  the  invest- 
ment is  utilized  to  best  advantage,  i.  e.,  continually,  and  apparatus  is 
worked  at  near  the  full  load. 

Amount  of  equipment  planned  or  purchased  for  the  electric  power 
plant,  lines,  substation,  and  motive  power  should  not  be  too  small  for  the 
maximum  service,  the  holiday  and  snow  storm  conditions.  Some  rolling 
stock  will  always  be  undergoing  repairs.  Energy  is  required  for  lighting, 
heating,  shops,  power,  signals,  and  transmission  losses.  Power  plants 
should  be  so  constructed  that  there  is  an  opportunity  to  expand  symmet- 
rically and  economically,  and  without  that  waste  which  follows  an 
unsatisfactory  compromise.  Rebuilding  is  expensive,  and  plans  should 
be  so  comprehensive  that  radical  changes  will  occur  at  long  intervals. 

Number  of  power  plants  and  substations  should  not  be  too  large. 
Ordinarily  substations  are  too  near  together.  This  was  formerly  neces- 
sary, to  decrease  the  losses  in  low-voltage  feeder  lines.  The  first  result 
of  such  a  mistake  is  to  increase  the  cost  of  buildings  and  substation  atten- 
dants; and  the  load  factor  of  each  substation,  and  of  its  feeding  lines,  be- 
comes notoriously  bad.  On  an  ordinary  railroad  with  75  miles  of  route  and 
about  16  trains  each  way  per  day,  electrification  plans  for  which  have 
been  developed  by  the  writer,  a  total  maximum  output  of  about  8,000 
kilowatts  was  required.  One  substation,  or  the  main  station,  at  the 
middle  of  the  line,  carrying  the  full  load,  would  have  a  load  factor  of  64 
per  cent.;  2  substations,  a  load  factor  of  35  and  41  per  cent.;  and  3 
substations,  18  to  20  miles  apart,  a  load  factor  of  about  31  per  cent. 
Amount  of  equipment  required  to  deliver  the  average  kilowatts,  or  to  haul 
the  ton-mileage,  increases  rapidly  as  the  number  of  substations  is  in- 
creased. This  apparently  leads  to  an  argument  for  the  single-phase  sys- 
tem, because  the  high  voltage  used  on  the  contact  line  allows  trans- 
former substations  to  be  placed  long  distances  apart;  and  the  load  is  so 
equalized  that  there  is  the  minimum  equipment  for  the  maximum  work. 
The  cost  of  electrification  and  operation  of  long  railroads  would  be  ex_ 


524          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

cessive  with  frequent  substations,  1200-volt,  direct-current,  rotating  ap- 
paratus, and  substation  attendants. 

Power  plants  must  be  used  jointly  by  railroads,  whenever  it  is  possible, 
to  avoid  duplication  in  investment  and  to  obtain  higher  load  factors  and 
economy  of  operation. 

"  The  simultaneous  maintenance  of  the  facilities  and  working  forces 
for  both  steam  and  electric  service  within  the  same  limits  will  be  rarely 
profitable  for  the  reason  that  a  large  proportion  of  expenses  incident  to 
both  kinds  of  service  is  retained,  without  realizing  the  full  economy  of 
either.  To  secure  the  fullest  economy,  it  is  necessary  to  extend  the 
electric  service  over  the  whole  length  of  the  existing  engine  stage  or 
district,  and  to  include  both  passenger  and  freight  trains."  E.  H. 
McHenry,  Vice-President,  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad. 

One  great  obstacle  to  electrification  is  the  large  capital  required. 
The  railroad  must  not  pay  interest  upon  a  double  investment,  that  for 
steam  and  that  for  electricity.  Terminal  electrification  is  expensive  and 
no  gain  is  made  when  one  end  of  a  railroad  is  electrified  while  the  rest  is 
operated  by  steam.  It  is  certainly  a  case  of  steam  plus  electricity,  which 
obviously  is  an  uneconomical  procedure.  The  substitution  should  in  all 
cases  include  passenger  and  freight  operation  and  yard  switching.  Par- 
tial electrification  will  always  be  financially  unsuccessful. 

Steam  railroad  electrification  should  not  be  started  until  there  is  a 
proper  appreciation  of  the  problems  involved.  A  railroad  requires  more 
consideration  than  an  interurban  road,  and  experience  in  the  latter  does 
not  qualify  one  for  work  on  the  former.  Where  the  traffic  is  important, 
experiments  must  not  be  tried.  Without  proper  appreciation  of  the 
problem,  reliable  and  economical  service  which  is  needed  for  freight 
and  passenger  work,  damage  will  result.  Enthusiasm  cannot  be  used 
as  a  basis  for  procedure.  Facts  must  not  be  concealed,  for  they  may 
react  to  the  detriment  of  those  responsible  for  good  operating  results, 
and  often  to  the  embarrassment  of  the  railroad. 

ELECTRICAL  ENGINEERS  OF  RAILROADS. 

The  electric  railway  engineer's  work  in  the  electrification  of  railroads 
requires  preparation.  This  should  enable  him,  first  of  all,  to  comprehend 
the  scope  of  specific  railroad  problems.  For  their  solution,  the  real  facts 
must  be  obtained  and  so  fortified  with  general  and  detailed  information 
that  they  cannot  be  set  aside  or  questioned.  The  ability  to  refer  to 
authorities,  to  the  recorded  experience  of  others,  to  collect  the  data  and 
facts,  and  to  do  it  quickly  when  needed,  certainly  constitutes  a  valuable 
asset  in  this  engineering  work.  The  engineer's  note  book  or  record  of 
experience  is  generally  very  valuable. 

The  men  who  have  been  graduated  from  a  course  of  study  embracing 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         525 

electric  railway  engineering,  and  who  will  follow  electrification  work,  need 
long  experience  in  practical  work,  in  power-plant  operation,  construction 
of  transmission  and  contact  lines,  repair  shop  experience,  and  an  appren- 
tice course;  to  be  followed  by  design  of  apparatus,  and  study  of  cost 
of  equipment,  and  cost  of  operation.  A  study  of  statistical  tables  and 
the  equipment  and  methods  used  on  different  railways  is  most  advan- 
tageous. In  electrification  work,  economical  and  efficient  methods  are 
of  paramount  importance. 

The  electrical  superintendent  of  a  road  often  has  charge  of  the  loco- 
motives and  electrical  equipment  used  on  the  division.  He  reports  to 
the  superintendent  and  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way,  on  the  traffic 
and  construction  matters  respectively;  and  to  the  mechanical  superin- 
tendent on  those  things  relating  to  the  mechanical  details  of  the 
locomotive  construction  and  maintenance  in  operation.  The  electrical 
superintendent  often  has  under  him  a  road  foreman  of  electric  engines  and 
motor  cars,  and  the  chief  engineer  of  the  power  house. 

"  The  duties  of  the  electrical  engineer  are  to  specify  the  electrical  apparatus  needed 
to  satisfy  the  load  or  working  conditions;  to  fit  this  apparatus  in  with  the  present 
motive  power;  to  act  as  interpreter  between  the  railroad  and  the  manufacturer;  to  so 
arrange  that  the  number  of  standards  used  is  not  unnecessarily  increased;  further, 
to  secure  the  co-operation  of  the  different  departments  of  the  transportation  system 
and  to  make  certain  that  the  new  equipment  will  be  properly  used  and  cared  for." 
W.  N.  Smith,  to  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1907. 

"  The  question  of  electrification  of  trunk  lines  devolves  upon  the  engineers  of  our 
railways  to  determine  to  what  extent  electric  power  is  justifiable  in  heavy  trunk-line 
service.  It  is  a  problem  of  great  magnitude  and  involves  not  only  technical  skill, 
but  judgment  of  the  highest  order,  and  the  solution  must,  in  the  final  analysis,  be 
made  by  railway  men,  familiar  with  the  intricacies  of  railway  operation  and  its  needs. 
Railway  engineers  should  prepare  for  this  economic  change  that  has  already  begun, 
in  order  that  the  problems  that  demand  solution  may  be  solved  on  a  sound  basis,  and 
that  costly  mistakes  which  ignorance  would  otherwise  impose  may  be  avoided." 
L.  C.  Fritch,  President  of  the  American  Railway  Engineering  Association,  referring 
to  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  electrification  at  New  York  City,  March,  1911. 

ENGINEERS  FOR  ELECTRIC  RAILROADS. 


Name  of  railroad.  Name  of  engineer.  Title.  Address. 


Boston  Elevated Paul  Winsor Chief  Engineer  of  M.  P.  .  .  Boston. 

John  W.  Corning.  .     Electrical  Engineer Boston. 

New  York  Central J.  F.  Deems i  General  Supt.  of  M.  P ....  New  York. 

E.  B.  Katte Chief  Engineer  of  E.  T .  .  .  New  York. 

H.  A.  Currie |  Ass't  Electrical  Engineer. .  New  York. 

W.  A.  Del  Mar  .  . . .    Ass't  Engineer  of  Electrir  New  York. 

!     cal  Transmission  Dep't.    | 

Win.  G.  Carleton.  .    Supt.     Power,     Electrical'  New  York. 
Division. 

A.  W.  Whaley General    Superintendent  New  York. 

of  Electrical  Division. 


526          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 
ENGINEERS  FOR  ELECTRIC  RAILROADS.     (Continued.) 


Name  of  railroad. 

Name  of  engineer. 

Title. 

Address. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hart- 
ford. 

Boston  &  Maine  
Long  Island  

E.  H.  McHenry  
W.  S.  Murray  
C.  L.  Peterson  
H.  S.  Day  
H.  Gilliam  
W.  J.  O'Meara  
L.  S.  Boggs  
L.  C.  Winship  
Geo.  Gibbs  
L.  S.  Wells  
L.  S.  Woodruf  
R.  W.  Brodmann.  . 
F.  G.  Clark  

Vice  President  
Electrical  Engineer  
Engineer  of  Power  Plant.  . 
Foreman  of  Shops  
Electrical  Superintendent. 
Foreman  of  Electric  Locos. 
Supt.  Overhead  Construct. 
Electrical  Superintendent. 
Chief  Engineer  of  E.  T.  .  . 
Electrical  Superintendent. 
Assistant  Superintendent  . 
Foreman  of  Shops  
Superintendent  of  Power. 

New  Haven. 
New  Haven. 
Cos  Cob. 
Stamford. 
Stamford. 
New  York. 
New  Rochelle. 
Hoosac  Tunnel. 
New  York. 
Long  Island. 
Long  Island. 
Morris  Park. 
Long  Island. 

Pennsylvania  : 

Chief  Engineer  of  E  T 

New  York 

New  York  Terminal  Div. 

E.  R.  Hill  
Hugh  Pattison  
R  D  Combs 

Assistant  to  Chief  Engr.  . 
Supt.  of  Construction.  .  .  . 
Structural  Engr  of  E.  T 

New  York. 
New  York. 
New  York. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  
Interborough  Rapid  Transit.  .  . 

J.  W.  Rogers  
B.  F.  Wood  
J.  R.  Sloan  
Henry  G.  Stott.  .  .  . 
J.  S.  Doyle  
L.  B.  Stillwell  .  . 

Electrical  Supervisor  
Assistant  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer  
Superintendent  of  M.  P  .  . 
Supt.  of  Equipment  
Electrical  Director  

Camden,  Pa. 
Altoona,  Pa. 
Altoona,  Pa. 
New  York. 
New  York. 
New  York. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  

Hugh  Hazelton 

Electrical  Engineer  

New  York. 

L  G  Smith 

New  York 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

J  H  Davis 

Electrical  Engineer 

Baltimore 

L  S  Billau 

\sst  Elec  Engineer 

Baltimore 

Boston  &  Maine 

W  S  Murray 

Electrical  Engineer 

New  Haven 

Canadian  Pacific 

Assistant  to  V  P 

Montreal. 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  West- 
ern. 

N.  Cauchon  
T.  E.  Clark  
T  S  Lloyd 

Consulting  Engineer  
General  Superintendent.  . 
Superintendent  M  P 

Ottawa. 
Scranton,  Pa. 
Scran  ton,  Pa. 

Delaware  &  Hudson  
Erie  R.  R  

H.  M.  Warren  
C.  S.  Sims  
Axel  Ekstrom  
W.  J.  Harahan  
D   H   Wilson   Jr 

Electrical  Engineer  
V.  P.  and  G.  M  
Electrical  Engineer  
V.  P.  of  Engineering  Dept. 
Electrical  Engineer  

Scranton,  Pa. 
Albany. 
Albany. 
New  York. 
Meadville,  Pa. 

Grand  Trunk  

R.  C.  Thurston  .... 
W.  D.  Hall  
J  F  Jones  .  .  .  . 

Supt.  Electrical  Service.  .  . 
Supt.  of  Motive  Power.  .  . 
Supt.  of  Terminals  

Avon,  N.  Y. 
Port  Huron. 
Port  Huron. 

Michigan  Central  

Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Val.  . 
Chicago  Terminal  Commission 

J.  C.  Mock  
H.  B.  P.  Wrenn  .  .  . 
J.  H.  Murray  
H  G  Burt 

Electrical  Engineer  
Electric  Locomotive  Engr. 
Supt.  of  Transmission  .... 
Chief  Engineer 

Detroit. 
Detroit. 
Scranton. 
Chicago. 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  

George  Gibbs  
E.  F.  Gould  

Consulting  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer  

New  York 
Wheaton,  111. 

Ft.  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  S  .  .  . 
Wabash    .  .  . 

H.  A.  Fiske  
A  O  Cunningham 

Electrical  Engineer  
Chief  Engineer  

Boone,  Iowa. 
St,  Louis. 

Northern  Pacific  
Great  Northern  
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire 

W.  J.  Bohan  
R.  D.  Hawkins.  .  .  . 
A  M  Lupfer 

Electrical  Engineer  
Supt.  of  Motive  Power  .  .  . 
Chief  Engineer  

St.  Paul. 
New  York. 
Spokane. 

J.  B.  Ingersoll  
F  T  Vanatta 

Chief  Electrical  Engineer. 

Spokane. 
Sausalito. 

Pacific  Electric  
Southern  Pacific  Company  .... 
Northern  Electric,  Cal  

S.  H.  Anderson.  .  .  . 
Allen  H.  Babcock  . 
J.  P.  Edwards  

Electrical  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer  

Los  Angeles. 
San  Francisco. 
Chico,  Cal. 

PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         527 
ENGINEERS  FOR  ELECTRIC  RAILROADS.     (Continued.) 

Name  of  railroad.  Name  of  engineer.  Title.  Address. 


London  Electric  

Mersey  Ry  
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  
North-Eastern,  England  
Midland  Ry    England 

.    J.  R.  Chapman  .  .  . 
A.  R.  Cooper  
.    J.  Shaw  
.    J.  A.  F.  Aspinwall  . 
.    C.  H.  Merz  
J   Dalziel 

Chief  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer  
Electrical  Engineer.  ...... 
General  Manager  
Consulting  Engineer  

London. 
London. 
Liverpool. 
Liverpool. 
New  Castle. 

J    Sayers 

Electrical  Engineer 

London,  Brighton  &  S.  C    ... 

Wm.  Forbes 

General  Manager 

London. 

Swedish  State  

Philip  Dawson  
.  Robt.  Dahlander.  . 

Electrical  Advisor  
Chief  Engineer.  . 

London. 
Stockholm. 

Paris-Orleans 

Paul  du  Bois 

Paris 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean.  .  . 
Western  French  
Southern  French    

.  M.  Auvert  
.  M.  Mazen  
.  M.  Jullian 

Engineer  
Engineer  
Engineer 

Paris. 
Paris. 

Prussian  State    

.  G.  O.  Wittfeld 

Electrical  Advisor 

Austrian  State  

.  M.  Krasny  ...  . 

Engineer.  .  .  . 

Swiss  Federal  
Bernese  Alps  

.  W.  Wyssling  
.  Charles  Wirth 

Secretary  
Engineer  

Berne 

Italian  State  ... 

;  L.  Thorman  
.  M.  Verola... 

Consulting  Engineer  
Chief  Engineer.  Elec.  Dent. 

Berne. 

AMERICAN    RAILWAY    ENGINEERING   ASSOCIATION,    COMMITTEE    ON 

ELECTRIC  WORKING. 


Name  of  engineer. 


Name  of  railroad. 


George  Gibbs 

E.  H.  McHenry.  .  . 
G.  W.  Kittridge  .  . 
G.  A.  Harwood  .  .  . 

C.  E.  Linsay 

E.  B.  Katte 

J.  B.  Austin,  Jr.. .  . 

J.  A.  Savage 

A.  O.  Cunningham 

L.  C.  Fritch 

N.  E.  Baker.  .  . 


Pennsylvania 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  H. 
New  York  Central  .  . 


Long  Island 

Wabash 

Chicago  Great  Western 
Illinois  Central 


Address. 


...    New  York 

.  .  .    New  Haven 

.  .  .    New  York. 

New  York. 

New  York. 

New  York. 
.  .  .    Long  Island  City 

Long  Island  City 
.  .  .    St.  Louis. 
...    Chicago. 
.  .  .    Chicago. 


AMERICAN  RAILWAY  ASSOCIATION,  COMMITTEE  ON  HEAVY  ELECTRIC 

TRACTION. 


Name  of  engieer. 


W.  S.  Murray.. 
E.  B.  Katte  .  .  . 

E.  R.  Hill 

J.  H.  Davis 

Hugh  Hazelton 
E.  F.  Gould  .  . 


Name  of  railroad. 


New  York,  New  Haven  &  H 

New  York  Central 

Pennsylvania 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

Hudson  &  Manhattan 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago .  .  . 


Address. 


New  York. 
New  York. 
New  York. 
Baltimore. 
New  York. 
Wheaton,  111. 


528  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

MANUFACTURING  AND  CONSTRUCTING  CORPORATIONS. 


Name  of  company. 


Name  of  engineer. 


Title. 


Address. 


General  Electric  
Westinghouse  

Allis-Chalmers  
Siemens  &  Halske  
Allgemeine  Elektricitats  
Bergmann  Electric 

E.  B.  Rice,  Jr.  ... 
J.  G.  Barry  
W.  B.  Potter  
A.  H.  Armstrong.. 
S.  T.  Dodd  
A.  F.  Batchelder  . 
W.  J.  Clark  
B.  G.  Lamme  
N.  W.  Storer  
C.  S.  Cook  
F.  E.  Wynne  .... 
F.  Darlington  
Robt.  L.  Wilson  .  . 
F.  H.  Shepard.  .  .  . 
L.  E.  Bogen  

.    V.  P.  and  Chief  Engineer. 
.  |  Manager  Ry.  Department 
.    Ch.  Engr.  Ry.  Department 
.  j  Ass't  Engr.  Ry.  Dept  
.  |  Ry.  Engrng.  Department  . 
.  j  Locomotive  Department.  . 
i  Mgr.  Traction  Dept  

Schenectady. 
Schenectady. 
Schenectady. 
Schenectady. 
Schenectady. 
Schenectady. 
New  York. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
Pittsburg. 
New  York. 
Milwaukee. 
Berlin. 
Berlin. 
Berlin. 
Budapest. 
Zurich,  Sweiz. 
Baden,  Sweiz. 
Basle,  Sweiz. 
Vado-Ligure. 
Geneva. 

.  1  Electric  Engineer  
.    Engineer  Ry.  Division  .  .  . 
.    Mgr.  Ry.  Department.  .  .  . 
.    Engr.  Ry.  Project  Dept.  . 
.    Sales  Engineer  
.    Supt.  Loco.  Installations  . 
.    Special  Representative.  .  .  . 
.    Electrical  Estimator  

Ganz  Electric  .  .                             ! 

Oerlikon  .... 

Brown,  Boveri  
Alioth  Electric  
Italian  Westinghouse  
Thury  

LITERATURE. 

References  to  General  Articles  on  Electrification. 

Smith,  W.  N.:  Practical  Aspects  of  Electrification,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1907. 
De  Muralt:  Heavy  Electric  Traction  Problems,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 
Fowler:  Value  of  Electrification  to  a  Railroad,  E.  W.,  March  21,  1908. 
Pomeroy:  Electrification  of  Trunk  Lines,  I.  of  M.  E.,  July  29,  1910. 
Carter:  Electrification  of  (suburban)  Steam  Roads,  I.  of  M.  E.,  July  29,  1910. 
Westinghouse:  Electrification  of  Railways,  I.  of  M.  E.,  July  29,  1910. 
Potter:  Unit  Cost  of  Electrification,  I.  of  M.  E.,  July  29,  1910. 

(The  last  four  papers  were  abstracted  in  American  railway  papers.) 
Darlington:  Financial  Aspects  of  Application  of  Electric  Motive  Power  to  Railroads, 
Elec.  Journal,  Feb.  and  Sept.,  1910. 

References  on  Procedure  and  Cost  of  Electrification. 

Siemens  and  Halske:  Three-phase  Electrification,  S.  R.  J.,  May  16,  1903,  p.  736. 
Lincoln:  Interurban  Railways,  D.  C.  vs.  A.C.,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1903. 
Blanck:  Interurban  Railways,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.  16,  1904;  S.  R.  J.,  March  12,  1904 
Davis,  W.  J.:  Interurban  Railways,  D.  C.  or  A.  C.,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  7,  1907. 
New  York  R.  R.  Club:  Report  of  Committee  on  Electrification  of  Steam  Railroads, 

April,  1910  and  1911. 
Gotshall  and  Mailloux:  New  York  &  Port  Chester,  S.   R.  J.,  and  A.  I.  E.  E.,  1904- 

1907. 

Potter  and  Arnold:  New  York  Central  Electrification,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902, 
Wilgus:  New  York  Central  Electrification,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904,  p.  585. 
Sprague:  Facts  and  Problems  on  Electric  Trunk-line  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,   May, 

1907. 


PROCEDURE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         529 

Katte:  Report  Against  Electrification  of  a  Division  with  Light  Traffic  in  the  Adiron- 
dack Mountains,  E.  R.  J.,  Aug.  7,  1909. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford:  Harlem  River  Freight  Yards;  Murray,  A.  I.  E.  E., 
Apr.,  1911;  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  3,  1904;  New  York  Division,  Dec.  23,  1905. 

Boston  &  Maine:  Concord-Manchester  Division,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  6,  1902. 

Boston  &  Eastern:  E.  W.,  Nov.  28,  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  July  13,  1907. 

Boston-Providence:  S.  R.  J.,  April  8,  1905. 

Long  Island:  Lyford  &  Smith,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1904;  West.  Church,  Kerr  &  Co., 
Bulletins  No.  3-4. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore:  Wood,  Data  on  Cost  of  Construction  and  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E., 
June,  1911. 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis:  Whitehead,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1908. 

Cumberland  Valley  (Pa.)  R.  R.:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1905. 

Ocean  Shore  R.  R.,  California:  Sprout,  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  12,  1908. 

Melbourne,  Australia:  Merz,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  3,  1908,  p.  751. 


34 


CHAPTER  XV. 
WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 

Outline. 

General  Status. 

Classification  of  Development. 

Railroads  Operating  Divisions  by  Electricity.     List. 

Train  Service  of  Electric  Railroads.     List. 

Technical  Data  on  Completed  Electrifications : 

Boston  &  Maine  R.  R. ;  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.  R.,  New  York 
Division;  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  R.  R.,  Harlem  &  Hudson 
Divisions,  West  Shore  Railroad;  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  Long  Island  Railroad, 
Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal  R.  R.,  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  R.  R.; 
Hudson  &  Manhattan  R.  R.;  Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line;  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  R.R;  Michigan  Central  R.R;  Grand  Trunk  R.R;  Erie  R.R;  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy,  Colorado  &  Southern  R.  R.,  Denver  &  Interurban  R.  R. ; 
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.  R. ;  Great  Northern  Ry. ;  Southern  Pacific 
Company. 

Terminal  Railway  and  Switch  Yard  Electrification  (see  Chapter  I.) 

Proposed  Electrifications : 

Boston  &  Albany  R.  R.;  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  R.  R.;  Illinois 
Central  R.  R;  Canadian  Pacific  Railway;  Butte,  Anaconda  &  Pacific 
Railway;  other  proposed  American  Railroad  Electrifications. 

European  Railroad  Electrification : 

England,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Spain  and  France,  Germany  and  Austria, 
Switzerland  and  Italy. 

Conclusion  and  Summary. 


530 


CHAPTER  XV. 

WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION. 
GENERAL  STATUS. 

The  general  status  of  electric  traction  for  railway  trains  is  obtained 
from  technical  facts  on  the  extent  and  character  of  the  constructions  which 
have  been  completed.  The  extent  of  the  progress  has  been  shown  by  the 
number  of  motor  cars  and  locomotives  in  use,  and  the  electric  mileage. 
The  character  of  the  construction  has  been  set  forth  in  the  technical 
descriptions  of  rolling  equipment,  transmission  and  contact  lines,  and 
power  plants.  Electric  traction  has  been  adopted,  or  is  being  considered, 
by  progressive  railroads,  which  are  able  to  do  things  on  a  large  scale; 
second-class,  weak  roads  have  not  adopted  electric  train  haulage. 

Classification  of  the  development  under  service,  traffic,  location,  and 
equipment  is  first  illustrated. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  DEVELOPMENT. 


I 
Kind  of 
Class  of  railway         service. 

Cars 
in 

Right- 
of- 

Owns 
term- 

MCB 

:  COUp- 

1 
Best  examples  of  a  railway 

Year 
equip- 

service. 
1  Pass.      Fgt. 

trains. 

way. 

inals. 

1    lers. 

of  this  class. 

ped. 

Railroad  Yes. 

Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 



Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  

1903 

Yes. 

Part. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

•   Yes. 

New  Haven,  New  York  Div.  .  . 

1907 

Yes. 

No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Long  Island  Railroad  

1904 

Terminal  Yes.       No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

New  York  Central  

1906 

Yes.       No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

1   Yes. 

Pennsylvania  R.  R  

1910 

Freight                      Yes     '   Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Pacific  Electric  Ry  

1898 

Yes.       Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

New  Haven,  Harlem  Division. 

1911 

Switch  No. 

Yes. 

!  All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Hoboken  Shore  R.  R  

1898 

No.        Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Bush  Terminal  R.  R  

1904 

Tunnel  Yes. 

Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  

1895 

j   Yes       Yes 

All 

All 

Yes 

Yes 

Grand  Trunk 

1907 

!  Yes.      Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Great  Northern  

1909 

Mountain  No.        Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Giovi  Ry.,  Italy  

1909 

Parallel  Yes.    !   No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

West  Jersey  and  Seashore  

1907 

Yes. 

No. 

Few. 

All. 

.  No. 

Yes. 

West  Shore  R.  R  

1906 

Branch  ;   Yes. 

No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Erie  R.  R  

1907 

Rapid  transit.  .  .     Yes. 

No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

No. 

Interborough  Rapid  Transit.  .  . 

1904 

Yes.       No. 

All. 

All. 

:  Yes. 

Yes. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  

1908 

Yes.       No. 

All. 

Part. 

Part. 

No. 

Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  

1902 

Elevated  Yes. 

No. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

No. 

Manhattan  Elevated  R.  R  

1902 

Suburban  Yes. 

No. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

London,  Brighton  &  South  C.  . 

1910 

Interurban  Yes. 

Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Los  Angeles  Pacific  

1900 

Yes. 

Yes. 

All. 

All. 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  .... 

1906 

Yes. 

Light. 

Few. 

Part. 

No. 

No. 

Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Electric. 

1899 

'   Yes. 

Light. 

Few. 

All. 

No. 

No. 

Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  B. 

1908 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Frt. 

Part. 

Yes. 

Frt. 

Illinois  Traction  Company  

1903 

Yes. 

Yes. 

Frt. 

Part. 

Yes. 

Frt. 

Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls  &  North. 

1900 

Street  Yes. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

No. 

United  States  mileage,  36,000. 

1911 

1 

531 


532 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RAILROADS  OPERATING  DIVISIONS  OR  BRANCHES  BY  ELECTRICITY. 
Name,  Location,  and  Mileage. 

A  railroad  uses  a  standard  gage,  private  right-of-way,  M.  C.  B.  couplers,  and  operates  cars  in  trains. 

Elevated,  subway,  and  interurban  railways  were  listed  in  Chapter  I. 

Moto     cars  used  on  city  streets  are  not  listed. 

These  tables  were  compiled  from  the  National  Railway  Guide,  American  Street  Railway  Invest- 
ments, State  and  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  Reports,  Steam  and  Electric  Railway  Journals; 
also  by  correspondence,  and  personal  inspection  of  properties. 


Name  of  railroad. 


or  location. 


Boston  &  Maine 


New  York,  New  Haven,  &  Hart- 
ford. 


New     York,     West     Chester     & 

Boston. 
New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River 


Delaware  &  Hudson. 


Pennsylvania  R.  R. 


Hudson  &  Manhattan 

Interboro  Rapid  Transit 

Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit 

Bush  Terminal 

Hoboken  Shore 

Philadelphia  &  Reading 

Philadelphia  &  Western 

Norfolk  &  Southern  R.  R 

Albany  Southern  R.  R 

Erie  R.  R 

New  York,  Auburn  &  Lansing . 
International  Ry 


Concord-Manchester   Branch 
Portsmouth- Rye  Division.  . 

Hoosac  Tunnel 

Boston-Beverly 

New  York  Divisio-i. . . 

Stamford- New  Canaan 
Providence- Warren- Bristol  . 

Rhode  Island  Company 

Connecticut  Company 

Harlem  River-New  Rochelle . 

New  York-Port  Chester. 

Mt.  Vernon- White  Plains. 

Harlem  Division:   Grand  ' 
Station,  N.Y.  to  N.  White 

Hudson  Division:   Grand  ' 
Station,  N.  Y.  to  Hastings. 

West  Shore  R.  R.  (Oneida) . 

New  York  State  Rys.  Co.: 
Schenectady,  R 

Syracuse-Geneva 

Putnam  Div.   (p 

United  Traction,  Albany.  . 

Hudson  Valley  Ry 

Schenectady  Ry.,  (1/2) 

Long  Island  R.  R.,  3rd.  rail 

New  York  &  Long  I.  Traction.  .  . 

Long  Island  Electric  Ry 

Other  elec.  rys.  on  Long  Island .  . 

New  York  Terminal  Division 

Newark- Jersey  City  (1/2) 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore 

1  Philadelphia  Terminal 

Cincinnati- Lebanon  Division 

New  York-Hoboken- Jersey  City 

Jersey  City-Newark  (1/2) 

Manhattan  Elevated 

Interboro  Subway 

Brooklyn  Elevated  Division 

Brooklyn 

Hoboken,  N.  J 

Cape  May,  Del.  Bay  &  S.  P.  Div. . 

:  Philadelphia-Norristown 

'  Norfolk- Virginia  Beach 

Albany  to  Hudson,  etc 

:  Rochester-Mount  Morris  Division 

Lansing  to  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Buffalo-Lockport  Division 


b-company        Motor 

Loco- 

Route 

Total 

cars. 

mtvs. 

miles. 

miles. 

Jranch  12 

0 

17 

30 

jion  21 

0 

19 

20 

0 

5 

8 

22 

0 

0 

19 

0 

4 

45 

34 

100 

2 

0 

8 

8 

istol  

0 

24 

33 

319 

755 

ochelle  4 

15 

13 

63 

3r.  60 

1 

17 

63 

ins. 
nd  Central  "] 

f24 

70 

hite  Plains.  [ 
ind  Central  ( 

.    47 

J 

stings.          J 

(20 

80 

eida)  21 

0 

44 

114 

Co.: 

ster,  Utica  

0 

667 

(proposed) 

54 

ed). 

12 

ny  

0 

96 

361 


62 


28 

212 

0 

35 

15 

95 

50 

0 

9 

20 

108 

0 

75 

150 

216 

0 

8 

18 

50 

0 

9 

20 

895 

0 

38 

119 

910 

0 

25 

85 

659 

16 

107 

0 

4 

25 

0 

4 

10 

12 

1 

8 

10 

28 

0 

17 

42 

18 

2 

23 

48 

45 

1 

38 

62 

6 

0 

37 

40 

2 

18 

25 

WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 


533 


RAILROADS  OPERATING  DIVISIONS  OR  BRANCHES  BY  ELECTRICITY. 

(Continued.) 
Name,  Location,  and  Mileage. 


Name  of  railroad. 


Name  of  division  sub-company 
or  location. 


Motor  Loco-  ;  Route;  Total 
cars.      mtvs.    miles,    miles. 


Jamestown,  Chautauqua  &  Lake 
Erie. 

Niagara,  St.  Catharine  &  Toronto. . 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  West- 
ern. 

Lackawanna  &  Wyoming  Valley .  . 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazelton 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line. 

Hocking  Valley  Ry 

Detroit,  Monroe  &  Toledo  S.  L. .  . 

Michigan  Central  R.  R 

Grand  Trunk  Ry.  of  Canada 


Canadian  Pacific 


Montreal  Terminal 

Toledo  &  Indiana 

Toledo  &  Western 

Scioto  Valley 

Cincinnati,  Geo.  &  Portsmouth. .  . 

Illinois  Traction  Company 

Peoria  Ry.  &  Terminal  Company . 

Rock  Island  Southern  R.  R 

Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  .  . 


Ft.  Dodge,  Des  Moines  &  Southern. 

Cedar  Rapids  &  Iowa  City 

Waterloo,  Cedar  Falls  &  Northern . 

East  St.  Louis  &  Suburban 

St.  Louis  Iron  Mtn.  &  Southern.  . 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
Colorado  &  Southern  R.  R 

Salt  Lake  &  Ogden  R.  R 

Great  Northern  Ry 

Spokane,  Portland  &  Seattle: 

United  Rys.  Company , 

Oregon  Electric  Ry 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire i 

Northern  Pacific  R.  R j 

Portland  Ry.,  Lighting    &    Power. 

Puget  Sound  Electric ! 

Northwestern  Pacific I 

Ocean  Shore  Ry .' ; 

San  Francisco,  Oakland  &  San  Jose 

Northern  Electric.  . 


Jamestown- Westfield,  proposed  .... 

Niagara-Port  Dalhousie 

Hoboken-Morristown,   proposed  .  .  . 

Scranton  grades,  proposed 

Wilkes-Barre-Scranton-Carbondale. 

Wilkes-Barre-Hazelton 

Belt  Line  at  Baltimore 

Baltimore- Annapolis 

Welleston  &   Jackson  Belt  Ry 

Detroit- Toledo 

Detroit  River  Tunnel 

St.  Glair  Tunnel 

Hamilton,  Grimsby  &  Beamsville.  . 

Hull  Electric  Company 

Montreal  Terminals,  proposed 

Aroostook  Valley  R.  R.,  Me 

Hull,  Ottawa  &  Aylmer  Division .  .  . 
British  Columbia,  Lulu  Island  Div .  . 

Ottawa  Tunnel  &  Terminal 

Montreal-local 

Toledo-St.  Joseph-Bryan 

Toledo-Pioneer-Adrian  Division  .  .  . 

Columbus,  O.-Chillicothe 

Cincinnati-Georgetown 

St.  Louis,  Peoria,  Danville 

Peoria-Pekin,  Illinois 

Rock  Island-Monmouth 

Evanston-Chicago  Branch  (operat- 
ed by  Chicago  &  Milwaukee  Elec.) 

Gallatin  Valley  Ry.,  Bozeman 

Des  Moines-Fort  Dodge 

Cedar  Rapids-Iowa  City 

Waterloo- Waverly 

Illinois,  coal  haulage 

Coal  Belt  Ry.,  Carterville,  Illinois  .  . 

Deadwood  (S.  D.)  Central  Ry 

Denver  &  Interurban  R.  R 

Colorado  Springs  &  Cripple  Creek .  . 

Salt  Lake-Ogden ; 

Cascade  Tunnel.  .  . 


28 


34 

34 

35 

2 

23 

6 

0 

31 

0 

12 

4 

12 

0 

26 

0 

1 

18 

0 

56 

0 

6 

6 

0 

6 

4 

2 

2 



12 

2 

10 

2 

3 

o 

2 

1 

5 

59 

"IT" 

0 

77 

1 

41 

600 

22 

460 

10 

0 

19 

10 

1 

52 

0 

6 

25 
70 
29 
24 
20 
15 

4 
45 
19 
35 

4 


50 


50 

34 

7 

35 
IS 
76 
19 
12 
23 
26 

12 
26 

17 

31 
56 
84 
79 
57 
560 
20 
82 
20 

30 

141 

30 

90 

31 

18 

4 

54 
20 
55 


Portland-Bay  City  
Portland-Salem  

.         4 
24 

1 
3 

27  !     30 
50  i     80 
71 

Spokane-Moscow-Hayden  Lake  .    . 

25 

14 

168      287 

Snohomish-Everett,  Washington  .  . 

6 

0 

9         10 

Portland-Canemah,  Washington  .  . 

30 

7 

40      472 

Seattle-Tacoma-Renton  

141 

7 

37      200 

San  Francisco-San  Rafeal  

37 

0 

20        34 

San  Francisco-Santa  Cruz  

40 

0 

53         53 

San  Francisco-San  Jose  

38 

1 

6         32 

San  Francisco-Sacramento  

75           0 

Sacramento-Maryville-Chico  

42 

6 

116      138 

534 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


RAILROADS  OPERATING  DIVISIONS  OR  BRANCHES  BY  ELECTRICITY. 

(Continued.) 
Name,  Location,  and  Mileage. 


,T            ,.      .,                              Name  of  division  sub-company        Motor 
Name  of  railroad.                                               ,        ,. 
or  location.                           cars. 

Loco- 
mtvs. 

Route 
miles. 

Total 
miles. 

Southern  Pacific  Company  Oakland-  Alameda  Lines  65 

0 
1 

30 
30 

22 

100 
36 
40 
600 
100 
260 
50 
73 
55 

\> 

S 
Pacific  Electric  Ry  L 
L 
Los  Angeles-Pacific                                 L 

isalia  Electric  Ry                                     6 

an  Jose-  Los  Gatos  Interurban  

os  Angeles  Ry.  Corporation  
os  Angeles  &  Redondo  Ry                    34 

18 
2 
0 
0 
10 
9 

os   Angeles-Santa    Monica-Ocean.    121 
an  Diego-Chula  Vista  9 

San  Diego  Southern  Ry  S 
Havana  Central  R.  R  K 
Havana  Electric  R-y                               T 

33 
50 
50 

[avana-Guanajay  

favana-Mariana  . 

RAILROAD   OPERATING  DIVISIONS  OR  BRANCHES   BY  ELECTRICITY. 

Name  of  railroad.                         Name  of  division'  sub-corn-         Motor 
pany  or  location.                    cars. 

Loco-  !  Route  j  Total 
mtvs.    miles,    miles. 

Mersey  Tunnel   .    .                        ... 

Liverpool-  Birkenhead  24 
Liverpool-Southport-Ormskirk  .  .       80 
New  Castle-Tynemouth  62 
London                                         ....       68 

0 
0 
6 
0 
52 
0 
11 
0 

o 

15 
3 
3 
0 
11 

1 

0 
0 
4 
2 

5 

40 
37 
7 
8 
25 
30 
10 
23 
93 
18 

22 
12 
11 
65 
22 

19 

10 
82 
82 
13 
16 
50 
60 
21 
62 
100 
26 
40 
34 
46 
16 
75 
48 
17 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  
North-Eastern    .  .      .                   

Central  London  
City  &  South  London  
Metropolitan  District  
Metropolitan  Ry.  .  . 

London                                    0 

London                           197 

London  130 
Heysham-Lancaster  3 
London-S.  Lon.  -Crystal  Palace.  .       46 
Kiruna-Riksgraensen  0 
Thamshavn-Lokken  5 

Midland  Ry  

London,  Brighton  &  S.  C  
Swedish  State  
Thamshavn  Lokken  
Paris-  Lyons-Mediterranean  

Paris-Orleans  .        .                     

Fayet-Chamonix  80 
Paris-  Juvisy           100 

West  of  France  
French  Southern  (Midi)  
Rotterdam-Hague  
Prussian  State  

Bavarian  State  
Baden  State  

Pau-Montrejean  30 
Rotterdam-Scheveningen  25 
Hamburg-Ohlsdorf-Altoona  110 

Mumau-Oberammergau  4 

14 
30 
34 

Weisental-  Basel-Zell                            15 

12 

2 
23 
2 
4 
3 
11 
2 
6 
20 
10 
10 

18 
18 
66 
25 
13 
52 
46 
48 
67 
13 
13 

Vienna  Baden  
St.Polten  Mariazell  
Swiss  Federal  

Bernese-  Alps  
Rhatische 

33 
68 
26 
26 
55 
48 
81 
105 
26 
26 

St  Polten  -Mariazell                                  0 

Burgdorf-Thun                                          6 

Simplon  Tunnel                                       0 

Berne-Simplon                                         3 

St.  Moritz-Schuls,   Switz  0 
Milan-Porto  Ceresio  20 
Milan-Chiavenna  10 
Giovi  at  Genoa  0 
Savona-San  Giuseppe  0 

Italian  State  

WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        535 


FREIGHT  AND  PASSENGER  TRAIN  SERVICE  AND  EQUIPMENT  ON 
ELECTRIC  RAILROADS. 


Name  of  railroad. 


Division  or  service. 


Motor    Loco-    Trains  Tonnage 
cars.   ;  mtvs.  perdy.     daily. 


Boston  and  Maine  
New  York,  New  Haven  &  H.  .  .  . 

New  York  Central                          .    . 

Hoosac  Tunnel  I 

0 

137 
136 
225 
0 
108 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
25 
0 
0 

5 
43 
15 
47 
2 
0 
33 
0 
7 
5 
6 
6 
14 
0 
4 
0 

100 
159 

562 
300 

310 
88 
90 
28 
21 
41 
40 

5 
6 

New  York-Stamford  1 

Harlem  River-New  Rochelle-  
Harlem  and  Hudson  Divisions.  .  .  , 
Brooklyn  -Long  Island   ' 

Long  Island   
Pennsylvania  



New  York-Long  Island  

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal 
Philadelphia-Atlantic  City               i 

29,600 
6,630 
28,343 
70,000 

5,760 
2,690 

Baltimore  &  Ohio 

Baltimore  freight  service                 ' 

Grand  Trunk 

Baltimore  passenger  service 

Port  Huron  ,  freight  and  passenger 
Detroit,  freight  and  passenger.  .  . 
Freight  service  
Passenger  service  
Passenger  service  

Alichigan  Central 

Spokane  &  Inland  
Great  Northern,  Cascade  Tunnel.  . 

Freight  service 

i 

See  table  on  Train  Capacity  on  Elevated  and  Underground  Roads,  Chapter  I. 

New  York  Central  trains  include  storage  trains  between  G.  C.  station  and  Mott  Haven  yards, 
light  engines,  friTit,  express,  and  milk  trains,  shown  on  electric  division  time  tables.  Hudson 
Division  has  122  trains,  88  of  which  handle  suburban  business;  Harlem  Division  has  100  trains,  all 
of  which  handle  suburban  business. 


TECHNICAL  DATA  ON  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATIONS. 
BOSTON   &   MAINE. 

Boston  &  Maine  Railroad  has  electrified  two  first-class  electric  in- 
terurban  roads  and  its  Hoosac  Tunnel  section. 

Concord-Manchester  division  with  30  miles  of  track.  Reference: 
St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  6,  1902;  Oct.  12,  1907,  page  539. 

Portsmouth,  Rye  &  North  Hampton  (N.  H.)  division  with  20  miles  of 
track.  Reference:  St.  Ry.  Jour.,  March  29,  1908. 

Hoosac  Tunnel  section,  on  the  main  line  between  Albany  and  Boston, 
was  electrified  in  1910  and  1911.  Many  serious  accidents  had  narrowly 
been  avoided  and  the  abolition  of  the  risk  was  imperative. 

The  tunnel,  built  in  1874,  has  double  tracks  and  is  4.74  miles  long. 
The  profile  of  the  tunnel  is  made  up  of  2.25  miles  of  0.5  per  cent,  up- 
grade, 0.25  miles  of  level  track  and  2.25  miles  of  0.57  per  cent,  down- 
grade. The  west  approach  to  the  tunnel  has  an  up-grade  of  0.8  per  cent, 
and  the  east  approach,  0.5  per  cent. 


536  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Four  Mallet  oil-burning  engines  had  been  purchased  in  1909,  at 
$29,450  each,  for  tunnel  service  and  to  eliminate  smoke,  but  the  expedient 
was  unsatisfactory,  and  the  Hoosac  tunnel  and  grades  remained  the  limit- 
ing point  of  service  on  the  Fitchburg  Division. 

Electrification  extends  from  North  Adams,  the  first  station  west  of  the 
tunnel,  to  a  point  1/4  mile  east  of  the  tunnel,  a  total  distance  of  about 
7  miles.  The  total  track  mileage  is  22. 

The  system  used  is  the  single-phase,  25-cycle,  11,000-volt. 

Five  geared  locomotives  for  55-m.  p.  h.  passenger  trains,  and  for  30- 
m.  p.  h.  freight  trains  of  1600  to  1800  tons,  were  ordered  from  the  Westing- 
house  Company.  These  are  straight  alternating-current  locomotives, 
otherwise  they  are  similar  to  the  New  Haven  geared  freight  locomo- 
tive, No.  071,  already  described.  Each  130-ton  locomotive  has  a 
1-hour  rating  of  1340  h.  p.,  and  a  continuous  rating  on  forced  draft  of  1120 
h.  p.,  or  83  per  cent,  of  the  1-hour  rating  on  300  volts;  but  extra  taps  are 
arranged  in  the  transformers  so  that  25  per  cent,  greater  voltage  and 
power  can  be  used,  when  necessary. 

See  "  Transmission  and  Contact  Lines/'  Chapter  XII. 

Power  plant  embraces  two  2000-kilowatt  turbo-generators. 

Cost  of  electrification  is  estimated  at  $880,000.  The  work  was  in 
service  7  months  after  its  authorization.  The  capacity  of  the  Fitchburg 
division  was  increased  from  1000  cars  to  2000  cars,  per  day,  by  the 
electrification. 

Reference:  E.  R.  J.,  July  1,  1911. 

NEW  YORK,  NEW  HAVEN  &  HARTFORD. 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  was  the  pioneer  in  electric 
traction  applied  to  steam  roads.  The  density  of  traffic  on  its  lines  favors 
the  application  of  electric  power,  primarily  as  a  matter  of  economy,  and 
for  that  reason  there  is  more  electric  service  on  its  former  steam  lines  than 
on  other  roads.  The  use  of  electric  power  will  become  common,  because 
of  the  density  of  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 

In  1895,  its  first  steam  road,  the  Nantasket  Beach  branch  near  Bos- 
ton, 7  miles  long,  began  the  use  of  electric  power.  The  writer  inspected 
this  property  at  that  time,  and  remembers  the  use  of  ordinary  standard 
steam  passenger  coaches  and  motor  express  cars,  in  450-ton  trains, 
hauled  by  two  or  by  four  125-h.  p.  direct-current  motors  per  motor  car. 
Experimental  third  rail  and  overhead  trolley  lines  were  being  tried  out. 
Trains  were  operated  in  the  method  usual  with  steam  roads,  and  a  heavy 
excursion  traffic  was  handled. 

Other  lines  were  electrified:  The  Berlin-New  Britain  branch,  12 
miles,  in  1897;  and  the  Hartford- Bristol  branch  (St.  Ry.  Jour.,  XIII, 
329,  776).  N.  H.  Heft,  electrical  engineer,  showed  that  on  the  branches 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        537 

electrified  the  speed  had  been  materially  increased,  the  traffic  had 
doubled,  and  the  cost  of  operation  had  been  greatly  decreased. 

Third-rail  contacts  then  used  were  unprotected  and  dangerous,  and 
for  that  reason  electrical  operation  of  some  divisions  was  abandoned, 
while  on  others  the  600-volt  overhead  trolley  was  used. 

Interurban  lines  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad 
are  controlled  under  the  name  of  The  Rhode  Island  Company  and  The 
Connecticut  Company.  The  operation  of  electric  interurban  cars  which 
run  over  steam  tracks,  as  in  the  case  of  the  road  between  Rockford, 
Rockville,  and  Melrose,  and  Berlin  and  Middletown,  has  been  transferred 
to  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  to  keep  the  operation  within 
the  direct  and  immediate  control  of  the  main  railroad. 

Electrification  of  the  New  York  Division  in  New  York  City  was  caused 
by  legislative  acts,  the  New  York  Central  and  the  New  Haven  both  being 
involved.  The  Grand  Central  Station  at  New  York  is  used  by  both 
roads.  New  York  Central  plans  were  for  short-distance  terminal  and 
suburban  traffic;  but  the  New  Haven  road  had  no  suburban  traffic  within 
15  miles  of  the  New  York  City  terminal,  and  its  plans  embraced  the  use  of 
electric  power  to  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  73  miles  distant,  for  heavy 
trains,  at  high  speed,  in  4-track  trunk-line  service. 

Electric  passenger  train  operation  between  New  York  City  and  Stam- 
ford, 34  miles,  began  on  July  5,  1907,  and  was  completed  in  June,  1908. 
The  extension  to  New  Haven  is  to  be  completed  in  1912. 

The  system  of  electrification  adopted  was  the  660-volt,  direct-current, 
third-rail  over  the  New  York  Central  electric  zone  to  Woodlawn,  12 
miles  from  the  New  York  terminal,  and  11, 000- volt,  alternating-current 
from  a  single  overhead  trolley  from  Woodlawn  to  points  east.  An  inter- 
changeable system  was  adopted,  and  the  motor  cars  and  freight  and 
passenger  locomotives  run  over  any  direct-current  or  single-phase 
circuit,  and  at  any  voltage.  This  plan  marked  an  epoch  in  railroading. 

The  daring  of  engineers  after  they  comprehended  the  necessity  of  a 
new  system  for  general  railroad  work,  and,  with  little  precedent  and  with- 
out experience  on  a  large  scale,  undertook  to  design  a  complete  system, 
including  generators  suitable  for  the  work,  a  new  type  of  overhead  con- 
tact, and  a  new  type  of  motor  for  trunk-line  work,  has  never  been  sur- 
passed in  the  history  of  electrical  achievements. 

Trouble  occurred  when  the  new  electric  system  was  installed.  The  w^ork 
was  condemned  as  experimental,  unreliable,  and  expensive.  Opposition 
to  the  new  and  untried  system  arose  from  engineers  of  rival  manufactur- 
ing companies,  agents  for  the  three-phase  system,  consulting  engineers  of 
high  rank  who  had  perfected  the  direct-current  system,  and  college  pro- 
fessors from  whom  broad-gage  treatment  was  to  be  expected.  American 
Institute  discussions  of  the  New  Haven  electrification  show  biased  views: 


538 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


The  ancient  criticisms  of  the  deadly  trolley,  high  cost,  expensive  oper- 
ation, sparking  commutators,  etc.,  were  repeated.  Errors  were  made. 
The  magnitude  of  long-distance  trunk-line  problems  was  not  at  first  ap- 
preciated; and  the  time  for  design,  manufacture,  and  experiment  on 
equipment  for  the  power  plant,  lines,  and  locomotives  was  short,  and 
months  were  required  to  perfect  the  details. 

The  work  completed  and  tried  out  is  a  physical  success,  as  engineers 
who  have  carefully  studied  the  operation  of  the  road  and  the  records  of 
the  maintenance  of  equipment  testify.  The  motors  and  the  overhead 
construction  were  suitable  for  high-speed,  trunk-line  railroading. 

Electric  locomotives  handle  most  of  the  traffic.  There  are  41  passen- 
ger locomotives,  rated  960  h.p.  each,  used  for  the  heavy  trains  at  speeds 
up  to  70  m.p.h.  Three  1260-  to  1400-h.p.  locomotives  are  now  used  for 
either  1800-ton  freight  trains  at  35  m.p.h.,  or  for  10-car,  800-ton,  thru 
passenger  trains  at  50  m.p.h.  Fifteen  600-h.p.  switches  are  also  used. 
There  is  some  complication  in  the  locomotives  due  to  the  necessity  of 
providing  control  apparatus  for  operation  over  both  direct-current  third 
rails  and  alternating-current  trolleys.  The  locomotives,  of  which  there 
are  five  types,  have  been  described  and  operating  results  given. 

Motor-car  trains  are  being  installed  to  a  limited  extent.  They  are  the 
heaviest  equipment  yet  built.  See  description,  page  251. 

Power  plant  has  a  rated  capacity  of  33,100  kilowatts.  Equipment 
and  operation  have  been  outlined,  page  485. 

Maintenance  costs  for  track  have  been  reduced  by  the  use  of 
spring-mounted  motors  on  locomotives.  The  up-keep  of  the  overhead 
contact  line,  per  train-mile,  is  stated  by  members  of  the  Board  to  be  less 
than  for  the  third-rail  section. 

Estimated  cost  for  the  electrification  of  the  first  88  miles  of  track  has 
been  detailed,  and  totals  $5,000,000. 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service,  are  shown  by  the  following: 


Item. 

1910. 

1909. 

1908. 

Electric  power  transmission.  —  maintenance  

$132,297 

$3,616 

$60,079 

Electric  locomotives  —  repairs  and  renewals  

140,983 

256,704 

27,860 

Electric  equipment  of  cars  —  repairs  and  renewals.  .  . 
Transportation  expense  —  motormen           

41,635 
141,890 

34,715 
144,846 

49,658 
58,110 

Power-plant  equipment  —  maintenance  
Operating  power  plants 

36,758 
230,075 

56,944 
236,422 

20,504 
127,111 

Purchased  power  for  third-rail  service       

97,280 

176,293 

39,986 

WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        539 
Financial  and  traffic  statistics  have  not  yet  been  detailed. 

President  C.  S.  Mellin  of  the  New  York,  New.  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad 
wrote  to  the  Massachusetts  Railroad  Commission  in  1908:  "Our  Company  has  been 
operating  its  passenger  trains  by  electricity  since  July  1,  1908,  between  Stamford, 
Conn.,  and  Grand  Central  Station,  New  York." 

"The  work  has  been  more  or  less  of  an  experimental  nature,  and  it  is  probably 
the  largest  venture  in  the  way  of  electric  traction  there  is  in  the  country,  in  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  business  hauled  and  for  the  distance." 

"  We  believe  we  are  warranted  in  stating  that  the  electrical  installation  is  a  success 
from  the  standpoint  of  handling  the  business  in  question  efficiently  and  with  reason- 
able satisfaction,  and  the  interruptions  to  our  service  are  now  no  greater  nor  more 
frequent  than  was  the  case  when  steam  was  in  use." 

Vice-President  McHenry  reported  October  31,  1910,  to  the  Boston  Board  of 
Metropolitan  Improvements,  regarding  the  electrification  of  the  New  York  division: 

"The  records  of  the  New  Haven  Company  demonstrate  that  under  present  con- 
ditions the  electric  train  service  not  only  fails  to  earn  any  interest  upon  the  very 
large  amount  of  capital  invested,  but  that  it  has  also  increased  the  cost  of  operation." 

"  In  explanation  of  this  disappointing  result,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  experience 
of  the  New  Haven  Company  in  operating  a  mixed  steam  and  electric  service  has  proven 
very  unsatisfactory.  The  annoyances  and  losses  due  to  smoke,  cinders,  steam,  and 
noise  are  at  best  only  alleviated  without  being  eliminated,  while  at  the  same  time  so 
large  a  proportion  of  the  expense  of  both  methods  of  operation  is  retained  as  to 
prevent  the  realization  of  the  fullest  degree  of  economy  of  either  system.  This 
becomes  more  apparent  when  it  is  considered  that  the  power  stations,  if  provided 
for  passenger  requirements  only,  will  have  a  large  unused  capacity  between  the  hours 
of  peak  load,  which  otherwise  could  be  utilized  to  very  good  advantage  for  the  trans- 
portation of  freight,  and  more  particularly  as  the  occupation  of  tracks  by  passenger 
trains  during  the  hours  of  peak  load  acts  automatically  to  limit  the  simultaneous 
operation  of  freight  trains  at  such  times.  Thus  little  or  no  additional  investment  in 
power  houses  is  required  for  freight  operation,  and  similarly  the  overhead  track 
equipment  serves  equally  well  for  both  passenger  and  freight  traffic,  which  makes  it 
practicable  to  extend  electric  operation  to  include  all  classes  of  service  at  the  cost  of 
only  the  additional  engines  and  the  equipment  of  yards  required  for  freight  service." 

"  It  therefore  seems  quite  safe  to  conclude  that  no  general  substitution  of  electric 
for  steam  traction  should  be  made  unless  the  substitution  is  complete,  including 
passenger  and  freight  operation  and  yard  switching  in  addition,  and  also  that  in  making 
such  substitution  the  operation  should  be  extended  to  include  the  full  length  of  run 
or  engine  district,  in  order  to  avoid  the  uneconomical  subdivision  of  the  present 
'train  run/  together  with  the  added  expense  and  delays  incident  to  intermediate 
engine  transfer  stations." 

The  directors,  in  1911,  after  an  exacting  investigation  of  the  relative 
saving  in  fuel,  and  of  maintenance  of  locomotives  and  overhead  contact 
lines,  by  direct  and  by  alternating  current,  authorized  the  immediate 
expenditure  of  $12,000,000  for  the  electrification  of  250  additional  miles 
of  track,  including  a  63-mile  freight  yard  on  the  Harlem  Branch,  and  the 
New  York,  Westchester  and  Boston,  15  switcher  locomotives  of  600  h.p. 
each,  60  motor  cars  of  600  h.p.  each,  and  a  16,000-kilowatt  addition  to 


540          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

the  power  plant,  and  the  use  of  the  single-phase,  25-cycle,  11,000-volt 
system  for  the  work. 

At  Boston  the  Boston  &  Albany,  Boston  &  Maine,  and  the  New  York, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  have  recently  been  subject  to  such  competition, 
by  the  growth  of  suburban  electric  railways  at  Boston,  that,  to  regain 
the  traffic  from  their  terminals  and  to  handle  business  with  economy, 
they  are  now  considering  the  electrification  in  large  zones  radiating  from 
the  North  and  South  stations  at  Boston. 

The  present  electrification  plans  for  Boston  embrace  462  miles  of 
single  track  and  the  estimated  cost,  given  to  the  Board  of  Metropolitan 
Improvements,  October  31,  1910,  is  $32,750,000.  The  companies  are 
not  opposed  to  electrification  but  state  that  it  is  more  practical  at  first  to 
restrict  the  substitution  of  electricity  for  steam  to  a  few  of  the  more 
important  of  20  routes,  subsequently  extending  the  system  as  rapidly  as 
consistent  with  the  financial  conditions  and  public  needs.  The  electri- 
fication of  the  Boston  to  Readville,  and  the  Boston  to  Beverly  divisions 
was  promised  for  1912.  Elec.  Ry.  Jour.,  Nov.  19,  1910. 


References  on  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad  Electrification. 

Heft:  Description  of  electric  trains  on  branch  lines,   Nantasket   Beach,    11   miles; 

Hartford,  New  Britain,  Berlin  lines,  S.  R.  J.,  June,  1897;  Sept.,  1898;  Aug.  25, 

Sept.  8,  1900. 

Providence,  Warren  &  Bristol  R.  R.,  14  miles,  S.  R.  J.,  March  1,  1902. 
Middletown-Berlin-Meriden,  17  miles,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  21,  1907. 
Hartford-Melrose  Electrification,  25  miles,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  7,  1907. 
New  Canaan-Stamford  branch,  8  miles,  11,000  volts,  G.  E.  series-repulsion  motors, 

E.  W.,  Jan.  18,  1908,  p.  139;  E.  R.  J.,  May  15,  1909,  p.  901. 
Westinghouse :  Reason  for  Alternating-current,  Comparative  Cost  of  A.-C.  and  D.-C. 

Systems,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1905. 
Sprague:    An   Unprecedented    Railway    Situation  (Objections    to   the  New   Haven 

Plan  for  Trunk-line   Electrification),  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  21    and   28,   1905,  Facts 

and  Problems  Bearing  on  Electric  Trunk-Line  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May, 

1907. 
Lamme:  The  Alternating-current  System,  N.  Y.  Ry.  Club,  March  16,  1906;  S.  R.  J., 

March  24  and  April  14,  1906;  Elec.  Journal,  April,  1906;  July,  1906. 
McHenry:  Reasons  for  Adopting  Electricity,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  17  and  24,  and  Oct.  12, 

1907.    Electrification,  Ry.  Age,  Aug.  16,  1907. 
Organization:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  608. 
Murray:  The  Single-phase  Distribution,  A.  I.E.E.,  Jan.,  1908.    Steam  and  Electric 

Performance,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.  25,  1907.    Log  of  New  Haven  Electrification, 

A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.,  1908;  Steam  Locomotive,  Fuel  and  Maintenance,  A.  I.  E.  E., 

Jan.,  1907,  p.  148;  Analysis  of  Electrification:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  April  and  June, 

1911. 
Boston  Situation:  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  19,  1910. 

See  references  under  History,  Electric  Systems,  Motors,  Locomotives,  Transmis- 
sion and  Contact  Lines,  Power  for  Trains,  Power  Plants,  and  Cost  of  Electrification. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        541 

NEW  YORK  CENTRAL. 

New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad  electrification  embraces 
4  main  tracks  from  the  Grand  Central  Terminal,  New  York,  to  Mott 
Haven  junction,  5  miles  from  the  terminal,  thence  continuing  north  on 
the  Harlem  Division  to  North  White  Plains,  a  total  distance  of  23.5  miles, 
and  northwest  on  the  Hudson  Division  to  Hastings,  19.5  miles  from  the 
terminal.  In  time  the  work  will  be  extended  on  the  Hudson  Division  to 
Croton,  34  miles;  and  over  12  miles  of  the  Putnam  Division. 

Trains  were  first  operated  by  electricity  in  the  terminal  Nov.  11,  1906, 
and  the  last  steam  train  was  taken  off  July  1,  1907. 

The  adoption  of  electric  traction  for  trains  for  the  most  important 
terminal  and  suburban  work  in  the  country  marked  an  epoch  in  the 
application  of  electricity  to  train  haulage,  second  only  to  the  work  at 
Baltimore  in  1896. 

Grand  Central  Station  yards,  now  being  excavated,  will  have  42  main- 
line tracks  on  the  street  level  and  24  suburban  tracks,  with  loop  tracks, 
about  12  feet  below  the  level  of  the  upper  42  tracks.  The  terminal  with 
steam  service  had  a  capacity  of  366  cars,  while  with  electric  service  it  will 
have  1149  cars.  The  cost  of  producing  space  for  a  car,  exclusive  of  the 
cost  of  the  station,  is  given  as  $30,000.  Electric  motive  power  changed 
old  conditions,  and  it  is  now  only  necessary  to  provide  sufficient  head 
room  for  trains.  Two-thirds  of  this  work  was  completed  before  1911. 

Electrification  was  compulsory.  An  act  of  the  Legislature  dated 
May  7,  1903,  required  electric  motive  power  to  be  used  after  July,  1907. 
This  act  followed  several  accidents,  caused  by  exhaust  steam  and 
smoke  in  a  subway,  and  one,  on  January  8,  1902,  was  unusually  serious. 
Public  comfort,  safety,  and  convenience  demanded  the  change. 

A  commission  of  engineers  appointed  in  1904  to  plan  and  execute  the 
work  was  comprised  of  J.  F.  Deems  and  W.  J.  Wilgus  of  the  New  York 
Central,  B.  J.  Arnold,  F.  J.  Sprague,  and  George  Gibbs,  Consulting  Engi- 
neers, with  its  secretary,  E.  B.  Katte.  These  engineers  fixed  the  princi- 
ples and  policies  which  were  afterward  carried  out  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  chief  engineer  of  electric  traction,  E.  B.  Katte. 

The  system  adopted  was  the  660-volt,  direct-current,  with  a  third  rail, 
the  only  system  then  developed  for  railroad  traction. 

Power  stations,  each  with  a  capacity  of  20,000  kilowatts,  located  at 
Port  Morris  and  at  Yonkers,  have  been  described. 

I  Transmission  lines  send  11,000-volt  three-phase  current  to  nine  rotary 
converter  substations,  and  direct  current  to  the  third  rails. 

Electric  locomotives  are  used  for  hauling  thru  trains;  but  motor  cars 
are  used  for  the  suburban  passenger  service.  The  annual  locomotive 
miles  are  now  1,200,000.  There  are  47  locomotives  of  2200  h.  p.,  137 
motor  cars  of  480  h.p.,  each,  and  63  trail  coaches. 


542          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Cost  of  electrification  and  other  work  to  1910  have  been  as  follows: 

Grand  Central  Station $11,000,000 

Real  estate 10,500,000 

Four-tracking  and  station  improvements 6,000,000 

Elimination  of  grade  crossings 500,000 

Post  office  and  office  buildings,  over  tracks 4,000,000 

Electrification  of  125  miles  of  single  track 10,700,000 

Total  cost  to  Croton  and  to  N.  White  Plains  (estimate) . .  .  $23,550,000 

Estimated  cost  of  all  terminal  improvements $160,000,000 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service,  are  shown  by  the  following: 


Item. 


1910 


1909  1908 


Electric  power  transmission — maintenance $ $63,256  $217,451 

Electric  locomotives — repairs  and  renewals 31,320  45,888 

Electric  equipment  of  cars — repairs  and  renewals 19,547  33,898 

Transportation  expense — motormen 182,108  j    194,412 

Power  plant  equipment — maintenance 22,384  38,664 

Operating  power  plants 124,193  125,995 

Purchased  power 2,301  2,483 


Proposed  work  for  1912  embraces  the  electrification  of  the  entire 
freight  line  on  the  west  side  of  Manhattan  Island.  This  is  a  most  ex- 
tensive project  since  these  freight  tracks  bring  to  New  York  City  daily, 
and  largely  between  midnight  and  morning,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
food  supply  for  Manhattan  Island.  There  are  practically  no  passenger 
trains  moving  between  1:00  and  6:00  A.  M.  With  the  freight  service 
added,  the  load  factor  of  the  steam  power  plants  will  be  raised,  decreas- 
ing the  cost  of  power,  also  greatly  decreasing  the  investment  per  train- 
mile  and  per  ton-mile  hauled. 

References  on  New  York  Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad  Electrification. 

Arnold  and  Potter:  Tests  for  Power  Required,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1902. 

Wilgus:  Electrification,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  8,  1904. 

Descriptions  and  Tests:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  19,  1904. 

Descriptions,  general:  S.  R.  J.,  1905-6-7-8,  particularly  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Motor  Cars  and  Coaches:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  4,  1905;  trucks,  S.  R.  J.,  April  28,  1906. 

Power  house:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  29,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Transmission  Lines:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  18,  1905;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Substations:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  3,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Sprague:  Comparison  with  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.  R.  R.,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  May  16,  1907,  p.  746. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        543 

Wilgus:  Financial  Results  from  Operation,  Steam  versus  Electricity,  A.  S.  C.  E., 
Feb.,  1908;  S.  R.  J.,  March  7,  1908;  Ry.  Age,  March  6,  1908. 

Auxiliary  Lines:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  July  19,  1907,  p.  67. 

Organization  and  Maintenance:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Maintenance  Plant  at  Harmon,  N.  Y.,  S.  R.  J.,  June  8,  1907. 

Arrangement  of  Tracks  at  Grand  Central  Terminal,  Ry.  Age,  Oct.  7,  1910;  S.  R.  J., 
Nov.  18,  1905. 


WEST  SHORE  RAILROAD. 

West  Shore  Railroad  is  one  of  the  Xew  York  Central  lines.  The 
company  electrified  44  miles  of  road,  or  114  miles  of  track,  between  Utica 
and  Syracuse,  in  1907,  to  shut  off  threatened  competition  of  a  chain  of 
electric  roads  being  built  by  strong  interurban  railways  between  Buffalo 
and  Albany.  The  work  was  carried  out  by  subsidiary  companies,  the 
Utica  and  Mohawk  Valley,  and  the  Oneida  Railway. 

The  road  between  the  cities  runs  on  the  private  right-of-way,  over 
the  2,  3,  and  4  tracks  of  the  West  Shore  Railroad,  both  steam  and 
electric  trains  using  the  same  tracks,  and  over  the  city  streets  at 
terminals. 

Power  from  Niagara  Falls  is  transmitted  along  the  right-of-way  on  a 
steel-tower  transmission  line,  to  four  rotary  converter  substations,  11  miles 
apart,  where  it  is  transformed  from  60,000  volts  and  converted  to 
direct-current  at  600  volts.  The  contact  line  is  a  70-pound  protected 
third  rail,  except  in  the  cities  where  a  common  600-volt  trolley  is  used. 

One-  or  two-car  trains  run  half-hourly  from  each  terminal. 

References. 

Descriptions,  Tests,  Service,  Schedules,  S.  R.  J.,  May  19,  1906;  June  8,  1907;  Oct.  12, 
1907,  p.  581;  G.  E.  Review,  Aug.,  1907. 


LONG  ISLAND  RAILROAD. 

Long  Island  Railroad,  which  is  a  subsidiary  company  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad,  since  1904  has  operated  electric  trains  from  its  Brooklyn 
terminals  to  points  east  on  Long  Island  with  numerous  north  and  south 
branches,  in  a  densely  populated  district.  Much  of  the  road  in  Brooklyn 
has  been  elevated  to  abolish  grade  crossings.  Good  connections  are 
made  in  Brooklyn  with  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  subway  and  with 
the  Brooklyn  Elevated  Railroad.  The  principal  terminal,  at  Long  Island 
City,  is  operated  by  steam  locomotives. 

Long  Island  Railroad  was  the  first  large  railroad  to  electrify  its  line  on 
an  extensive  scale.  The  work  began  on  its  Atlantic  Avenue  line  and  on 
its  Rockaway  division.  About  42  miles  of  route  or  98  miles  of  track 


544          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

were  completed  in  1905,  making  the  most  extensive  electric  road 
for  that  period.  About  44  miles  of  route  or  100  miles  of  track  were 
electrified  prior  to  1909;  about  62  miles  of  route  or  164  miles  of  track 
prior  to  1910. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  tunnels  to  and  from  Manhattan  Island,  which 
were  completed  in  1910,  provide  service  outlets  from  New  York  to  points 
near  Long  Island  City,  and  further  east  to  all  points  on  the  south  side  of 
Long  Island,  24  miles  distant. 

"  The  electrification  of  the  Long  Island  Railroad  presents  the  first  transformation 
of  a  regular  steam  road  to  electric  traction.  Branch  lines  of  importance  have  been 
operated  electrically,  but  this  is  the  first  extended  electrification  of  main  tracks." 

"The  rapidity  of  traffic  expansion  (after  electrification)  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  service  provided  for  the  year  1906  is  four  times  the  4th  of  July  service  in  1902." 
"The  record  breaking  piece  of  work  was  remarkable.  In  18  months  the  power 
station  was  constructed  and  ready  for  operation;  100  miles  of  track  were  elec- 
trified, 25  miles  of  conduit  and  24  miles  of  pole  line  were  constructed;  250  miles 
of  high-tension  conductors  were  erected;  5  substations  were  built  and  equipped; 
130  steel  motor  cars  were  built  and  equipped;  85  trail  cars  equipped;  and  the  operation 
of  the  road  begun"  in  1905.  Lyford,  in  Electric  Journal,  Jan.,  1906. 

Direct  current  from  a  600-volt  third-rail  line  is  used  for  power. 

Electric  locomotives  are  not  used  for  passenger  or  freight  service. 

Motor-car  trains  handle  the  suburban  passenger  service.  Equipment 
consists  of  136  steel  motor  cars,  each  weighing  41  tons  and  equipped 
with  two  200-h.  p.  motors  per  car  for  Brooklyn-Long  Island  service, 
and  66  wooden  coaches  each  weighing  31  tons,  for  the  above;  also  225 
steel  motor  cars,  each  weighing  52  tons  and  equipped  with  two  210-h.  p. 
motors  per  car  for  the  New  York-Long  Island  service.  These  have  been 
described.  Six-car  trains  are  operated  ordinarily,  but  trains  of  8  to  12 
cars  are  used  for  heavy  excursions.  Speeds  up  to  55  m.  p.  h.  are  common 
and  a  schedule  speed  of  25  m.  p.  h.  is  maintained  with  stops  1.6  miles  apart. 

The  32,500-kilowatt  steam  plant,  used  jointly  by  the  Long  Island  and 
Pennsylvania,  has  been  described. 

Results  from  the  electrification  were  definitely  announced  by  the  Long 
Island  Railroad  in  1909.  With  120  miles  of  its  track  electrically  oper- 
ated, in  1908,  the  road  was  operating  at  sufficiently  low  cost,  below  steam 
operation,  to  pay  the  interest  on  the  extra  investment,  and  to  yield  a 
handsome  surplus.  The  road  was  but  recently  operated  with  a  deficit. 
The  results  are  surprising,  in  view  of  the  incompleteness  of  the  installa- 
tion and  the  large  expenditures  at  terminals,  power  plant,  etc.,  from 
which  only  a  small  advantage  is  as  yet  derived. 

Long  Island  Railroad,  in  October,  1910,  began  the  operation  of  electric 
trains  from  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  station  in  New  York  to  Jamaica 
and  other  points  in  Long  Island. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        545 

OPERATING  DATA  FOR  THE  YEAR.     LONG  ISLAND  RAILROAD.     1908. 

Cost  per  car-mile  for  electric  railway  service 17.800 

Cost  per  car-mile  for  steam  railway  service 27 . 95£ 

Ton-miles  in  electric  passenger  service 180,129,860 

Car-miles  in  electric  passenger  service 4,945,719 

Car-miles  in  steam  passenger  service 2,500,000 

Train-miles  (3 . 94  cars  per  train) 1,251,877 

Maintenance  expense  of  cars  per  car-mile 0.760 

Maintenance  of  electric  equipment  per  car-mile 2.1  to  3. 00 

Power-plant  expenses  per  car-mile 3. 3  to  3. 50 

Direct  current  kilowatts  used  for  traction 16,210,962 

Efficiency  from  power-house  to  substation  output .813 

Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  at  substations 90 

Watt-hours  per  ton-mile  at  power  house 110 

Cost  per  kw-hr.  at  power  house 0. 6970 

Cost  per  kw-hr.  at  cars 1 . 4670 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  are  shown  by  the  following: 


Item.  1910.  1909.  1908. 


1 

Electric  power  transmission  —  maintenance                     $ 

$96,704 

$87,008 

Electric  locomotives  —  repairs  and  renewals 

Electric  equipment  of  cars  —  repairs  and  renewals 

104,854 

65,632 

Transportation  expense  —  motormen 

92,339 

81,158 

Power-plant  equipment  —  maintenance              

11,885 

9,590 

Operating  power  plants                                                      .        .  . 

139,460 

149,754 

Purchased  power  for  third-rail  service 

210,598 

198,610 

PENNSYLVANIA  TUNNEL  &  TERMINAL. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  thru  its  late  President,  A.  J.  Cassatt, 
conceived  and  planned  a  system  of  tunnels,  terminals,  yards,  and  bridges 
to  the  north,  to  unite  New  Jersey,  Manhattan,  Long  Island,  and  New- 
England  with  an  all-rail  route.  The  tunnels  and  stations  are  no  longer 
a  dream.  The  stupendous  project,  requiring  the  expenditure  of 
$160,000,000  became  practical,  because  of  the  development  of  safe  and 
reliable  operation  of  heavy  trains  by  electricity  thru  long  tunnels  and  on 
heavy  grades  to  an  underground  terminal  station. 

Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal  Company  operates  the  terminal 

station  and  yards  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  New  York  City.     This 

station  has  from  21  to  36  tracks,  about  3600  ft,  long.     There  are  two 

tunnels  between  Manhattan  Island  and  New  Jersey  under  the  Hudson 

35 


546  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

River,  four  tunnels  between  Manhattan  Island  and  Long  Island  City 
under  the  East  River,  and  extensive  terminal  and  storage  yards  at 
Sunnyside  on  Long  Island.  The  work  on  Manhattan  Island  was  com- 
pleted in  1910. 

The  route  miles  of  the  Pennsylvania  Tunnel  and  Terminal  Company's 
tracks  between  Harrison,  N.  J.,  and  Sunnyside  Yards,  L.  I.,  are  14.9,  of 
which  9.83  are  on  the  surface,  2.29  under  the  two  rivers,  and  2.78  under- 
ground. The  track  mileage  which  has  been  arranged  for  electric  power 
now  aggregates  95,  inclusive  of  terminal  yards. 

The  direct-current  660-volt  system  was  adopted  because  its  sub- 
sidiary road,  the  Long  Island,  had  previously  expended  $1,000,000  on  its 
direct-current  equipment.  The  power  station  has  been  described.  The 
third-rail  is  T-shaped,  4  inches  high,  with  a  4-inch  top  face,  weighs  150 
pounds  per  yard,  and  is  equivalent  to  a  2,475,000  c.m.  copper  conductor. 

Electric  locomotives  are  used  for  Pennsylvania,  Chesapeake  &  Ohio, 
and  other  thru  trains  in  and  out  of  New  York  City. 

Motor  cars  are  now  used  by  the  Long  Island  Railroad  for  all  thru 
and  suburban  trains  to  all  points  less  than  30  miles  distant  on  Long  Island. 

Service  planned  for  the  ultimate  passenger  work  is  600  Long  Island 
and  400  Pennsylvania  trains  in  and  out  of  the  station  daily.  The  train 
service  in  1911  consisted  of  a  total  of  88  Pennsylvania  and  310  Long 
Island  trains  in  and  out  per  week-day. 

A  rapid  transit  electric  motor-car  train  service  is  to  be  operated 
jointly  with  Hudson  &  Manhattan  Railroad,  in  1911,  between  Newark 
and  the  old  Pennsylvania  terminal  in  Jersey  City,  9  miles,  and  the  H.  &  M. 
tunnels  to  the  lower  part  of  Manhattan  Island. 

WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE. 

West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad,  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad, 
extends  from  Camden,  opposite  Philadelphia,  to  Atlantic  City. 

The  service  is  largely  passenger  work  on  a  trunk  line,  65  miles  long, 
with  service  at  frequent  intervals  over  the  entire  length,  and  with  service 
at  one  end  of  the  line  of  some  density.  During  the  height  of  the  summer 
season,  3-and  4-car  trains  run  on  a  15-minute  headway  in  each  direction, 
at  high  speeds.  Baggage,  mail,  express,  milk,  and  other  motor  cars  run 
either  in  or  separate  from  the  passenger  trains.  The  winter  service, 
10,000  car-miles  per  day,  is  about  one-half  of  the  summer  service. 

The  electric  construction  work  was  completed  within  9  months  of 
the  commencement  of  the  work,  which  is  remarkable.  Operation  began 
July  1,  1906. 

Miles  of  main  route  are  65,  with  a  10-mile  branch,  near  the  middle  of 
the  line.  The  total  electric  mileage  is  150. 

Reasons  for  electrification  were  entirely  economical.     The  traffic  had 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        547 

not  been  decreasing,  but  the  expenses  were  increasing.  There  was 
some  local  business,  along  the  route  which  could  be  handled  more 
economically  and  expeditiously  by  electric  traction  chan  was  possible 
with  steam.  The  electrification  also  forestalled  a  proposed  competing 
parallel  electric  road. 

The  electric  system,  chosen  in  1906,  was  the  direct-current,  675-volt, 
with  an  unprotected  top-current  third  rail. 

Power  station  contains  twelve  350-h.p.  Stirling  boilers  and  four  2000- 
kw.,  6600-volt,  25-cycle  turbo-generators.  Transmission  line  consists 
of  70  miles  of  duplicate  33,000-volt  line  on  45-ft.  wooden  poles. 

Substations  for  the  75  miles  of  route  number  8,  each  containing  2 
or  3  rotary  converters,  of  500,  750,  or  1000  kilowatts;  total  capacity 
17,000  kilowatts.  Traffic  in  winter  is  light  and  the  expense  for  up-keep 
of  the  rotary  converters  per  train-mile  then  doubles.  The  operating 
expense  of  the  rotary  converter  substations  for  the  cross-country  service 
furnished  are  a  handicap  which  is  proportionately  greater  than  for 
terminal  and  congested  traffic.  Freight  trains  cannot  be  handled  eco- 
nomically with  the  system  and  equipment  installed. 

Motor  cars  number  G3  for  passenger,  baggage,  and  mail  service, 
weighing  48  tons,  and  15  steel  motor  cars  weighing  52  tons.  Two  240-h.  p. 
motors  are  used  per  car.  Cars  are  given  a  general  overhauling  in  the 
shops  every  50,000  miles.  The  motors  are  painted,  the  fields  removed 
and  cleaned,  the  armatures  blown  out,  and  the  fields  and  armatures  are 
given  a  coat  of  insulating  paint.  Controllers  and  minor  equipment  are 
given  a  general  cleaning  and  painting  at  overhaulings,  at  least  once  per 
year.  Car  detentions  average  one  per  15,000  miles.  Speed  in  thru 
service  averages  43  m.  p.  h.  and  in  local  service  26  to  32  m.  p.  h. 

Results  from  operation  have  been  excellent : 

Gross  earnings  increased  at  the  rate  of  less  than  2  per  cent,  per  year 
until  the.  road  was  electrified;  while  each  year  after  electrification  the 
gross  earnings  have  increased  11  per  cent.  Electrification  made  the 
road  popular. 

Operating  expenses  during  1908  were  20.46  cents  per  car-mile  for 
electric  service,  as  against  22.30  cents  per  car-mile  for  steam  service. 
During  1909  operating  expenses  were  18.75  cents;  and  during  1910  were 
18.19  cents  per  car-mile.  The  saving  over  steam  was  nearly  7  cents  per 
car-mile  which,  on  over  4,550,000  car-miles  per  year,  was  over  $300,000 
per  year  in  favor  of  electrical  operation.  The  cost  of  steam  service  is 
increasing.  The  average  cars  per  train  with  steam  service  are  seven,  or 
twice  that  for  the  electric  service. 

Cost  of  electrification  to  1911  is  given  as  $3,650,000.  The  electrical 
investment  now  produces  a  saving  of  8.2  per  cent,  to  pay  the  annual 
interest  charges  on  the  investment. 


548 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


OPERATING  DATA.     WEST  JERSEY  &  SEASHORE. 


Year.                                              1910. 

1909.                     1< 

)08.  1907. 

Kilowatt  hours  from  power  plant  
Kilowatt  hours  from  substations  
Efficiency  of  h.t.  lines  and  substations..  . 
Cost  of  coal  per  2000  pounds  
Cost  per  kw-hr.  at  power  plant,  #  
Pounds  of  coal  per  kw-hour  
Cost  of  power,  total  
Car-miles,  3.5  cars  per  train  
Total  cost  per  mile,  electric  
Total   cost  per  car-mile,  steam  

28,312,500 
21,972,300 
.816 
$2.235 
0.542 
3.250 
$153,449 
4,552,532 
$.1819 
$.2500 

23,551,200          22,8 

37,600  21,118,800 

.784 

0.555 
3.300 

4  107  609      ! 

.738                      .722 

0.592  0.680 
3.370  3.670 

$   1875                  $ 
$ 

.2046  
.  2230  

Philadelphia  terminal  electrification  has  been  worked  out  by  a  board 
of  engineers  appointed  by  the  Pennsylvania  road.  The  plans  developed 
and  adopted  include  the  electrification  of  all  suburban  lines  radiating 
from  the  Broad  Street,  North  Philadelphia,  and  West  Philadelphia 
stations.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  electrification  was  $14,000,000. 

References  on  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Electrifications. 

Long  Island  R.  R: 

Lyford  and  Smith:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1904;  Smith:  S.  R.  J.,  June  9,  1906. 

Lyford:  General  outline  of  work,  Elec.  Journal,  Jan.,  1906. 

Cars:  37-ton,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  11,  1906;  Ry.  Age,  Aug.  12,  1906. 

Trucks:  Of  steel  passenger  car,  E.  R.  J.,  June  27,  1908. 

Electrification:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  19,  1904,  Nov.  4,  1905;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Power  House:  S.  R.  J.,  Jan.  5,  1905;  April  7,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907,  p.  587. 

Operating  Statistics:  Ry.  and  Engr.  Review,  Feb.  12,  1908;  E.  R.  J.,  Mar.  26,  1911, 
p.  532. 

McCrea:  New  York  R.  R.  Club,  March,  1911;  Ry.  Age  March,  1911,  p.  689. 
Pennsylvania  Tunnel  &  Terminal  R.  R. : 

General  data:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.,  1907,  p.  587. 

Contract:  $5,000,000  with  Westingliouse   for  power  house,   substations,   and  loco- 
motives for  work  from  Newark,  N.  J.,  to  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  S.  R.  J.  Nov.  7,  1908. 

Locomotives:  157-ton,  2500-h.  p.,  E.  R.  J.,  Nov.  6,  1909;  R.  R.  Age,  Nov.  5,  1909. 
West  Jersey  and  Sea  Shore  R.  R. : 

Descriptive:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1905;  Nov.  10,  1906;  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Operating  Statistics:  E.  R.  J.,  March  26,  1911,  p.  532. 

Wood:  Operation  of  the  W.  J.  &  S.,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1911;  E.  R.  J.,  July  1,  1911. 
Philadelphia  Terminal : 

Proposed  Electrification:  E.  T.  W.,  Jan.  14,  1911,  p.  44;  E.  W.,  June  11,  p.  1578. 


HUDSON  &  MANHATTAN. 

Hudson  &  Manhattan  Railroad  Companj^  operates  tunnel  lines  from 
a  station  near  Grand  Central  Station,  New  York  City,  thence  south  and 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        549 

west  to  Hoboken,  via  two  tunnels  under  the  Hudson  River,  thence  south 
in  New  Jersey  to  Jersey  City,  thence  east  via  two  tunnels  under  Hudson 
River  to  the  Hudson  Terminal  Building  in  lower  New  York,  near  the 
Broadway  connections  to  the  Rapid  Transit  subway.  Total  route  length 
8;  mileage  18.  An  extension  runs  from  Jersey  City  west  to  Newark, 
N.  J.,  9  miles,  and  connects  with  the  main  line  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad. 

Motor  cars  consist  of  216  steel  cars  which  now  run  in  6-car  trains. 
Each  car  is  a  35-ton  motor  car,  equipped  with  two  160-h.  p.  motors. 

Traffic  is  dense  but  the  haul  is  short.  Trains  carry  50  per  cent, 
more  passengers  per  car-mile  than  New  York  subway  trains. 

The  system  is  the  660-volt,  direct-current,  third-rail. 

References. 

Maps,  steel  tubes,  third  rail,  and  substations,  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  25,  1905;  E.  R.  J.,  Feb. 
29,  1908.  Cars:  S.  R.  J.,  June  8,  1907;  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909.  Passenger  stations: 
S.  R.  J.,  March  9,  1907.  Power  plant:  E.  R.  J.,  March  5,  1910. 

BALTIMORE  &  ANNAPOLIS. 

Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line,  owned  by  the  Maryland  Electric 
Railways,  runs  entirely  on  a  private  right-of-way  from  the  B.  &  O.  sta- 
tion at  Baltimore  to  Annapolis.  Passenger  service  of  a  high  grade  began 
in  January,  1909.  Miles  of  route  are  26  and  the  total  mileage  is  35. 

Reasons  for  change  from  steam  to  electricity  were:  "Increased  car 
mileage,  more  frequent  service,  express  service  at  least  as  fast,  cleaner 
service,  and  the  sentimental  and  indefinable  inherent  attraction  in  elec- 
trical operation."  Competition  with  parallel  lines  also  existed. 

The  equipment  consists  of  twelve  50-ton,  400-h.p.,  passenger  cars 
with  M.  C.  B.  couplers  for  interchangeable  steam  railroad  service. 

The  electric  system  chosen  was  the  single-phase,  25-cycle,  with  a  6,600- 
volt  trolley.  Pantographs  are  used  as  collectors. 

Power  is  purchased.  The  one  substation  is  located  near  the  middle  of 
the  line  and  contains  three  300-kv-a.,  22,000-  to  6,600-volt  step-down 
transformers.  The  substation  is  inspected  daily. 

Operating  results  have  been  excellent,  because  of  good  management 
and  equipment.  The  road  runs  entirely  on  a  private  right-of-way. 
Baltimore  and  Annapolis  steam  service  consisted  of  14  trains  each  way 
per  day.  The  present  daily  car-mileage  is  2500  and  the  schedule  speed 
is  32  m.  p.  h. 

Reference. 

Whitehead,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  July  1,  1908,  describes  the  change  from  steam  to' electric 
power,  gives  data  on  several  plans,  speed-time  and  power  curves,  cost  of  equip- 
ment, and  cost  of  operation  by  either  direct  current  or  alternating  current. 


550          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

BALTIMORE  &  OHIO. 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  in  1905  began  the  use  of  electric  power  for 
its  switching  service  and  for  train  haulage  thru  the  belt  line  tunne'  at 
Baltimore.  The  12  locomotives  now  used  have  been  described. 

9 

The  initial  management  of  the  electrical  property,  after  the  intro- 
duction of  electric  power,  was  bad.  The  feeders  were  small,  the  first 
rail  bonds  were  inadequate,  and  the  new  rail  bonds  placed  around  the 
rail  joints  were  stolen.  The  overhead  third  rail  (a  double  channel)  was  a 
failure  because  of  its  rigidity  and  the  corrosion  by  steam  locomotive  gases. 
A  70-pound  third  rail  was  then  located  on  the  ties.  A  sectionalized 
third-rail  scheme  which  was  tried  was  a  failure. 

Operating  and  maintenance  costs  of  an  antiquated  power  plant,  con- 
taining high-speed,  non-condensing  engines,  were  heavy.  The  power  load 
was  difficult  to  handle  because  the  locomotives  carried  heavy  loads  up 
the  grades  and  used  no  power  on  the  down  grades. 

The  locomotives  themselves  received  but  little  attention,  and  they 
were  allowed  to  depreciate.  They  had  a  hard  time  for  existence,  but  they 
won  out.  Train  haulage  by  electric  power  was  made  successful,  and  the 
installation,  as  a  whole,  marked  an  epoch  in  railroading. 

The  1896  locomotives  were  successful,  considering  both  the  impor- 
tance of  the  installation  and  the  design  of  equipment  15  years  ago. 

Power  is  now  purchased  and  is  delivered  thru  a  3000-kilowatt  sub- 
station. The  maximum  fluctuating  load,  when  4  locomotives  or  2  trains 
are  operated,  is  about  4500  kilowatts.  More  than  2  trains  are  not 
allowed  on  the  line  at  one  time.  The  locomotives  make  200,000  miles, 
and  haul  60,000,000  ton-miles  up  the  grades,  per  annum. 

The  equipment  is  now  in  the  hands  of  competent  railroad  men  and 
excellent  operating  results  are  being  obtained. 

Enthusiasts  supposed  that  this  installation  was  a  forerunner  of  large 
and  immediate  electrifications  of  steam  railroads.  It  has  been  stated 
that,  in  1905,  the  officials  of  the  railroad,  being  pleased  with  the  physical 
and  financial  results,  had  estimates  made  for  electric  service  over  the 
Allegheny  mountains.  These  estimates  were  based  on  the  haulage  of 
trains  of  double  length,  at  double  speed,  making  a  great  reduction  in  the 
number  of  trains.  Locomotives  were  to  be  controlled  by  a  single  crew, 
congestion  was  to  be  prevented,  time  saved,  and  capacity  gained  in 
service.  The  estimates  for  electrification  showed  that  suitable  locomo- 
tives could  be  purchased,  but  the  enormous  cost  of  copper  with  the  direct- 
current  system,  and  the  placing  of  rotary  converters  3  to  4  miles  apart, 
made  electrification  absolutely  prohibitive.  High  voltages  had  to  be  used 
for  the  contact  line,  to  reduce  the  number  of  transformer  substations. 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service,  are  shown  by  the  following: 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        551 


Item.  1910.  1909.  -          1908. 


Electric  power  transmission — maintenance $ $5,525  $11,898 

Electric  locomotives — repairs  and  renewals 7,776  16,475 

Electric  equipment  of  cars — repairs  and  renewals 0  0 

Transportation  expenses — motormen 16,087  15,515 

Power-plant  equipment — maintenance 26,852  9,275 

Operating  power  plants 71,284  74,254 


References  on  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad  Electrification. 

Early  Plans:  Elec.  Engr.,  Nov.  6,  1895,  Mar.  4,  1896;  S.  R.  J.,  March  14  and  Aug.  22, 

1903;  July,  1895.     S.  R.  Review,  April  26,  1902. 
Third  rail:  S.  R.  J.,  March  2  and  Dec.  14,  1901;  July  30,  1904. 
Muhlfield:  Steam  versus  Electric  Locomotives,  N.  Y.  R.  R.  Club,  Feb.,  1906;  S.  R.  J., 

Feb.  24,  1906. 

Hutchinson:  Mountain  Electrification  on  Altoona  grades,  Elec.  Age,  1904. 
Davis:  Operating  Data,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909,  p.  1330. 

See  technical  descriptions  of  Electric  Locomotives  in  Chapter  VIII. 

MICHIGAN  CENTRAL. 

Michigan  Central  Railroad  hauls  its  freight  and  passenger  trains  thru 
its  new  Detroit  River  7860-foot  tunnels  between  Detroit,  Michigan,  and 
Windsor,  Ontario,  with  six  100-ton  electric  locomotives.  Service  began 
in  August,  1910.  Power  is  purchased  from  the  Detroit  Edison  Co.,  and 
two  1000-kilowatt  motor-generators  and  a  storage  battery  are  used.  The 
direct-current,  660-volt,  third-rail  system  is  used  on  6  miles  of  route  and 
19  miles  of  track.  See  references  under  description  of  the  locomotive. 

The  present  daily  traffic  is  1100  freight  cars  and  16  passenger  trains. 

GRAND  TRUNK. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  electrified  its  tunnel  under  the  St.  Glair  River 
between  Port  Huron  and  Sarnia  in  1908.  The  length  of  the  electric  zone 
is  4  miles  but  including  the  tracks,  which  are  4  to  10  deep  at  terminals, 
the  electric  mileage  is  12. 

This  was  the  first  American  electrification  of  an  important  tunnel 
wherein  a  high-voltage  trolley  was  used.  The  tunnel  has  a  small  bore, 
and  3300  volts  was  used  for  safety,  and  because  it  was  high  enough  for 
the  short  distance. 

The  six  66-ton  electric  locomotives,  motors,  power  plant,  service, 
economy,  etc.,  were  outlined  in  the  technical  description  of  locomotives. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway  had  plans  made  in  1910  for  the  electrification 
of  its  road  near  Montreal.  The  project  embraces  the  city  passenger 


552 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


terminal  and  the  road  to  the  Victoria  bridge  over  the  St.  Lawrence  River; 
and  it  has  purchased  the  Montreal  &  Southern  Counties  Electric  Railway, 
a  6-mile  road  between  Montreal  and  St.  Lambert. 

ERIE  RAILROAD. 

Erie  Railroad  Company  has,  since  June,  1907,  operated  a  37-mile 
single-track  electric  branch,  between  Rochester  and  Mt.  Morris,  N.  Y., 
for  passenger  service  over  steam  railroad  tracks. 

Electrification  was  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  competition  and  for 
economy  of  operation.  There  was  also  a  desire  to  try  out  electric  traction. 

Power  is  transmitted  over  the  Niagara,  Lockport  &  Ontario  Power 
Company's  3-phase,  165-mile  line,  at  60,000  volts.  A  substation, 
located  at  Avon  near  the  middle  of  the  road,  contains  three  750-kw., 
60,000-  to  11,000-volt  transformers.  Single-phase,  25-cycle,  11,000- 
volt  power  is  used. 

Cars  consist  of  six  48-ton  motors,  and  six  28-ton  coaches.  Three  or 
four  car  trains  are  operated  on  the  multiple-unit  plan.  Each  motor  car 
has  four  100-h.p.  motors. 

Operating  results  published  are  to  the  effect  that  the  gross  earnings 
for  passenger  service,  based  on  ticket  sales,  have  increased  40  to  50  per 
cent.;  also  that  the  operating  cost  under  the  usual  operating  and  main- 
tenance headings  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  averages  18 
cents  per  car-mile.  The  motor-car  mileage  per  annum  is  250,000,  and 
the  trail  car  mileage  75,000. 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service,  are  shown  by  the  following: 


Item. 


1910. 


1909. 


1908. 


Electric  power  transmission  —  maintenance  
Electric  locomotives  —  repairs  and  renewals 

$  

$1,874 
0 

$2,475 
0 

Electric  eoiiipment  of  cars     repairs  and.  renewals 

11,286 

14,796 

Transportation  expense  —  motormen                  .  .    ... 

5,379 

5,300 

Power-plant  eciuipment  —  maintenance 

0 

0 

Operating  power  plants                

213 

580 

Purchased  power 

15,941 

17,499 

References. 

Operation:  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907,  pp.  629  and  650;  June  19,  1909. 
Power  Transmission:  165  miles,  S.  R.  J.,  July  14,  Aug.  25,  Dec.  8,  1906. 
Lyford:  on  Operation,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Dec.  11,  1908,  p.  1696. 
W.  N.  Smith:  Ry.  Age,  Oct.  11,  1907,  S.  R.  J  ,  Oct.  12,  1907. 

Proposed  Electrification  of  Birmingham-Corning,  N.  Y.,  76-mile  division,  to  head  off 
competition,  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  23,  1905,  p.  1118. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        553 
CHICAGO,  BURLINGTON  &  QUINCY. 

Denver  &  Interurban  Railroad,  a  part  of  the  Colorado  and  Southern, 
in  turn,  a  part  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  is  a  high- 
grade  railroad  between  Denver  and  Boulder,  Colorado.  About  44  miles 
of  track  were  electrified  in  1906. 

The  reason  for  electrification  was  due  to  the  opportunity  to  utilize 
water  power  to  reduce  the  motive-power  expense  of  steam  passenger 
train  operating  on  heavy  grades. 

The  system  used  is  the  single-phase,  25-cycle,  11,000-volt  for  a.  c.- 
d.  c.  service.  The  overhead  work  includes  catenary  construction,  phono- 
electric  trolley  wire  of  high  tensile  strength,  galvanized  steel  brackets, 
and  wooden  poles. 

Power  is  furnished  by  the  plant  of  the  Northern  Colorado  Power  Cov 
from  two  1000-kw.  single-phase  turbo-generators. 

Motor  cars  are  16,  each  equipped  with  four  125-h.  p.  geared  motors. 
The  weight  of  the  motor  cars  is  58  tons,  of  the  coaches  is  37  tons,  and 
two-car  trains  are  ordinarily  operated. 

References. 

Deadwood   Central    R.  R.:  Black   Hills   grades,  Deadwood   to   Leads   City,  S.  D., 

S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  22,  1902,  p.  841. 

Denver  &  Interurban  R.  R.,  S.  R.  J.,  Sept,  24,  1904;  Oct.  2,  1909. 
Colorado  Springs  &  Cripple  Creek  Ry.,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909. 

Operating  expenses  for  the  12  months  ending  June  30,  for  electrical 
service,  are  shown  by  the  following: 


Item.  1910. 


1909.          1908. 


Electric  power  transmission— 1maintenance $ $1,157  $1,526 

Electric  locomotives — repairs  and  renewals 0  0 

Electric  equipment  of  cars — repairs  and  renewals 2,167  2,840 

Transportation  expenses — motormen j  5,198  5,333 

Power-plant  equipment — maintenance .....; I  601  436 

Operating  power  plants 3,000  3,177 


Purchased  power 11,000 


9,645 


SPOKANE  &  INLAND  EMPIRE. 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad  furnished  the  first  example  of 
the  extensive  use  of  single-phase  railroad  equipment.  The  road  has  a 
private  right-of-way  and  private  terminals,  freight  and  passenger.  Water 
power  is  used  to  haul  all  electric  trains.  Operation  started  in  1906. 


554          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Route  miles  approximate  180;  single-track  mileage  is  287;  and  the 
mileage  of  the  single-phase  road  is  162.  The  longest  runs  are  from 
Spokane  south  to  Coif  ax,  77  miles,  with  a  branch  to  Moscow,  91  miles 
from  Spokane. 

Reasons  for  electrification  have  been  stated  as  speculative,  and  a 
desire  to  open  up  a  new  country.  The  use  of  electric  power  was  due  to 
the  splendid  water  powers  available. 

The  system  used  is  the  a.  c.-d.  c.,  single-phase,  6600-volt,  25-cycle. 
The  equipment  consists  of  21  motor  cars,  each  equipped  with  four  100-h.p. 
motors;  six  500-h.  p.  locomotives,  and  eight  680-h.  p.  locomotives. 

The  direct-current  equipment  is  used  for  a  street  railway  and  for  a 
direct-current,  46-mile  road  to  Hayden  Lake. 

.  Transmission  lines  consist  of  116  miles  of  45,000-volt,  No.  2  copper 
wire.  Catenary  lines  are  supported  from  brackets  on  cedar  poles.  Sub- 
stations consist  of  11  transformer  houses,  spaced  about  10  miles  apart, 
each  containing  two  375-kw.;  45,000-volt  to  6600-volt,  oil-insulated,  self- 
cooled  transformers. 

References  on  Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  Railroad  Electrification. 

General:  S.  R.  J.,  Feb.  11,  Oct.  14,  1905;  Apr.  27,  1907. 

Cars:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  10,  1906. 

Water  Power:  S.  R.  J.,  March  9,  1907;  Jan.  11,  1908;  E.  W.,  Oct.  10,  1908. 

Load  and  Batteries:  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  28,  1907. 

Report  to  State  Railroad  Commissioners:  S.  R.  J.,  Nov.  2,  1907. 

Annual  Report:  June  30,  1908,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  10,  1908. 

Ingersoll:  Cost  of  Equipment,  Elec.  Journal,  Aug.,  1906. 


GREAT  NORTHERN  RAILWAY. 

Great  Northern  Railway  electrified  6  miles  of  tunnel  and  terminal 
track  at  Cascade  Mountain  tunnel,  in  Washington  in  1909.  The  tunnel 
is  14,400  ft.  long,  on  a  1.7  per  cent,  grade. 

The  system  is  the  25-cycle,  6,000-volt,  3-phase. 

Power  plant,  of  7,500-kw.  capacity,  and  line,  have  been  described. 
Cost  of  electrification  was  about  $1,620,000. 

Electric  locomotive  equipment  consists  of  four  G.  E.,  115-ton  articu- 
lated machines,  each  equipped  with  four  500-volt,  one-speed,  geared,  three- 
phase  motors,  rated  1900-h.  p.  on  forced  draft.  These  are  the  first  three- 
phase  locomotives  in  America.  The  installation,  see  technical  descrip- 
tion, is  quite  different  from  the  three-phase  installations  made  by  Ganz, 
Brown-Boveri,  Westinghouse,  and  Oerlikon. 

Service  is  infrequent  but  heavy,  and  1900-ton  freight  trains  are  hauled 
up  the  grade  by  three  locomotives  per  train,  while  passenger  trains  re- 
quire two  locomotives  per  train. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION         555 

Electric  roads   controlled  by  the   Great   Northern-Northern  Pacific 
include  the  Oregon  Electric,  the  United  Railways  of  Portland,  and  others. 

References. 

References  on  Great  Northern  Railway,  Cascade  Tunnel  Electrification. 
General:  G.  E.  Bulletin  4537,  Sept.,  1907;  G.  E.  Review,  Slichter,  Aug.,  1910. 
General:  S.  R.  J.,  May  11,  Dec.  28,  1907;  Oct.  31,  1908. 
System:  Hutchinson,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 
Contact  Line:  Deneen,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909. 


SOUTHERN  PACIFIC. 

Southern  Pacific  Company  operates  trains  with  electricity  on  the 
following  roads: 

1.  Visalia  Electric  Railway,  36  miles  of  track.     See  technical  descrip- 
tion of  its  15-cycle  electric  locomotives. 

2.  Suburban  lines  from  moles  or  breakwaters  in  San  Francisco  Bay  to 
and  in  Berkeley,  10  miles;  to  and  in  Alameda,  7  miles;  in  and  thru  Oak- 
land and  Fruitvale  to  Melrose,  8  miles  from  the  bay;  in  all  about  30  miles  of 
double  track,  much  of  which  is  on  city  streets.     The  1200-volt  direct- 
current,  overhead  trolley  system  is  used. 

The  power  house  is  located  on  the  Oakland  estuary.  It  contains 
twelve  645-h.p.  water-tube  Parker  boilers,  fed  by  fuel  oil,  one  14-foot 
by  125-foot  unlined  steel  stack,  two  Westinghouse  double-flow  turbo- 
generators rated  5000  kw.  for  1  hour,  7500  kw.  for  2  hours,  and  10,000 
kw.  for  1  minute,  which  supply  three-phase,  25-cycle  current  at  13,000 
volts  to  three  substations,  each  containing  six  G.  E.  750-kw.,  600-volt 
rotary  converters,  set  in  pairs,  connected  permanently  in  series,  and 
mounted  on  a  common  base. 

3.  Peninsula  Railroad  between  Mayfield,  Congress  Junction,  Saratoga. 
San  Jose,  New  Meriden  Corners,  Monta  Vista,  Los  Altos,  Mayfield,  and 
Palo  Alto,  over  double  track,  one  of  which  tracks  is  used  for  steam  trains. 
The  electric  mileage  is  40.     Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  January  20,  1910,  page  204. 

4.  Pacific   Electric   Railway,   having  600  miles   of  track,  and   Los 
Angeles-Pacific  Railway  having  260  miles  of  track.     Elec.  Ry.  Journ., 
November  26,  1910,  page  1079. 

5.  Los  Angeles  &  Redondo  Ry.,  interurban  divisions,  100  miles. 

6.  Street   railways   in   Ontario,   Redlands,   San   Bernardino,   River- 
side, San  Jose,  Fresno,  Santa  Monica  freight  road,  etc. 

Electrification  of  the  Sierra  District,  Sacramento  Division  has 
been  considered  since  1907.  The  division  runs  from  Reno,  Nevada,  to 
Sacramento,  California,  over  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  and  has 
140  miles  of  road  or  200  miles  of  track.  It  has  a  7000-foot  rise  in  83 
miles,  1.54  per  cent,  average  grade,  and  a  2.2  per  cent,  maximum  grade. 


556  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Electrification  would  prevent  double-tracking  the  road  arid  would  increase 
the  carrying  capacity  of  a  single  line  of  rails.  Expert  reports  were  to  the 
effect  that  the  road  could  be  operated  with  electric  power  for  62  per  cent, 
of  the  expense  of  operation  by  steam,  using  water  power  from  the  Great 
Western  Power  Company.  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Dec.  14,  1907,  p.  1154. 

The  specifications  issued  (see  Frank  J.  Sprague's  data  to  A.  I.  E.  E., 
Nov.,  1907,  and  July,  1910)  call  for  increased  capacity  by  doubling  the 
speed,  viz.  to  15  m.  p.  h.  for  2000-ton  freight  and  30  m.  p.  h.  for  400-ton 
passenger  trains,  up  2.2  per  cent,  grades. 

The  cost  of  electrification  will  be  large,  but  the  increased  capacity  on 
the  grades  is  expected  to  justify  the  outlay.  Estimates  made  on  cutting 
new  tunnels  and  lowering  the  grade  to  1.5  per  cent,  showed  the  cost  to 
be  from  40  to  50  million  and  the  time  required  eight  years.  Electrifica- 
tion is  estimated  to  cost  13  millions  and  the  time  required  2  years. 
Electric  haulage  would  also  reduce  the  non-revenue  tonnage  20  per  cent. 

Mallet  compounds  are  now  in  service  on  this  grade.  These  are 
2400-h.p.,  300-ton,  oil-burning  locomotives  having  economical  boilers. 
Steam  is  used  in  the  engines  at  long  cut-offs,  making  them  very  waste- 
ful. See  description  and  tests  in  Chapter  II.  Their  capacity  is  1000 
trailing  tons  at  10  miles  per  hour  up  2.0  per  cent,  grades  and  1855  tons 
up  1.5  per  cent,  grades. 

Julius  Kruttschnitt,  Vice-President,  stated  in  1910,  regarding  the 
power  problem  over  the  Sierras: 

"  Electrification  for  mountain  traffic  does  not  carry  the  same  appeal  that  it  did 
two  years  ago.  Oil-burning  locomotives  are  solving  the  problem  very  satisfactorily. 
Each  Mallet  compound  locomotive  hauls  as  great  a  load  as  two  of  the  consolidation 
type,  burning  10  per  cent,  less  fuel  and  consuming  50  per  cent  less  water." 

References. 

Power  Plant  for  Alameda  Lines,  E.  R.  J.,  Feb.  4,  1911,  p.  196. 

Electrification  of  Sacramento  Division,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  31,  1907. 

Sprague:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Nov.,  1909;  Harriman,  E.  W.,  March  16,  1907,  page  538. 

Grade  Reduction  to  Prevent  Electrification:  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Feb.  18,  1910,  p.  344. 

Locomotive  Tests,  Ry.  Age  Gazette,  Jan.  14,  1910,  p.  91. 


TECHNICAL  DATA  ON  PROPOSED  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATIONS. 
BOSTON  &  ALBANY. 

Boston  &  Albany  Railroad,  owned  by  New  York  Central,  in  Nov., 
1910,  filed  plans  with  a  Committee  appointed  by  the  Massachusetts 
State  Legislature  for  the  electrification  of  128  miles  of  its  4-track  road 
between  Boston  and  South  Farmington,  Mass.,  a  distance  of  21  miles. 
Its  plans  embrace  the  use  of  the  1200-volt,  direct-current,  third-rail 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        557 

system  with  multiple-unit  passenger  cars  for  local  trains  and  electric 
locomotives  for  thru  trains.  The  plans  embrace  electrification  for  65  per 
cent,  of  all  Boston  &  Albany  trains  leaving  Boston. 

Large  possibilities  for  greater  net  earnings  are  suggested  by  a  greater 
traffic  to  be  induced,  by  reduction  of  fares,  and  trains  at  short  intervals. 
Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Nov.  19,  26,  1910.  See  estimates,  page  513. 

DELAWARE,  LACKAWANNA  &  WESTERN. 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  Railroad,  as  early  as  1899,  con- 
sidered the  electrification  of  its  suburban  tracks  in  New  Jersey.  See 
A.  I.  E.  E.,  1900,  Vol.  XVII,  page  106. 

A  mountain-grade  electrification  near  Scranton,  Pa.,  received  con- 
sideration in  1909  and  1910.  The  proposed  electric  division  runs  from 
Clark's  Summit,  which  is  7  miles  north  of  Scranton,  to  Lehigh,  which  is 
19  miles  south  of  Scranton,  or  to  Mt.  Pocono,  34  miles  south  of  Scranton. 
Electrification  is  expected  to  reduce  expenses  incident  to  the  use  of 
three  steam  locomotives  per  train  working  on  1.5  per  cent,  .grades. 

ILLINOIS  CENTRAL. 

Illinois  Central  Railroad,  at  Chicago,  presents  one  of  the  greatest 
terminal  electrification  problems.  The  road  and  terminal  are  spread 
along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  adjoining  the  residence  district,  a 
valuable  park,  and  the  principal  boulevard.  The  congestion  at  the  ter- 
minal is  such  that  the  yards  could  even  be  double-decked;  the  enclosure 
of  the  tracks  by  warehouses  might  work  out  to  advantage. 

City  Councils  of  Chicago  have  not  as  yet  succeeded  in  getting  the 
railroad  to  formulate  plans  for  electrification.  Electric  traction  on  sub- 
urban trains  is  held  back  until  electrification  of  all  freight  and  passenger 
trains  can  be  included. 

Electrification  has  repeatedly  received  consideration.  Good  prece- 
dent has  shown  that  the  extra  investment  would  be  more  than  offset 
by  increase  in  traffic,  reduction  in  operating  expenses,  and  low  cost  of 
central  station  power  in  combined  switching,  terminal,  and  suburban 
service. 

The  problem  involves  25  miles  of  8-,  6-,  and  4-track  route,  between 
Flossmar  and  Chicago;  35  trains  with  an  average  weight  of  410  tons,  in 
service  simultaneously;  12,300-kw.  maximum  load;  35  per  cent,  load 
factor;  and  6500  train- miles  daily,  5700  being  in  suburban  traffic.  In  all : 

Suburban  trains,  daily 400,  with  1,000,000  ton-miles. 

Thru  trains,  daily 100,  with     500,000  ton-miles. 

Freight  trains,  daily 200,  with  2,000,000  ton-miles. 

Switch  trains,  daily 400,  with  2,000,000  ton-miles. 


558  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Estimated  cost  per  mile  is  based  on  the  following:  Steel  transmission 
lines,  one  three-phase  circuit,  $4000;  double  three-phase  circuit,  $6000; 
conduit  transmission  lines,  $20,000;  third  rail  per  mile  $6400. 

Power  can  be  purchased  at  the  rate  of  0 . 75  cent  per  kw-hr. 

Illinois  Central  electrification  is  held  to  be  unjustifiable,  even  for 
the  suburban  traffic.  President  Harahan  submitted  the  statement  be- 
low of  the  results  which  are  estimated  to  follow  if  the  entire  suburban 
service  alone  were  electrified,  compared  with  present  steam  operation. 

Results  of  operation  of  suburban  business  at  Chicago  for  the  fiscal  year 
ending  June  30,  1909,  under  steam: 

Gross  earnings $1,056,446 

Operating  expenses  (82.9  per  cent.)  plus  taxes 946,734 

Net  revenue  (steam  operation) $    109,712 

Estimated  results  under  electrification: 

Gross  earnings $1,056,446 

Operating  expenses  (66  per  cent.)  plus  taxes 771,681 

Net  revenue  (electric  operation) 284,765 

Net  revenue  (steam  operation) 109,712 

Increase  in  net  earnings 175,053 

Estimate  cost  of  electrification $8,000,000 

Interest  and  depreciation,  10  per  cent 800,000 

Saving  in  operation  under  electrification 175,003 

Net  deficit  under  electrical  operation : $624,947 

The  statement  may  be  badly  warped  because  the  assumption  is 
made  that  electrification  will  cost  $8,000,000,  while  other  valuable  es- 
timates for  the  same  track-mileage  are  $3,500,000;  and  the  assumption 
is  made  that  electrification  will  not  increase  the  gross  earnings,  i.  e., 
attract  traffic  and  regain  lost  business.  Other  roads  within  a  few  years 
after  electrification  have  increased  their  gross  earnings  50  to  90  per  cent. 

Chicago  terminal  electrification,  which  embraces  25  steam  railroads 
at  Chicago,  was  merged  in  1911  with  that  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad. 

A  terminal  electrification  commission  is  now  employed  by  the 
Chicago  Association  of  Commerce,  being  paid  by  all  of  the  steam  rail- 
roads, to  report  on  the  necessity  for  electrification,  the  mechanical  feasi- 
bility, and  financial  problems  of  the  undertaking. 

Horace  G.  Burt  is  chief  engineer  of  this  Commission.  George  Gibbs 
and  E.  R.  Hill,  who  have  worked  out  electrifications  of  the  New  York 
Central,  Long  Island,  West  Jersey,  and  Philadelphia  terminals,  have 
been  appointed  consulting  engineers,  with  Mr.  Hugh  Pattison,  formerly 
Superintendent  of  Construction  of  the  Pennsylvania  terminals  at  New 
York  City,  as  electrical  engineer  in  direct  charge  of  the  work. 

The  rearrangement  of  steam  tracks,  the  elimination  of  thru  freight 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        559 

from  the  business  district,  and  the  much-needed  revision  of  freight  yards 
are  being  studied  by  George  R.  Henderson,  consulting  engineer. 
Actual  work  on  electrification  may  not  begin  prior  to  1915. 

References  on  Illinois  Central  Railroad  Electrification. 

Sprague:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1892. 

Wallace:  A.  S.  C.  E.,  Feb.  3,  1897;  S.  R.  J.,  July,  1899,  p.  468. 
Suburban  cars:  S.  R.  J.,  July  4,  1903;  April  30,  1904. 
Practicability  of  Electrification,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  31,  1908,  p.  1290. 
Engineering  News:  Comment  on  Electrification,  Dec.  24,  1908. 
Symons:  On  Electrification,  Western  Railway  Club,  Feb.  19,  1908. 
Seley:  On  Electrification,  Western  Railway  Club,  Nov.,  1909;  Ry.  Age,  Nov.  26,  1909. 
'Harahan:  Reports,  R.  R.  Age,  Oct.,  1909,  p.  812;  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  30,  1909. 
Cost  of  Electrification:  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  24,  1908,  p.  1261. 
Evans:  Reports  to  City  Council,  1909,  on  terminal  electrification. 
Delano:  Chicago  City  Terminals,  Ry.  Age,  Dec.  24,  1909. 
Extent  of  Electrification:  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  2,  1909,  p.  608. 
Objections  to  Electric  Traction:  Illinois  Central,  near  end  of  Chapter  III. 
Bird:  Locomotive  Smoke  in  Chicago,  Ry.  Age,  Feb.  17,  1911,  p.  321;  E.  R.  J.,  Feb. 
18,  1911,  p.  305. 

CANADIAN  PACIFIC. 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway  Company  controls  two  electric  railways: 

Aroostock  Valley  Railroad,  Maine,  a  12-mile,  1200-volt  railway. 

Hull,  Ottawa,  Aylmer  Division,  26  miles.  See  description  of  loco- 
motives, Elec.  Engineer,  October  7,  1896. 

In  Ottawa,  the  company  has  completed  plans,  involving  about 
$1,000,000,  for  the  electrical  operation  of  an  underground  tunnel  road, 
from  a  point  near  the  foot  of  the  Rideau  Canal  to  the  union  station; 
or  for  a  belt  line  around  the  city.  Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  August  20,  1910. 

Rocky  Mountain  grades,  in  the  past,  have  frequently  been  reduced 
by  doubling  the  length  of  the  winding  track.  The  grades  on  many 
divisions  are  severe,  and  only  a  part  of  ordinary  train  loads  are 
hauled;  yet  each  train  requires  3  to  4  of  the  largest  locomotives. 
Operation  with  such  groups  is  dangerous.  Economy  with  steam  power, 
when  so  used,  is  evidently  low.  Water  power  is  abundant  in  the  moun- 
tains, could  be  utilized  to  advantage  for  electrical  operation  of  trains, 
and  would  prevent  expensive  grade  reduction. 

BUTTE,  ANACONDA  &  PACIFIC. 

Butte,  Anaconda  &  Pacific  Railway,  owned  by  Anaconda  Copper 
Company,  had  plans  drawn  in  1910  for  the  complete  electrification  of 
its  steam  railroad  from  Butte  to  Anaconda,  Montana,  26  miles.  The 
two  cities  are  located  on  hills  and  a  deep  valley  intervenes.  Tracks  for 


560  ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

storage,  mines,  terminals,  and  branches  are  extensive  and  the  total 
mileage  for  which  electrification  is  considered  exceeds  50,  of  80  total. 

Ruling  grades  on  the  main  line  are  0.85  per  cent,  for  east-bound 
track  and  0.41  per  cent,  for  west-bound,  while  the  ruling  and  continuous 
grade  is  1.5  per  cent,  for  6  miles  to  the  Anaconda  smelter  hill,  and  2.5 
per  cent,  for  5  miles  to  the  Butte  mines. 

Passenger  service  consists  of  eight  3-car  trains,  of  from  235  to  275 
tons'  weight,  per  day,  between  the  cities. 

Freight  service  consists  of  twenty  960-  to  1050-ton  ore  and  supply 
trains,  between  Butte  and  Anaconda,  twenty  2800-  to  3500-ton  trains 
down  the  grades  from  the  mines,  and  many  switching  movements. 

Cost  of  service  per  train-mile,  from  I.  C.  C.  reports,  is  $2.63,  which  is 
higher  than  ordinary  roads  in  this  district,  because  of  the  high  cost  of 
labor,  and  the  very  wasteful  use  of  coal  by  locomotives  on  the  up-  and 
down-grade,  per  ton-mile  hauled. 

Electrification  would  give  a  market  for  water  power,  now  delivered 
by  the  Anaconda  Copper  Company  to  Butte  and  Anaconda  for 
mining  purposes,  at  100,000  volts  and  60  cycles.  It  would  decrease 
the  cost  of  power  per  ton-mile,  increase  the  train  load,  and  thus  increase 
the  capacity  of  each  mile  of  track  on  the  grades.  About  $1,000,000 
would  be  required  for  electrical  equipment. 

OTHER  PROPOSED  AMERICAN  ELECTRIFICATIONS. 

Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Puget  Sound  Railroad  has  had  plans  drawn 
for  the  utilization  of  water  power  to  haul  its  trains  over  the  Bitter  Root 
Mountains,  for  about  100  miles  of  track  between  St.  -Regis,  Montana, 
and  St.  Joe,  Idaho.  It  is  understood  that  a  series  of  hydraulic  dams  would 
be  required  on  the  St.  Joe  River  and  on  the  Missoula  River. 

Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  Railroad  has  proposed  to  apply 
electric  traction  for  its  line  between  Buffalo  and  Cleveland.  See  "  Steam 
vs.  Electric  Railway  Operation  for  Trunk  Line  Traffic,"  Mayer,  to 
A.  S.  C.  E.,  November  21,  1906;  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  December  1,  1906. 

Northern  Pacific  Railroad  has  considered  the  use  of  electric  power  on 
the  Bozeman  "hill"  and  also  on  the  Helena  "  hill,"  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. Tests  were  made  in  1908  on  locomotive  requirements,  and  data 
and  estimates  prepared  on  electrification.  Traffic  is  not  too  light  for 
commercial  practicability,  and  the  load  factor  will  be  sufficiently  high  if 
the  electrification  covers  100  miles  of  route. 

Oregon  Short  Line  has  considered  plans  for  electrification  from  Salt 
Lake  City  over  the  mountain  grades  to  Pocatella,  171  miles. 

Norfolk  &  Western  Railway  has  planned  to  increase  its  economy  and 
capacity  by  the  electrification  of  the  mountain  grades  near  Bluefield,  W.  Va. 

Many  American  railroads  are  now  studying  plans  for  electrification. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        561 
EUROPEAN  ELECTRIC  RAILROADS. 
ENGLAND. 

In  Great  Britain  there  are  about  237  miles  of  steam  railroad  track 
operated  solely  by  electricity  and  in  addition  200  miles  operated  partly 
by  electricity,  87  electric  locomotives  and  821  motor  cars,  in  addition 
to  the  underground  tubes,  and  the  two  old  steam  "Circle"  lines,  now 
worked  electrically.  There  are  five  provincial  railroads  which  employ 
electric  traction  for  train  service:  Mersey,  North-Eastern,  Lancashire 
&  Yorkshire,  Midland,  and  London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast.  The 
last  two  are  single-phase  roads.  Maps:  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  October  4,  1902. 

Mersey  Tunnel  Railway,  between  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,  for- 
merly a  steam  road,  was  electrified  in  1903.  It  now  has  5  miles  of  route 
and  10  miles  of  track.  The  road  extends  thru  a  tunnel  under  the  Mersey 
River.  The  reason  for  electrification  was  to  overcome  the  difficulties 
due  to  grades  and  the  ventilation  in  the  tunnel,  and  to  regain  traffic 
which  had  been  taken  in  competition. 

The  service  with  steam  operation  consisted  normally  of  7  coaches 
per  train,  while  with  electric  service  there  is  a  3-minute  headway  on 
the  main  line  and  6  minutes  on  the  branches.  Steam  trains  formerly 
weighed  154  tons,  where  electric  trains  now  weigh  137  tons.  Formerly 
there  were  12  steam  trains  per  hour,  now  there  are  20  electric  trains  per 
hour.  Steam  locomotives  formerly  used  were  18,  which  handled  96 
coaches,  with  a  total  of  4280  seats.  Electric  motor  cars  are  now  24, 
which  haul  33  coaches,  with  a  total  of  about  3156  seats.  The  train- miles 
per  hour  are  now  50  per  cent,  greater  than  in  the  heaviest  steam  service. 
Motor  cars  are  60  feet  long,  have  four.  100-h.  p.  motors. 

Power  station  has  three  1250-kilowatt,  d.-c.  units  and  a  battery. 

Mersey  Railway  was  the  first  road  to  show  clearly,  from  operation, 
that  there  was  no  theory  about  the  increased  net  earnings  with  electric 
traction  as  compared  with  steam,  as  the  following  table  shows  : 

Passenger  traffic  increased  120  per  cent.;  receipts  85  per  cent. 

Electric  working  reduced  from  .20  to  .17  cent  per   ton-mile. 

Coal  cost  reduced  from  $4  to  $2.10  per  ton. 

Average  speed  with  stops  increased  from  15.6  to  19.9  m.  p.  h. 

Maintenance  of  way  reduced  from  0.42  to  0.18  cent  per  ton-mile. 

Life  of  rails  increased  47  per  cent,  per  ton  average  rolling  load. 

Ton-miles  per  annum  increased  from  43,000,000  to  67,000,000. 

Total  cost  of  working  and  maintaining  the  locomotive  and  engineer- 
ing department  reduced  from  0.46  to  0.30  cent  per  ton-mile. 

Total  cost  of  operation  including  general  charges  but  excluding  interest 
on  additional  capital  for  electrification  reduced  from  .68  cent  to  .48  cent 
per  ton-mile. 
36 


562          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

Total  cost  of  operation  including  general  charges,  and  including 
interest  on  additional  capital  for  electrification  have  been  reduced  from 
.68  cent  to  .58  cent  per  ton-mile. 

J.  Shaw:  British  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  Nov.,  1909.  Kirker :  Electric  Jour- 
nal, May,  1906;  Electrical  Age,  Jan.,  1910;  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.,  4  1903. 

North -Eastern  Railway,  formerly  a  steam  road,  electrified  in  1904, 
comprises  two  miles  of  four  track,  and  35  miles  of  double  track,  or  82 
miles  of  single  track  near  Newcastle  upon  Tyne.  Stations  are  1|  miles 
apart.  The  600-volt,  direct-current,  third-rail  system  is  used.  There  are 
62  motor  cars  of  250  h.  p.,  and  44  trail  coaches,  and  6  freight  locomotives. 

"  A  much  greater  amount  of  work  is  now  done  at  the  terminal  stations  as  there  are 
no  engines  to  attach  or  detach;  the  signal  operations  are  reduced  about  one-half 
accelerations  realized  decreased  running  between  stations  from  15  per  cent,  to  19  per 
cent.  It  would  have  been  impossible  to  carry  by  the  steam  service  the  number  of 
passengers  that  now  are  electrically  conveyed."  Dr.  C.  A.  Harrison  to  British 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  November,  1909.  S.  R.  T.,  June  20,  1903. 

Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway,  electrified  in  1904,  between  Liv- 
erpool and  Southport,  England,  has  a  route  length  of  40  miles,  but  82 
single-track  miles.  In  1910,  a  belt  line  between  the  two  cities  via 
Ormskirk  was  added. 

Service  is  provided  with  80  motor  cars  and  52  coaches,  weighing  51 
and  23  tons  respectively.  .Four-car  1200-h.p.  trains  are  usual.  The 
direct-current,  600  volt,  third-rail  system  is  used. 

E.  R.  J.,  Jan.  30,  April  2,  1904;  Aug.  4,  1906;  Aspinwall,  Inst.  of  M.  E.,  1909. 

Midland  Railway  in  1908  electrified  its  double-track  steam  line  be- 
tween Heysham,  Morecambe,  and  Lancaster,  23  miles  of  track.  The 
6600-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase  system  is  used.  There  are  now  three 
43-ton,  60-foot,  72-passenger  motor  cars  and  six  21-ton  coaches.  Power 
is  produced  by  gas  engines  having  a  rated  capacity  of  450  kilowatts. 

The  Electrician,  June  12,  19,  26,  1908;  July  4,  1908. 

LONDON,  BRIGHTON  &  SOUTH  COAST. 

London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  Railway,  the  oldest  steam  road  in 
England,  built  in  1841,  began  the  use  of  electric  traction  in  1909  on  its 
South  London  9-mile  division,  and  in  1911  on  its  Crystal  Palace  14-mile 
division,  there  being  altogether  62  miles  of  single  track  in  operation. 

Electrification  was  decided  upon  as  advantageous  not  only  for  the 
conditions  on  the  suburban  division,  but  also  for  the  50-mile  route  from 
London  to  Brighton,  between  which  points  there  are  about  40  trains 
each  way  per  day.  The  directors  have  decided  to  electrify  the  entire  480 
miles  of  track  prior  to  1916.  The  25-cycle,  6700-volt,  single-phase 
system  was  chosen  for  the  work. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        563 

Motor-car  trains  are  operated.  Service  is  furnished  by  46  motor 
cars  and  68  coaches,  of  which  16  motor  cars  have  four  115-h.  p.  and  30 
have  four  175-h.  p.  motors.  Motor  cars  weigh  55  tons  and  60  tons  re- 
spectively, and  haul  two  35-ton  coaches.  Seats  per  car  are  about  67. 
Distance  between  stops  is  about  4300  feet,  stops  are  20  seconds,  and 
schedule  speed  22  m.  p.  h.  Motors  are  A.  E.  G.,  single-phase,  compensated 
repulsion  type.  Voltage  is  750;  air  gap  is  3  mm.;  gear  ratio  is  4.24,  and 
acceleration  rate  is  1.0  m.  p.  h.  p.  s.  Commutators  run  50,000  miles  be- 
tween turnings.  Motor  efficiency  is  over  80  per  cent.,  power  factor 
of  the  system  is  80  per  cent'.,  and  energy  consumption  at  the  power 
station  is  65  to  75  watt  hours  per  ton-mile  with  the  above  stops,  and 
34.4  on  non-stop,  37-m.  p.  h.  schedule  trips.  Each  motor  car  averages 
58,000  miles  per  annum. 

Contact  line  is  the  double  catenary,  V  type.  Line  insulators  were 
tested  mechanically  to  14  tons,  and  electrically  to  65,000  volts.  Many 
low  bridges  and  tortuous  routes  exist  near  terminals.  Collectors  are 
aluminum  bows,  contactors  have  a  groove  for  grease;  pressure  is  10 
pounds;  life  is  4500  miles;  and  cost  of  renewals  is  10  cents  per  1000  miles. 

The  results  of  operation  for  the  first  six  months  of  1910  show  that 
the  passenger  traffic  increased  from  2,000,000  to  3,750,000,  and  the  daily 
train  mileage  from  687  to  1465.  Part  of  the  increase  was  enticed  away 
from  the  tramways,  part  was  new  business  induced  by  a  reduction  of 
fares,  which  reduction  became  possible  by  reason  of  economies  effected 
by  electrical  operation,  so  that  the  entire  gain  can  be  stated  to  be  due 
to  the  adoption  of  electricity. 

References. 

E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  30,  1905;  March  6,  1909;  April  1,  1911,  p.  582. 
Dawson's  "Electric  Traction  on  Railways,"  1909. 

Dawson:  London  Electrician,  Sept.  9,  1910;  Extension  to  Crystal  Palace,  B.  I.  C.  E., 
March,  1911. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY. 

In  Sweden  the  State  Railway  has  been  experimenting  since  1905, 
near  Stockholm,  with  single-phase,  25-cycle  electric  locomotives,  also 
18,000  to  25,000-volt  contact  lines.  The  locomotives  have  been  described. 
The  work  has  now  passed  the  experimental  stage. 

In  1911  the  State  began  the  electrification  of  the  steam  railroad 
between  Kiruna  and  Riksgransen,  93  miles  apart.  Thirteen  2000-h.p. 
freight,  and  two  1000-h.  p.  passenger  locomotives  were  ordered  from 
Siemens.  A  change  was  made  to  the  15-cycle,  single-phase,  15,000-volt 
system.  The  service  calls  for  the  haulage  of  ore,  near  the  Norwegian 
frontier,  in  2,200-ton  trains  with  2000-h.  p.  locomotives;  and  the  haulage 


564          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

of  passenger  and  express  trains  with  1000-h.  p.,  62-m.  p.  h.  locomotives. 
The  grade  is  a  steady  encline  of  one  per  cent.  A  36,000-kv-a.,  single- 
phase  water  power  station  has  been  built  at  For  jus  Falls,  from  which 
power  is  transmitted  at  80,000  volts.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  com- 
plete undertaking  was  $4,000,000. 

In  Norway  electrification  of  railways  is  proceeding  on  a  smaller 
scale.  Motor-car  and  locomotive-hauled  trains  are  being  operated 
between  Thamshavn  and  Lokken,  an  18-mile  road;  also  on  the  Rjukan 
Railway  (Notodden-Tinoset  and  Vestfjosddals  Railway),  29  miles. 

References  on  Electric  Railways  in  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Swedish  State:  S.  R.  J.,  Apr.  15,  1905,  March  31,  1906;  E.  W.,  Nov.  11,  1905.  Single- 
phase  Locomotive  Installations,  and  Cost  of  Electrification,  E.  R.  J.,  Oct.  15, 
1910,  p.  857;  May  6,  1911,  p.  788. 

Thamshavn-Lekken :  Ry.  Age.,  Sept.  2,  1910, 

FRANCE. 

The  railways  of  France,  in  geographical  order  are:  The  North- 
ern, Eastern,  Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean,  Southern,  Paris-Orleans,  and 
the  Western.  Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean  extends  from  Paris  to  Mar- 
seilles; Paris-Orleans  extends  from  Paris  thru  Orleans  and  on  to  the 
south  to  Tolouse  where  it  joins  the  Southern;  Western  extends  from 
Paris  to  points  on  the  English  channel,  and  Southern  extends  across 
Southern  France,  parallel  with  the  Pyrennes  Mountains,  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Mediterranean.  Western  and  Southern  are  under  government 
control. 

Paris -Lyons -Mediterranean,  in  1900,  electrified  40  miles  of  track 
near  its  Paris  terminal,  and  uses  the  direct-current  600-volt  third-rail 
system.  Plans  for  electrification  between  Gap  and  Barcelonette  have 
been  adopted.  Reference  on  its  Fayet-Chamonix  road  to  Mt.  Blanc: 
St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Feb.  7,  1903. 

Paris-Orleans  Railroad,  in  1900,  electrified  46  miles  of  track,  using 
the  direct-current,  600-volt,  third-rail  system  on  the  Paris-Juvisy, 
14-mile  section.  About  200  thru  trains  are  hauled  daily,  by  11  electric 
locomotives,  and  about  100  suburban  trains  are  hauled  by  motor  cars. 
The  original  power  plant  at  Ivry  had  three  1000-kilowatt,  three-phase, 
25-cycle,  5500-volt  generating  units  which  fed  three  substations. 

Western  of  France  Railroad  has  used  electric  traction  since  1901, 
on  the  Paris- Versailles,  11 -mile  suburban  division.  Plans  have  been 
adopted  for  two  important  20-mile  extensions,  to  Argenteuix  and  to  St. 
Germain,  the  cost  of  which  is  estimated  at  $13,400,000.  Other  electri- 
fication plans,  if  carried  out,  will  involve  an  expenditure  of  $60,000,000. 

Midi  (or  Southern)  Railroad  of  France  began  to  equip  its  steam  line 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        565 

for  electric  traction  in  1909.  The  first  work  was  on  the  65-mile  section 
lying  between  Pau  and  Montrejean.  One  of  the  heavy  grades  is  3.5  per 
cent,  for  7  miles.  It  is  intended  later  to  equip  the  200  miles  between 
Tolouse  and  Bayonne.  The  single-phase,  17-cycle  system  is  used. 

Six  89-ton,  1200-h.  p.  freight  locomotives  have  been  purchased  from 
Westinghouse,  and  one  94-ton,  1600-h.  p.,  locomotive  from  the  All- 
gemeine  Elektricitats  Gesellschaft.  See  description,  page  385. 

Motor  cars  haul  115-ton  passenger  trains  on  the  branch  lines  at  38 
m.  p.  h.  Thirty  50-seat,  62-ton  motor  cars  are  used,  each  equipped  with 
four  285-volt,  125-h.  p.  single-phase  motors. 

Four  water-power  plants,  at  Egat,  Soulom,  Porta,  and  Ossau,  with 
a  total  rating  of  38,000  kilowatts,  will  be  used.  Energy  will  be  trans- 
mitted at  60,000  volts  to  five  substations  where  it  will  be  reduced  by 
step-down  transformers  to  12,000  volts  for  the  contact  line. 

References. 

Elec.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  15,  1910;  June  3,  1911,  p.  962. 

SPAIN. 

Santa  Fe-Gergal  Railway  of  Spain  started  the  electrification  of  its 
main  line  from  Linaries  to  Almeria,  in  southwestern  Spain,  in  1907. 
The  mileage  electrified  to  1909  is  15.  The  equipment  consists  of  five 
320-h.  p.,  30-ton  locomotives  designed  by  Brown,  Boveri  &  Company. 

The  service  consists  of  the  haulage  of  light  passenger  trains  with  a 
single  locomotive,  and  freight  trains  which  weigh  from  150  to  300  tons 
with  two  locomotives. 

The  system  used  is  the  three-phase,  15-cycle,  5,500-volt,  double- 
trolley,  without  separate  transmission  lines  and  substations. 

HOLLAND. 

Rotterdam-Hague -Scheveningen  Railway  of  Holland,  opened  in 
October,  1908,  is  a  good  example  of  a  10,000-volt,  25-cycle,  single-phase 
road.  Route  length  is  22  miles;  mileage  is  48. 

Generator  capacity  installed  is  5700  kv-a.  Four  600-kv-a.  and  four 
1200-kv-a.  step-down  transformers  are  used,  with  three-phase,  two-phase 
line  connections.  Trolley  construction  comprises  a  catenary,  and  a 
4/0  contact  wire. 

Rolling  stock  consists  of  twenty  61-foot,  56-ton,  3-axle  motor  cars, 
and  nine  34-ton  trailer  cars.  Each  motor  car  has  two  single-phase  com- 
pensated, series,  180-h.  p.  Siemens-Schuckert  motors,  geared  for  60 
m.  p.  h.  The  controller  delivers  133  to  338  volts  to  the  motor. 

Train  service  in  winter  consists  of  52  trains  per  16-hour  day,  which 


566 


ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 


average  235  miles  per  motor  car;  in  summer,   of    160  trains,   which 
average  357  miles  per  motor  car.     Three-car  trains  are  in  common  use. 

References. 

Ry.  Age,  July  8,  1910;  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Oct.  2,  1909. 

GERMANY. 

About  94  per  cent,  of  all  railroads  in  Germany  are  state  railroads 
The  single-phase,  15-cycle,  10,000-volt  system  was  adopted  in  1908  by 
the  Prussian  State    Government.     The  development  and  extent  of  elec- 
trification in  Germany  are  shown  below: 

ELECTRIC  RAILROADS  IN  GERMANY. 


Name  of  railroad. 

Single-phase. 

Mile- 
age. 

Motor- 
cars. 

Locomo- 
tives. 

Year 
built. 

Cycles. 

Volts. 

Prussian  State: 
Spindlersf  eld  
Oranienburg  
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf  .... 
Altoona  Harbor  

25 
25 
25 
25 
15 

6,600 
6,600 
6,600 
1,500 
10,000 

3 
1 
17 
2 
23 
250 
12 
4 

15 
30 
34 

37 

30 
112 

4 
0 
110 
0 
2 

0 
3 

0 
1 

7 

1903 
1906 
1907 
1910 
1910 
Project. 
1903 
1905 

1905 
1911 
1909 

1909 

1908 
Project. 

Magdeburg  -  Leipzig- 
Berlin  City  Circle 

Berlin-Grosslichterf  elde  . 
Neiderschoenweide-Koep- 
enick. 
Bavarian  State: 
Murnau-Oberammergau 
Salzburg-Berchtesgaden 
Karlsruhe-Herrenalb  
Baden  State: 
Wiesental  Ry.  or  Basel- 
Schopfheim-Zell. 
Rhine  Shore  Ry.  : 
Cologne-Bonn  
Cologne-Treves 

D.  c. 
15 

15 
15 
25 

15 
D.  c. 

550 
640 

5,500 
10,000 
8,000 

10,000 
990 

24 
0 

4 

0 
1 

2 

7 
15 

10 

4 

12 

0 

References  on  Electric  Railroads  in  Germany. 

Berlin-Zossen  high-speed  tests  of  1901;  S.  R.  J.,  Sept.  9,  Oct.  28,  1905. 

Berlin  Elevated  &  Underground:  Engr.  Mag.,  Vol.  27,  p.  731,  1904;  St.  Ry.  Rev., 

April  and  Oct.,  1902;  Ry.  Age,  Sept.  23,  1910. 

Eifel  Bahn  Ry.:  Cologne  to  Treves,  112  miles,  S.  R.  J.,  Oct.  12,  1907. 
Electrification  of  Geneva  Railroads:  Electrical  Review,  March  6,  1909,   p.  434. 
Weisental  Ry.:  E.  R.  J.,  Dec.  11,  1907,  p.  1177. 
Peters:  Development  of  German  Railways,  Ry.  Age,  Dec.  16,  1910. 

See  references  under  Systems;  and  under  Technical  Descriptions  of  Locomotives. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS  IN  AUSTRIA. 


567 


Name  of  railway. 

Electric  system. 

Motor 
cars. 

Loco- 
motives. 

Route 
miles. 

Mile- 
age. 

Year 
open. 

Tabor-  Bechyn 

D  c.,  3-wire  1500-volt  

2 

i 

o 

15 
12 

8 
18 

16 

1903 
1904 
1905 
1907 
1910 
1909 
1908 
1910 
1910 
1910 

1911 

Innsbruck-Fulpmes  
Bludenz-Schruns  
Vienna-Baden  

D  c  2-wire  500  volt 

1-phase,  15-cycle,  10,000-volt  . 
1-phase,  25-cycle,  10,000-volt  . 
D  c  ,  800  volts 

20 
35 

2        , 
0 

!     41 

Haute  Vienne 

Trient-Male 

37 
10 
31 
56 
63 

42 

50 

36 
68 
69 

Neumarkt-Waizenkircken.  . 
Waitzen-Budapest-Godolla 
St.  Polten-Mariazell  

D.  c.,  500  volts  
1-phase,  15-cycle,  10,000-volt.  . 
1-phase,  25-cycle,  6000-volt.  .  . 
1-phase,  15-cycle,  10,000-volt.  . 

1-phase,  15-cycle,  10,000-volt.  . 

11 
0 

4 

23 
6 

11 

Mitten  wald:  Munich- 
Innsbruck. 
Vienna-Pressburg  



I 

SWITZERLAND. 

Swiss  Federal  Railways  on  December  31,  1909,  owned  1825  miles  of 
railway,  leaving  973  miles  outstanding  in  the  hands  of  private  companies. 

Experimental  work,  between  1904  and  1906,  on  the  short  Seebach- 
Wettingen  branch,  with  Oerlikon  and  Siemens  locomotive  hauled -trains, 
proved  that  15  cycles,  15,000  volts,  catenary  construction,  single-phase 
commutators,  and  side-rod  locomotives  were  practical  for  heavy  railways. 

Simplon  Tunnel  road,  Burgdorf-Thun  interurban,  and  21  meter- 
gage  roads,  operated  by  the  Confederation,  use  electric  traction.  Plans 
have  been  developed  to  use  electric  traction  on  all  roads.  See  report  of 
Commission  on  Electrification,  St.  Ry.  Journ.,  Nov.  10,  1906,  p.  950.  See 
technical  description  of  Simplon  tunnel  locomotives. 

Burgdorf-Thun  Railway  was  the  first  meter-gage,  electric  inter- 
urban  road  in  Switzerland  operated  under  steam  railroad  conditions. 
The  road  is  25.4  miles  long.  It  was  placed  in  service  in  July,  1899. 

Power  comes  from  a  4500-kilowatt  water  power  plant  at  Spiez,  as 
three-phase  current,  at  15,500  volts.  Fourteen  transformer  stations, 
with  a  maximum  capacity  of  450  kilowatts  each,  which  corresponds  to  the 
load  of  a  double  train,  are  used  to  reduce  the  pressure  from  15,000 
to  750  volts  alternating  for  the  two-wire,  three-phase  contact  line. 
Trolley  line  consists  of  two  hard-drawn,  8-mm.  wires,  15.9  to  17.0  feet 
above  the  rails. 

Rolling  stock  consists  of  six  32-ton  motor  cars  with  four  55-h.  p. 
motors,  and  10  passenger  coaches.  Speed  is  22  m.  p.  h. 

Two  100-ton,  300-h.  p.  electric  locomotives  used  for  the  freight  traffic 
run  at  11  and  at  22  m.  p.  h.  and  each  has  a  capacity  for  hauling 
100  tons  at  11  m.  p.  h.  on  a  2  5  per  cent,  grade,  or  50  tons  at  22 
m.  p.  h.  on  the  same  grade.  The  locomotive  rotor  runs  at  300  r.  p.  m., 


568          ELECTRIC  TRACTION  FOR  RAILWAY  TRAINS 

and  is   geared  to   2  sets  of  gears   connected  to  a   countershaft,  which 
drives  the  2  axles  of  the  locomotive  by  means  of  a  side-rod. 

References. 
Motor  equipment,  drawings:  S.  R.  J.,  Dec.  30,  1899;  June  7,  1902. 

Bernes  Alps  Railroad,  connecting  Berne,  Spiez,  Frutigen,  in 
Switzerland,  and  the  Simplon  Tunnel  in  Italy,  completed  a  standard 
gage  over  and  thru  the  Alps,  in  1911.  Its  Lotschberg  double-track 
tunnel,  which  adjoins  the  Simplon  tunnel,  is  8  1/2  miles  long,  of  large 
cross-section,  19.8  by  26.4  feet,  for  double  track.  The  tunnel  will  cost 
$7,500,000  and  the  entire  railroad,  which  is  52  miles  long,  $15,000,000. 

Oerlikon,  A.  E.  G.,  and  Siemens  locomotives  were  described. 

Motor  cars  are  65-foot,  62-ton,  and  seat  64  passengers.  Each  hauls 
trailers  in  177  trains  up  long  2.7  per  cent,  grades  at  28  m.p.h. 

The  system  used  is  the  15-cycle,  15,000-volt,  single-phase. 

References. 
Electrical  Review,  March  6,  1909;  E.  R.  J.,  June  18,  1910,  Oct.  29,  1910. 


ITALY. 

Italian  State  Railways  have  been  electrified  as  follows: 

Milan-Varese -Porto  Ceresio  Railroad  in  1901,  for  local  and  sub- 
urban service.  There  are  48  miles  of  first-class  road  and  81  miles  of 
track.  Stops  average  2.9  miles  apart.  It  is  operated  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Railway  Company. 

The  direct-current,  660-volt,  third-rail  system  is  used.  Trains 
contain  three  45-ton  motor  cars,  each  with  four  160-h.  p.  motors,  and 
three  35-ton  coaches.  Electric  locomotives  are  used  for  freight.  Grades 
are  heavy.  Tariffs  were  reduced  50  per  cent,  after  electric  power  was 
adopted,  yet  the  earnings  increased  25  per  cent.  Electrification  cost 
was  only  $12,000  per  mile. 

Valtellina  Railway,  or  Rete  Adriatica,  in  1902.  This  is  an  elec- 
trified steam  road,  with  light  traffic,  between  Lecco  on  the  south  and 
Chiavenna,  41  miles  north,  with  a  branch  to  Sondrio,  25  miles  west,  in 
all  66  miles  of  road  and  70  miles  of  track.  The  road  was  extended 
south  from  Lecco  to  Milan,  a  distance  of  25  miles,  in  1911. 

The  three-phase,  15-cycle,  3000-volt  system  is  used. 

Locomotives  and  service  are  described  in  Chapter  IX. 

Giovi  Railway,  between  Genoa,  Pontedecimo,  and  Bussala,  which 
electrified  13  miles  of  double  track  in  1909.  This  is  a  three-phase 
mountain-grade  freight  road  using  30  Westinghouse  locomotives. 


WORK  DONE  IN  RAILROAD  ELECTRIFICATION        569 

Savona-San  Giuseppe,  a  13-mile,  three-phase,  15-cycle,  3000-volt 
freight  road  in  northern  Italy,  in  1909. 

Domodossola-Iselle,  an  extension  south  from  the  Simplon  Tunnel, 
about  10  miles  of  track,  in  1910. 

Bardonnechia-Modana,  including  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  railway, 
between  Modane  and  Turin,  completed  for  the  Turin  Exposition  in  1911. 
Three-phase,  7000-volt,  2000-h.  p.,  Brown-Boveri  locomotives  are  used. 

Neapel -Salerno  and  Torre  Annumziata-Castellamare  roads. 

Turin -Pinerollo -Torre -Felice  Railway,  a  branch  line  southwest  from 
Turin,  on  which  Mr.  Verola,  the  chief  engineer  of  the  electrical  depart- 
ment, states  the  single-phase  system  is  necessary  because  variable 
speeds,  up  to  50  m.  p.  h.,  are  required  for  light  passenger  trains. 

Gallarate-Arona,   and  Gallarate-Laveno,   third-rail  lines. 

References  on  Italian  State  Railways. 

Milan- Varese-Porto  Ceresio:  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  3,  1901;  Dec.  6,  1902;  May  13,  1905. 

Hammer:  General  notes,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Feb.,  1901;  S.  R.  J.,  May  2,  1903,  p.  663. 

Waterman:  Descriptive,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  June,  1905. 

Valtellina  Railway:  S.  R.  J.,  March  16,  1901;  May  30,  1903. 

Stillwell:  A.  I.  E.  E.,  Jan.,  1907;  S.  R.  J.,  April  6,  1907,  p.  575. 

Valatin:  S.  R.  J.,  Descriptive,  Aug.  5,  1905;  Jan.  4,  1908. 

Cserhati:  Operation  results,  S.  R.  J.,  Aug.  26,  1905. 

Wilson  &  Lydall:  Power  Curves,  in  "Electrical  Traction,"  Vol.  II,  p.  113. 

Electrification  of  193  miles:  S.  R,  J.,  May  11,  1907. 

CONCLUSIONS  AND  SUMMARY. 

The  technical  descriptions,  statistical  tables,  and  summary  of  work 
done  in  Electric  Traction  for  Railway  Trains  are  so  rich  in  suggestive 
details  that  they  will  repay  a  careful  study  of  the  development  and  the 
present  status.  What  the  next  decade  will  show  may  be  surmised. 

European  development  is  now  and  always  will  be  limited  to  short- 
haul  work,  but  the  American  development  for  long-distance,  trunk-line 
work  is  most  attractive.  Where  it  has  been  on  a  large  scale,  for 
freight,  switching  and  passenger  service,  the  work  done  has  justified  the 
undertaking;  as  the  size  of  the  project  increases,  the  economic  gain 
increases,  and  in  transportation  this  is  of  vital  importance.  Capital  has 
been  spent  for  electric  traction  on  the  faith  that  it  was  wisely  spent, 
to  attract  traffic  and  to  operate  trains  economically. 


INDEX. 


Acceleration,  kinematics  of,  417 

energy  required  for,  418 

rates  used,  229,  274,  416,  469 
Adhesive  coefficients,  269,  406 
Advantages  of  Electric  Traction,  Chapter  III 
Advantages,  in  business  depression,  113 

of  direct-current  motors,  161 

of  direct-current  systems,  148 

of  electric  roads  in  competition,  114 

of  series  vs.  repulsion  motors,  169 

of  series  vs.  shunt  motors,  161,  425,  508 

of  single-phase  motors,  177 

of  single-phase  systems,  149 

of  three-phase  motors,  165 

of  three-phase  system,  149 
Air  gap  of  motors,  167,  198 
Air  resistance,  tables,  407,  409 
Akron,  Bedford  and  Cleveland  R.  R.,  13,  23 
Albany  Southern  R.  R.,  16,  23,  28,  39 
Alexander  son,  motor,  175 
Allgemeine  Elektricitats-Gesellschaf  t : 

electric  mtoors,  147    j  \ 

single-phase  locomotives,  354,  355,  383, 

single-phase  roads,  141,  143,  144 
Allis-Chalmers  Company,  9,  162,  163 
A.  I.  E.  E.  rating  for  motors,  182 
Amperes  per  contact  line,  table,  447 
Analysis  of  operation  of  roads,  101,  506 
Anchor  bridges  on  overhead  lines,  453 
Annapolis  Short  Line  R.  R. 

See  Baltimore  &  Annapolis 
Armature  bearings,  202 

design  for  motors,  199 

dimensions  of,  194 

height  above  rail,  287 

speed  of,  201 

windings  of,  199 
Armstrong,  A.  H.,  217,  528 
Arnold,  B.  J.,  137,  379,  541 
Aspinwall,J.  A.  F.,  22,  65,  89,  114,  527 

See  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Ry. 
Aspinwall,  L.  M.,  214 
Aurora,  Elgin  &  Chicago  R.  R.,  17 
Austria,  electric  railways  of,  567 
Automatic  devices,  for  safety,  92 
Axle,  hollow,  208,  252,  297,  303,  365,  372 

standardization  for  gears,  202 

tons  per,  56,  289 

Baden  State  Ry.  locomotive,  386 

See  German  Railroads,  519,  521,  566 
Balanced  locomotives,  64 


Baltimore  &  Annapolis  Short  Line: 

cost  of  electrification,  517 

electrification,  549 

motor-car  trains,  234 
,  86  system  of  electrification,  138 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.  R.: 

electrification  of,  517,  549 

locomotives,  electric,  44,  302,  303 

locomotive  motors,  207,  303 

locomotives,  steam,  77 

motors,  196,  207,  201,  303 

operating  expenses,  550 

third  rail,  26,  550 
Batteries,  storage,  2,  146 
Bavarian  State  Ry.  locomotives,  386 

motor-car  trains,  262 

See  German  Railroads,  519,  521,  566 
Bearings  of  electric  motors,  202 
Beggs,JohnI.,  139 
Bentley-Knight,  electric  railway,  4 
Berlin-Zossen,  contact  line,  450 

high-speed  tests,  135,  230 
387        Bernese-Alps  R.  R.,  electrification,  568 

locomotives,  electric,  392 

Lotechberg  Tunnel,  31,  109 

system  of  electrification,  143 
Blankanese-Ohlsdorf  Ry.,  176,  566 

motor-car  trains,  261 
Boilers,  locomotive,  58,  67,  93 

steam  power  plants,  474 
Boston  &  Albany  R.  R. : 

electrification  at  Bos.ton,  98,  512,  556 

terminals  at  Boston,  98,  114 
Boston  &  Eastern  R.  R. : 

electrification  at  Boston,  512 
Boston  &  Maine  R.  R.: 

contact  line,  454 

cost  of  electrification,  522 

electrification,  535 

Hoosac  Tunnel,  535 

inter  urban  roads,  535 

locomotives,  electric,  376 
Boston  terminal  electrification,  78,  114,  512 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  514 

Boston  &  Albany,  98,  512,  556 
Bows  for  current  collection,  446 
Braking,  rate  of  deceleration,  417 

regenerative  control,  426 
Branch  line  electrification,  99 
Bridges  for  contact  lines,  458 
Brill,  motor-car  truck,  255 
BrinckerhoS,  H.  AT.,  104 

571 


572 


INDEX. 


Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit,  104,  241 

equipment  and  energy  of  motor-cars,  428 
Brown,  Boveri  &  Co. 

Deri  motor,  176,  220 

locomotives,  Simplon  Tunnel,  346 

single-phase  roads,  142,  143 

three-phase  roads,  134 
Brushes  and  brush  holders,  200 
Buffalo    and    Lockport    Ry.,    locomotive,     163, 

307,  308 

Burch,  Edward  P.,  103,  137,  215 
Burgdorf-Thun  Ry.  electrification,  521,  557 

maintenance  of  ways  and  track,  104 
Burt,  Horace  G.,  558 

Bush  Terminal  R.  R.,  locomotives,  307,  308 
Butte,  Anaconda  and  Pacific  Ry.,  559 
By-products  of  electrification,  112 

Canadian  Pacific  Ry.,  559 
Capacity,  of  electric  locomotives,  269 

of  electric  motors,  182 

of  elevated  roads,  26 

of  motor-car  trains,  242 

of  power  plants,  467 

of  railways,  87 

of  steam  locomotives,  59 

of  terminals,  88 
Cascade  control  of  motors,  217 
Cascade  Tunnel,  see  Great  Northern  Railway 
Catenary  construction,  449,  455 
Center  of  gravity, 

of  steam  and  electric  locomotives,  58,  287 

of  motors,  104 
Central  California  Traction  Co.,  1200-volt  road, 

128 
Central  London  Railway,  gearless  locomotive,  44 

motor-car  trains,  44,  258,  260 
Characteristic  curves  of  motors,  209 
Characteristics  of  Electric  Locomotives,  Chapter 

VII,  page  266 
Characteristics   of  Modern   Steam   Locomotives, 

Chapter  II,  page  50 
Characteristics  of  motor-car  trains,  228 
Character  of  tractive  effort,  406 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  R.R.,  553 
Chicago  Elevated  Railways  Co.,  25,  28 
Chicago,  Lake  Shore  &  South  Bend  R.R.,  253 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound  R.  R.,  550 
Chicago,    Rock  Island   &  Pacific    Ry.    balanced 

locomotives,  64 

Chicago  terminal  electrification,  121,  558 
City  &  South  London  Ry.  locomotives,  42,  208 
Clark,  D.  K.,  on  compound  locomotives,  75 
Clark,  W.J.,  on  electric  locomotives,  44 
Classification,  of  electric  systems,  127 

of  electric  railway  development,  531 

of  railway  motors,  160 

of  steam  locomotives,  51 
Coal,  and  ash  handling  devices,  473 

burned  per  I.  H.  P.  hr.  in  locomotive  tests,  83 

burned  per  ton  mile  and  train  mile,  83 

consumption  and  evaporation  ratio,  table,  63 

consumption  of  steam  locomotives,  82,  283 

cost  of,  57,  107 


Coal,  supply,  473 

waste  of  locomotives,  Goss,  table,  70 
Coefficient  of  adhesion  between  drivers  and  rail, 

269,  406 

Cole,  F. «/".,  on  indicator  cards,  74 
Collection  of  data  for  electrification,  504 
Cologne- Bonn  Ry.  motor-car  train,  258 
Commonwealth  Edison  power  plant,  489 
Commutators,  178,  200 
Comparison  of  expenses  of  steam  and  electrical 

operation,  102 
Comparison  of  motors,  181 

one-hour  and  continuous  rating,  182 
Comparison  of  Oerlikon  with  other  locomotives, 

table,  395 
Comparison  of  train  weight,  electric  and  steam, 

230,  243 
Competition   of  electric  with   steam   roads,    20, 

114,  504 
Complication  with  electric  traction,  118 

with  three-phase  contact  lines,  447-8-9 
Compound  steam  locomotives,  59,  60,  75 
Compound  locomotive  tests,  Southern  Pacific,  78 
Compulsory  electrifications,  522,  541 
Conclusions  and  summary,  on  electric  systems, 
152 

on  advantages  of  electric  traction,  123 

on  electrification,  569 
Condensers,  surface,  475 
Conduit  railways,  9,  30 
Conservation  of  natural  resources,  115 
Conservatism  in  railway  men,  117 
Contact  lines,  445 

amperes  per,  447 

capacity  of,  445 

collection  of  current,  445 

mechanical  strength  of,  445 

shoes,  446 

third-rail,  28,  455,  464 

three-phass  railway,  448 
Continuous  capacity  of  motors,  183 
Control  circuits,  92 
Control  of  electric  locomotives,  249 
Control  of  direct-current  motors,  214,  218 

of  single-phase  motors,  218 

of  three-phase  motors,  216 
Control  of  trains,  92,  245 
Controller  losses,  148 
Converters,  rotary,  132 
Cooper,  William,  215,  222,  247,  263 
Copeley,  A.W.,  439 

Corrosion  of  steel  by  locomotive  gasas,  105 
Cost  of  cateaary  contact  lines,  459 

of  coal,  57,  107 

of  coal  per  car-mile,  ton-mile,  etc.,  83 

of  complete  equipments,  150,  507 

of  conduit  railways,  30 

of  contact  line  construction,  458 

of  direct-current  system,  150 

of  electric  and  steam  locomotives,  300 

of  electrification  of  roads,  507,  511,  622 

of  elevated  roads,  subways,  and  tunnels,  30 

of  equipment  of  power  plants,  476,  483 

of  gas  power  plants,  483 


INDEX. 


573 


Cost  of  high-tension  transmission  lines,  459 
of  hydro-electric  power,  table,  483 
of  lines  and  substations,  508 
of  living  decreased  by  electric  traction,  115 
of  locomotives,  electric,  300 
of  maintenance  of  contact  lines,  4.60 
of  maintenance  and  electric  systems,  151 
of  maintenance  of  electric  cars,  240 
of  maintenance  of  equipment,  105 
of  maintenance  of  ways  and  structures,  103 
of  motor  cars  and  equipment,  table,  242 
of  motor  equipments,  508,  51 1 
of  operation  of  steam  and  electric  locomo- 
tives, on  New  York  Central,  316 
of  operation  of  steam  locomotives,  83 
of  operation  of  steam  power  plants,  477 
of  poles,  458 
of  passenger  cars,  242 
of  power  at  electric  railroad  plants,  479 
of  power  equipment  of  steam  roads,  510 
of  power  plants,  507 

of  power,  steam  per  kw.  hour,  83,  477,  478 
of  power,  water  per  kw.  hour,  483 
of  single-phase  equipment,  150 
of  steam  cars,  242 

of  steam-electric  power  per  kw.  hour,  478 
of  steam  locomotive  operation,  82,  83 
of  steam  locomotives,  300 
of  steam  power  plant  equipment,  476 
of  steam  railroads,  table,  510 
of  subways,  30 

of  third-rail  lines  per  mile,  460 
of     three-phase     high-tension     transmission 

lines,  459 

of  trtee-phase  system,  150 
of  transmission  line  bridges,  458 
of  towers,  458 

Cradle  suspension  of  motors,  205 
Crank  and  side  rod  construction,  209,  298 
Crank  and  side  rod  electric  locomotives,  table,  299 
Crocker,  George  G.t  Boston  Transit  Commission,  98 
Crude  presentation  of  situations,  117 
Curve  rail  resistance,  415 

Daft,  Leo,  4,  40,  42 

Dalziel,J.,  on  electric  systems,  152 

Danger  from  electricity,  119 

from  steam  locomotives,  93 
Darlington,  Frederick,  124,  155,  300,  517 
Davenport,  Thomas,  2 
Davidson,  2 

Dawson,  P,  178,  210,  462 
Deceleration,  rates,  417 

Deductions  from  data  for  electrification,  506 
Definition,  of  railroad  and  railway,  7 

of  motor-car  train,  225 
Deleware  &  Hudson  R.  R.,  grades,  503 

interurban  lines,  21 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western  R.  R.,  503,  557 
Delivery  of  freight  and  passengers,  99 
De  Muralt,  L.  C.,  on  three-phase  motors,  164 
Denver  and  Interurban  R.  R.,  553 
Dependence  on  single  power  station,  119 
Deri  motors,  176,  220 


Design  of  contact  lines,  445 

of  direct-current  generators,  132 

of  electric  locomotives,  285 

of  electric  motors,  91 

of  rotary  converters,  132 

of  steam  locomotive-,,  55,  58 
Detroit  River  Tunnel  locomotives,  318 
Development  of  direct-current  systems,  128 

of  electric  railroads,  497 

of  high  voltages  for  electric  railways,  437 

of  motor  design,  174 

of  practical  street  railways,  9 

of  single-phase  systems,  136 

of  three-phase  systems,  134 
Dimensions  of  electric  locomotives,  287 

of  armatures,  201 

of  motors,  194 

of  steam  locomotives,  56 
Direct-current  electric  locomotive  list,  302 
Direct-current  motors,  161 
Direct-current  railways  using  750  to  2000  volts, 

European,  129 

Direct-current  railways  using  1200  tO  1500  volts, 
American,  130 

systems,  127,  133 

1200  volts,  129,  130,  161 
Disadvantages  of  15,  and  25  cycles,  213 

of  crank  construction,  298 

of  direct-current  series  motors,  161 

of  direct-current  shunt  motors,  425 

of  direct-current  systems,  149 

of  electric  traction,  117 
<  of  nose  suspension  of  motors,  206 

of  side  rod  locomotives,  299 

of  single-phase  commutator  motors,  177 

of  single-phase  system,  150 

of  steam  locomotives,  62,  65,  500 

of  third  rail  for  railroads,  457 

of  three-phase  motors  and  systems,  166,  169 

of  three-phase  systems,  149 

of  two  trolleys,  447 

Discarded  ideas  in  electric  traction,  11 
Discard  of  steam  locomotives,  120 
Drawbar  pull  of  direct-current  motors,  210 

of  electric  locomotives,  269,  273,  406 

of  15  and  25-cycle  locomotive  motors,  214 

of  motor-car  trains,  table,  230 

of  single-phase  motors,  179,  210,  270 

of  steam  locomotives,  61,  73,  273,  406 

of  three-phase  motors,  168,  210,  270,  273 

of  trains,  469 
Drawings    of    electric    locomotives,     references, 

336,  353,  398 

Drivers,  diameter  of,  table,  297 
Dudley,  P.  H.,  65,  408 

Early  electric  street  railways,  7 
Earnings  and  mileage  of  railways,  47 

of  electric  railways,  95 

of  freight  roads,  39,  96 

Earning  power  and  net  earnings,  109,  284,  497 
Eaton,  G.  M .,  301 

Economy  in  operation  of  power  plants,  467 
I^conomic  results  from  private  right-of-way,  24 


574 


INDEX. 


Economical  prime  movers,  467,  474 
Economy  of  coal,  70,  82 
Edison,  T.  A.,  locomotives,  3,  26,  40 
Efficiency  of  control  schemes,  218 

of  motors,  165,  168,  178 
Eichberg  single-phase  motors,  176 
Electrical  data,  on  motors,  187 
Electrical  engineers  for  railroads,  93,  526,  527 
Electric  locomotives.     See  locomotives. 
Electric  meters,  93 
Electric  motive  power,  87 

Electric  railway  development,  classification,  531 
Electric  Railway  Motors,  Chapter  V,  158 
Electric  Systems,  Chapter  IV,  126 
Electric  system,  affect  on  load  factor,  472 
Electric  traction,  by  electric  railways,  45 

by  steam  railroads,  45,  46 
Electrification  for  short  distances,  522 
Electrification  of  Railroads,  Chapter  XV,  530 
Electrification  of  established  steam  roads,  504 
Elevated  railways,  25,  26 
Enclosure  of  motors,  197 
Energy  and  power  units,  401 

for  frequent  stops,  418 

for  motor-car  trains,  428 

losses  in  transmission,  433 

of  rotation,  402 

regeneration  of,  424 

required  for  trains,  506 

watt-hours  per  ton-mile,  421,  423 
Enginemen,  wages  of,  105 

re.  safety,  93 

Equalization  of  power  plant  loads,  471 
Equipment,  of  power  plants  and  railway  motors, 
468,  523 

of  1200- volt,  129 

of  single-phase  roads,  133 

of  three-phase  roads,  130 

of  electrified  steam  railroads,  532,  535 

per  mile  of  single  track,  427 
Erie  Railroad,  catenary  construction,  452 

earnings  with  electric  traction,  552 

electrification,  552 

grades,  503 

motor  cars,  224,  235 

operating  expenses,  552 
Errors  to  avoid  in  electric  traction,  522 
Essential     considerations     in     railroad     electri- 
fication, 497 

Esthetic  enjoyments,  115 
European  electric  railroads,  561 
Experimental  electric  railways,  2 
Experimental  work,  1890  to  1895,  10 
Express  business,  38 

Farmer,  Moses  G.,  3 

Field  coils,  198 

Field,  Stephen  D.,  locomotive,  43,  298,  299 

Financial  advantages  of  electric  traction,  95 

by-products  of  electrification,  112 

during  business  depression,  113 

in  competition,  114 

Financial  problem  in  electric  traction,  123 
Fire  risk,  93 


First  electric  railways,  2 
First  practical  electric  railways,  8 
First  public  electric  cars,  4 
Flexibility  of  electric  control,  90 

of  electric  motors  and  locomotives,  90 

of  motor  cars,  228,  243 
Fourth  rails  for  contact  lines,  458 
France,  railways  of,  564 
Freight,  revenue  on  electric  roads,  39,  40 

haulage  on  mountain  grades,  steam,  503 

service  on  electric  roads,  35,  38,  96,  523,  535 

service  on  trunk  lines,  96 
French  Southern  Ry.,  electrification,  564 

electric  locomotives,  385 
French  Western  Ry.,  564 
Frequent  train  service,  99 
Frictional  resistance  of  cars  and  trains,  407 

of  electric  trains,  408 

of  steam  locomotives,  409 
Fritch,  L.  C.,  525 

Fuel  and  motive  power  expenses,  107 
Fuel  saving  with  electric  power,  table,  282  . 
Fuel.     See  coal. 
Furnaces,  at  steam  power  plants,  107,  474 

of  steam  locomotives,  62 

Gait,  Preston  &  Hespeler  locomotives,  329 
Ganz  Electric  Co.,  locomotives,  339 

three-phase  roads,  134 
Gas-electric  power  plant  installations,  481 
Gases  from  locomotives,  116 
Gas  power  plants,  480 

Geared  vs.  gearless  motors  and  locomotives,  297 
Gearing  losses,  202;  Gear  data,  204 
Gear  ratio,  effect  of  change  in,  212 
Gears  vs.  cranks,  295,  299 
General  Electric  Company: 

controller,  246 

direct-current  motors,  190 

gasoline-electric  cars,  146 

organized'  9 

single-phase  commutator  motor,  175 

single-phase  locomotives,  381 

single-phase  roads,  139 

three-phase  locomotives,  G.  N.,  349 

1200-volt  roads,  130 

General  status  of  work   done   in   railroad   elec- 
trification 531 

Generator,  design  for  1200  volts  direct  current, 
132 

single-phase  versus  three-phase^  147 
German  railroads: 

cost  of  electrical  equipment,  519,  520 

electrification,  566 

locomotives,  386 

Gibbs,    George,    Chicago,    558,    New    York,    323, 
526,  541 

on  locomotive  design,  288,  323 

on  Long  Island  R.  R.  terminal  capacity,  8S 
Giovi  Railway,  Italy: 

catenary  line,  452 

electrification,  568 

locomotives,  electric,  342 

system  of  electrification,  133 


INDEX. 


575 


Grades  and  tractive  effort,  407 
Grades  on  mountains,  table,  503 
Gradients,  energy  supplied  by,  424 
Grand  Trunk  Railway: 

electrification,  517,  551 

locomotives,  378 

locomotive  motor,  174 

power  plant  and  load  factor,  471 
Grate  surface  of  locomotives,  55,  56,  60,  77 

of  stationary  boilers,  474 
Great  Britain,  electric  railways,  561 
Great  Northern  Ry.: 

Cascade  Tunnel,  88,  554 

contact  line,  450 

cost  of  electrification,  518 

electric  railways  owned,  554 

locomotives,  electric,  349 

locomotives,  steam,  55,  77 

Mallet  compound  locomotive,  table,  77,  78 

motors,  351 

system,  three-phase,  133 

water  power  plant,  491 
Great  Western  Railway,  England,  258,  260 
Griffin,  Eugene,  note  on  roads  of  1887,  48 
Gross  earnings.  See  earnings. 

Hall,  Thomas,  2 

Harriman,  E.  H.,  re.  electric  power,  107,  268 

Heating  of  single-phase  motors,  178 

Heat  insulators,  475 

Heating  of  wires,  438 

Heating  surface  of  boilers,  61,  474 

Height  of  contact  wire,  446 

Henderson,  G.  R.,  68,  82 

Henry,  John  C.,  electric  railway  of,  5,  68,  82 

High-voltage  transmissions,  443 

Hill,  J antes  J.,  60,  268 

Historical   data,    electric   cars   and   locomotives, 

2,40 
History  and  Present  Status  of  Electric  Traction, 

Chapter  I,  page  1. 
Hobart,  H.  M.,  151 

Hoboken  Shore  Railroad  locomotives,  309 
Hudson  &  Manhattan  Railroad: 

electrification,  548 

motor  cars,  254,  549 

power  plant,  487 

reliability,  94 

Human  betterment  and  electric  traction,  114 
Hydro  electric  power  plant  installations,  484 
Hutchinson,  C.  T.,  88 

Illinois  Central  Railroad: 

objections  to  electric  traction,  120 

proposed  electrification,  557 
Illinois  Traction  Company,  13 

electric  locomotives,  329 

freight  service,  37 

Important  interurban  railways,  13,  15,  18 
Impractical  electrifications,  500 
Income  account  of  steam  railroads,  101 
Indianapolis  and  Cincinnati  Traction  Co.,    138, 

151 
Indicator  diagrams  of  locomotives,  74 


Induction  motors,  three-phase,  164 
Insulation,  for  third  rail,  456 

of  motors,  200 
Insulators,  440,  458 
Interboro.  Rapid  Transit  Company: 

capacity  and  service,  88,  231 

motor  cars,  236 

power  plant,  487 

Interchangeable  or  universal  systems,  146 
Interference  with  signal  circuits,  120 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  38 
Interurban  electric  railways,  12,  18 

completion  with  steam  roads,  20,  504 

developments,  table,  13 

early  history,  12 

important  roads,  by  states,  15,  18 

long  distance  travel,  18 

mileage  and  train  service,  13 

New  York- Wisconsin  electric  railway  trip,  18 

passenger  traffic,  table,  14 

present  status,  13 

Investments  increased  by  electric  traction,   108 
Italian  State  Railway: 

electrification,  133,  568 

Ganz  locomotives,  339 

Giovi  Railway,  133,  342 

Mt.  Cenis  tunnel,  471 

system  of  electrification,  133,  152 

Joint  use  of  tracks,  99 
Journal  friction,  202,  299,  407 

Kelvins  Law,  438 

Kilowatts  input  with  varying  stops  per  mile,  419 
Kind  of  service,  affect  on  load  factor,  470 
Kinetic  energy,  402,  417,  418 

Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern.  R.  R.,  560 
Lamme,  B.  G.,  Single-phase  system,   136 
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Ry.,  22,  65,  89,  122 

electrification  of,  562 
Laws  governing  transmissions,  437 
Leakage,  from  third  rail,  457 
Length  of  division,  470 

Leonard-Oerlikon  motor-generator,  144,  396 
Lignite  coal,  473 
Lilley  and  Cotton,  2 
Load  factor,  71,  468,  478 
Location  of  steam  power  plants,  473 
Locomotives,  electric: 

acceleration  rates,  274 

advantages  over  motor  cars,  284 

advantages  over  steam  loco.,  266 

Allgemeine    Elektricitats-Gesellschaft,    392 

Baden  State,  386 

Baltimore  &  Ohio,  303 

Bavarian  State,  386 

Bernese  Alps,  392 

Boston  &  Maine,  376 

Buffalo  &  Lockport,  307 

Bush  Terminal,  307 

capacity  of,  87 

Cascade  Tunnel,  349 

center  of  gravity,  of,  287 


576 


INDEX. 


Locomotives,  electric: 
Central  London,  44 
commercial  considerations,  277,  283 
control,  249 
cost  of  equipment,  285 
cost  of  electric  locomotives,  300 
cost  of  maintenance,  280 
cost  of  operation   per  ton   and   train-mile, 

103-5-7 

cost  of  service  reduced,  103-5-7,  284 
crank  and  side  rod,  298,  299 
design  of,  285 
direct-curaent,  302 
disadvantages  of  crank  design,  299 
drawings,  references  to,  336,  353,  398 
drawbar  pull,  269,  271,  273,  274 
driver  diameters,  297 
earnings  from  investment,  284 
economy  of  fuel,  281 
economy  of  power,  281 
Field,  S.D.,43 
fire  risk,  93 
flexibility  of,  90 
freight  train  haulage,  96 
French  Southern,  385 
fuel,  107,  281 

Gait,  Preston  and  Hespeler,  329 
geared,  297 
gearless  motors,  axle  mounted,  297 

quill  mounted,  297 
gears  versus  cranks,  295 
General  Electric,  experimental,  381 
German  State,  386 
Giovi  Railway,  342 
Grand  Trunk  Railway,  378 
Great  Northern  Railway,  349 
high  grade  freight  service,  96 
high  voltages,  285 
historical  locomotives,  3,  40 
Hoboken  Shore,  309 
horse  power  per  ton,  276,  291,  292 
Illinois  Traction,  329 
Italian  State,  339 
Leonard-Oerlikon,  396 
list    of   all    electric    locomotives,    302,    338, 

354,  355 

load  factor,  discussion  of,  468 
Loetschberg  Tunnel,  Bernese  Alps,  109 
maintenance  and  repairs,  279,  280 
maintenance  decreased,  278 
mechanical  data  on,  187,  289,  290 
mechanical  efficiency  of,  277 
mechanical  transmission  of  power,  295 
Metropolitan  Railway,  England,  332 
michigan  Central,  318 
midi  Railway,  France,  385 
mileage  of  electric  locomotives,  276 
motor  connections,  295 
motors  for,  187,  189 
mountain  grade  service,  503 
New  York  Central,  310 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  361 
North  American  Co.,  298 
North  Bristol  (turbine),  81 


Locomotives,  electric: 

nosing  characteristics,  271 

noise,  116,  277 

North-Eastern,  331 

number  of,  48,  278,  303 

Oerlikon,  393 

Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean     (permutator) , 
397 

Paris-Orleans,  332 

Pennsylvania  experimental,  321,  357 

Pennsylvania,  at  New  York,  322 

Philadelphia  &  Reading,  309 

physical  characteristics,  268,  277 

power  per  ton,  276,  291,  292 

Prussian  State  Railway,  386 

relation  of  speed  to  driver  diameter,  296 

reliability,  94 

repairs  and  maintenance,  278 

Rombacher-Huette,  234 

safety  with,  91 

Saint  Georges  de  Commiers  a  la  Mure,  335 

St.  Polten-Mariazell,  396 

Santa  Fe  Gergal  locomotives,  338 

Savona  San  Guiseppe  Ry.  338,  343 

Shawinigan  Falls  Terminal  Ry.,  382 

side  rod  and  crank,  298 

Siemens,  339 

simplicity  of,  91 

Simplon  Tunnel  346 

single-phase,  list  of,  354 

smoke,  116,  277 

Southern  or  Midi,  385 

speed,  maximum  and  schedule,  275 

speed,  unification  of,  275 

Spokane  &  Inland  Empire,  359 

St.  Clair  Tunnel,  378 

Swedish  State,  382 

Swiss  Federal,  346 

tables    of    electric    locomotives,    302,    338, 
354,  355 

three-phase,  338 

torque  of  motors,  270 

train  weights,  272 

turbine  type,  81 

Valtellina,  339 

Visalia  Electric,  307 

wages  saved  by,  281 

weight  factor  of,  291,  292,  293,  294 

weight  of  electric  equipment,  191,  192,  193 

Westinghouse  Interworks,  356 

Westinghouse.     See    technical    descriptions. 

Winter-Eichberg,  175 
Locomotives,  steam: 

American  Locomotive  Co.,  64 

arches  in  furnaces  of  fire  brick,  62 

articulated  type,  53 

Atlantic  type,  53 

back  pressure,  73 

balanced  type,  53 

Baltimore  &  Ohio  (Mallets),  77 

boilers,  58 

capacity  of,  59 

center  of  gravity  of,  58 

characteristics  of,  57 


INDEX. 


577 


Locomotives,  steam: 

classification  of  wheels,  55 

clearance,  in  cylinders,  73 

coal  consumption,  63 

coal,  economy  of,  70 

coal  per  i.  h.  p.  hour,  83 

coal  per  ton-mile  and  train-mile,  82,  83,  281 

coal  waste  by  locomotives,  70 

compensated  types,  53 

compound,  75 

condensation  in  cylinders,  69 

consolidation,  type,  52 

cost  of  operation,  82,  83 

data  on  proportions,  56 

decapods,  52 

design,  59 

drawbar  pull,  61 

economy  of  coal,  71 

economy  of  compounds,  76 

eight  wheel  or  American,  52 

evaporation  rate,  63 

expansion  of  steam,  73 

fire  brick  arches,  62 

friction  losses,  65 

furnace  conditions,  62 

grate  surface,  55,  56,  60,  77 

Great  Northern,  table  on,  57 

Great  Northern  (Mallet),  77 

heating  surface,  61 

heat  radiation,  63 

horse  power  per  ton,  61 

Hill,  James  J.,  60 

indicator  diagrams,  72 

indicated  horse  power,  62 

initial  steam  pressure,  72 

load  factor  of,  71 

loss  of  pressure,  72 

Mallet  compound,  53,  76 

maintenance  of,  83 

mean  effective  pressure  and  speed,  73 

mechanical  data,  56 

mechanical  strains  in  boilers,  67 

New   York   Central,    pacific    type,    66,    271, 

274,  414 

nosing,  65,  271,  288 
number  or  list,  55 
operating  characteristics,  62 
operation  of  boilers  and  engines,  64 
Pacific  type,  53 
Pennsylvania  tests,  66 
piston  speed,  61,  72 
points  of  cut-off,  73 
physical  characteristics,  57 
repairs  and  renewals,  67,  68,  84 
repairs  per  locomotive  year,  83 
rigid  wheel  base,  58 
Santa  Fe  (Mallets),  78 
self-contained  power  units,  57 
simple  engines,  58 
smoke,  116,277 
Southern   Pacific    (Mallets),    and    tests,    78, 

79,  81 

speed  of  trains  limited,  67 
speed-torque  characteristics,  71 


Locomotives,  steam: 

stand-by  loss'es,  63 

steam  consumption,  69 

superheating  69, 

steam  locomotives  in  United  States,  56 

temperatures,  effect  of,  64,  271 

ten  wheelers,  52 

test,  on  New  York  Central,  66 
on  Pennsylvania,  66 
on  simple  engine,  72 
on  Southern  Pacific  Mallet,  81 

torque,  61 

track  destruction,  65 

tractive  effort,  61 

turbine  locomotive,  Glasgow,  81 

unbalanced  forces  in  drivers,  64 

valve  gear,  73 

water  supply,  57 

wear  on  track,  65 

weather  rating,  64 

weight,  59 

wheel  base,  58 

wheel  classification,  57 

work  done  in  cylinders,  75 
London,  Brighton  &  South  Coast  Ry.: 

earnings  with  electric  traction,  112 

motors,  177 

motor-car  train,  238,  263 

See  Dawson 

London  Electric  Railways,  158,  263,  492 
Long  Island  Railroad: 

electrification,  88,  543 

gross  earnings,  112 

motor-car  trains,  244,  251 

operating  data,  1908,  545 

power  plant,  488 

results  of  electrification,  88,  112,  544 
Losses  at  motors,  420 
Losses  beyond  motors,  421 
Luxury  of  electrification,  123 
Lyford,  O.  S.,  Jr.,  on  Long  Itland  Railroad,  544 


Mailloux,  C.  O.,  40,  408,  431 
Maintenance,  of  contact  lines,  460 

of  locomotives  electric,  278,  280 

of  locomotives  steam,  68,  83 

of  motors,  239 

of  motor  cars,  236,  239 

of  jinotor  cars  per  car-mile,  table,  329 

of  track  and  ways,  103 

per  electric  locomotive  mile,  280 
Manhattan  Elevated  R.  R,,  88,  111,  237,  283 
Mechanical  data: 

on  electric  locomotives,  table,  289 

on  motors,  187 

on  steam  locomotives,  56 
Mechanical  efficiency  of  locomotives,  277 
Mechanical  transmission  of  power,  295 
Mechanics  of  current  collection,  446 
Mellin,  C.  S.,  21,  101,  539 
Mercury  arc  rectifiers,  135,  143 
Mersey  Railway,  104,  561 
Metropolitan  Railway,  England,  332 


578 


INDEX. 


Michigan  Central  R.  R.: 
electrification,  551 
locomotives,  electric,  318 
motors,  190,  196 
Midi  Railway,  France,  385,  564 
Midland  Railway,  England,  152,  562 
Milan- Varese  Railway,  521,  568 
Mileage,  definition,  vii 

of  electric  locomotives,  276 

of  freight  roads  and  revenue,  39 

of  interurban  railways,  16,  18 

of    railroads    operating     motor-car     trains, 

256,  263 

of    railroads    operating    divisions    by    elec- 
tricity, 499,  532 
of  750-  to  2000-volt  roads,  129 
of  single-phase  railways,  138,  144 
of  third-rail  roads,  28 
See  also  car  mileage. 
Milwaukee  Northern  Ry.,  490 
Milwaukee  Railway,  Light  &  Power  Co.,  139 
Minneapolis-St.  Paul,  9,  13,  14 
converter  installations,  131 
motor  repairs,  237 
power  plant,  489 
single-phase  experiments,  137 
Van  Depoele  electric  railway,  5 
See  Twin  City  Rapid  Transit  Co. 
Motive  power  and  power  required  for  motor-car 

trains,  table,  429 
Motors,  Allis-Chalmers,  192 

A.  I.  E.  E.  standardization,  182 
armature  speed,  201 
capacity,  182,  183 
center  of  gravity  and  weight,  104 
classification,  160 
commutators,  200 
comparison  of  motors,  181 
control,  cascade,  217 
circuit,  215 
efficiency,  148 
field,  216 
Leonard's,  218 
losses,  148 
series -parallel,  215 
voltage,  218 
cycles,  15  or  25,  212 

advantages  and  disadvantages  of,  213 
Deri,  176,  220 

development  of  motor  design,  194     , 
air  gap,  198 
armatures,  199 

quill  suspension,  208 
speed,  201 
winding,  199 
axles,  203 
bearings,  202 
brushes,  200 
commutating  poles,  197 
commutators,  200 
crank  rod  locomotive,  209 
enclosures,  197 
field  coils,  198 
gearing,  202 


Motors,  development  of  magnet  frames,  194 

suspension,  204 

Gibbs  cradle,  204 
nose,  205 
Walker,  205 
yoke,  205 
direct  current,  161 

advantages  and  disadvantages  of,  161 

commutating  pole  motors,  188 

series,  161 

speed,  211 

torque,  210,  270 

1200-volt,  129,  130,  270 

Westinghouse,  500-600  volt,  194 
gearing  ratio  and  driver  diameters,  212 
General  Electric  motors,  190 
mechanical  and  electrical  data,  187 
poles,  197 

rating,  182,  185,  186,  187 
selection  of  motor  capacity,  188 
Siemens  Brothers  motors,  192 
single-phase  motors,  169 

advantages  and  disadvantages,  177 

control,  214 

Deri,  176,  220 

15  and  25  cycles,  189,  212 

general  characteristics,  171 

Grand  Trunk  locomotive  motors,  174 

heating,  178 

repulsion  types,  169,  174 

series  types,  169,  270 

Steinmetz,  re.  single-phase  motors,  180 

torque,  179,  210,  270 

Visalia  locomotive  motor,  173 

weight,  179,  193 

Winter-Eichberg,  175 
sparking,  197 
speed  of  armatures,  201 
speed-torque  characteristics,  209 
three-phase  motors,  advantages  of,  165 

air  gap,   167 

control,  216 

efficiency,  168 

motor-car  train  operation,  168 

objectionable  characteristics,  166 

power  required  with  different  systems, 
166 

standard  motors,  189 

torque,  168,  210,  270 

trucks,  209 

weight,  192 
ventilation,  183 
voltages,  180,  211 
weight,  148 

Westinghouse  motors,  191,  194 
Motor-cars,  acceleration  rates,  229 
Berlin-Zossen,  208 
characteristics,  228 
comparison    of   train    weights,    electric    and 

steam,  242 
control,  243,  245,  249 
cost  of  motor-cars  with  equipment,  240 
cost  of  operation,  238,  241,  243 
definition  of,  32 


INDEX. 


579 


Motor-cars,  development,  225 

distribution  of  motive  power,  231 

distribution  of  weight,  231 

drawbar  pull,  230 

economy  of  operation,  236 

flexibility,  228,  243 

fuel  and  power,  238,  243 

high  schedule  speed,  230 

history  of,  22,  23 

independence,  231 

investment,  243 

list  of  motor-car  trains,  256,  263 

Long  Island  R.  R.,  cars  per  train,  244 

maintenance  of  electric  cars  per  car-mile,  240 

maintenance  of  equipment,  236 

maintenance  of  motors  per  car-mile,  239 

maintenance  of  ways  and  structures,  236 

mileage  of,  240 

New  York  Central  motor-car  truck,  227 
.       reliability,  231 

safety,  231 

service  in  America  and  Europe,  226 

similarity  of  equipment,  231 

wages,  237 
Motor-car  Trains,  Chapter  VI,  page,  224 

versus  locomotives,  242 

versus  single  motor  cars,  243 
Mountain  grade  lines,  33 

electrification  of,  501 
Mt.  Cenis  Tunnel,  133,  471,  569 
Muhlfeld,  J.  E.,  77 
Multiple-unit  operation,-  249 
Murray,  W.  S.,  276,  283,  368,  376,  526 

New  York  Central  R.  R.: 

by-products  of  electrification,  112 

capacity  of  terminal,  88,  106 

commission  of  engineers,  541 

competition,  21 

cost  of  electrification,  514,  516,  522 

electrification,  542 

freight  terminals,  34,  542 

Grand  Central  Station,  98 

interurban  roads,  21 

locomotives,  electric,  310 

locomotives,  steam,  66,  414 

motor-car  trains,  250 

motor-car  truck,  227 

operating  expenses,  542 

power  plant,  486 

reliability  of  service,  94 

system  adopted,  541 

transmission  losses,  434 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.  R.: 

Boston,  development  at,  540 

catenary  construction,  453 

cost  of  electrification: 

Boston  terminal  zone,  514 
New  York  division,  514,  537 

financial  and  traffic  statistics,  539 

freight    and    passenger    electric    locomotive 
data,  375 

Grand  Central  Station,  use  of,  537 

Harlem  Branch,  freight  yards,  35,  375,  539 


New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  R.  R.: 

interurban  roads,  21 

locomotives,  electric,  361 

locomotive,  steam,  82,  83,  279,  283 

McHenry,  E.  H.,  539 

Mellin,  C.  S,  21,  101,  539 

motor-car  trains,  251,  538 

motors  for  cars  and  locomotives,  189,  193, 
201,204 

Murray,  W.  S.,  368,  376,  526 

operating  expenses,  538 

performance     characteristics     of    motor-car 
trains,  253 

power  plant,  485 

power  plant  load,  470 

power  required  for  trains,  429 

reliability  of  service,  95 

system  of  electrification,  537 

third  rail,  27,  537 

truck  used  on  motor-car  trains,  252 
New  York  Subway,  88,  487 
New  York- Wisconsin  electric  railway  trip,  18 
New  York,  West  Chester  and  Boston,  138,  263, 

539 

Noise  from  steam  locomotives,  116 
Norfolk  and  Western,  560 
North  American  locomotive,  43,  298 
North  Bristol  turbine  locomotive,  81 
North-Eastern  Railway: 

electrification,  562 

locomotives,  331 

motor-cars,  40 

service,  89 
Northern  Electric  Co.: 

locomotives,  electric,  38,  336.;  Edwards,  222 
Northern  Pacific  R.  R.,  503,  560 
Nose  suspension  of  motors,  204 
Nosing  of  locomotives,  65,  271,  288 
Norway,  electrification  of  roads,  564 
Number  of  hours  of  service  of  power  plants  per 

day,  460 

Number  of  power  plants  required,  475,  523 
Number  of  trains,  and  load  factor,  469 

Objectionable  characteristics  of  electric  traction, 

117 
Oerlikon,  combinations  of  systems,  144 

Bernese-Alps  R.  R.  locomotive,  392 

locomotives  with  motor-generator,  144 

single-phase  roads,  141,  144 
Ohio  and  Indiana  interurbans,  517 
Operation  of  steam  locomotives,  62,  70 

Atlantic  type  locomotives,  66 

expenses  increased,  108 

expenses  of  steam  railroads,  101 

See     speed-torque     characteristics. 
Operating  expenses  per  train  mile,  decreased  by 

electric  traction,  101 

fuel  and  power,  102 

maintenance  of  equipment,  105 

maintenance  of  ways,  103 

of  steam  railroads,  table,  101 

repairs  and  renewals  of  steam  locomotives, 
68,83 


580 


INDEX. 


Operating,  time  saved,  323 

Operation  and  maintenance  of   electric   systems, 

151 

Operators  in  steam  plants,  475 
Oregon  Electric  Ry.,  38,  555 
Oregon  Short  Line,  560 
Overhead  system.     See  contact  lines, 
Overhead  third  rail,  456 


Pacific  Electric  Ry.,  freight  service,  38 

Page,  C.  G.,2 

Painting  of  corroded  steel,  105 

Pantographs,  446 

Paris,  Lyons  and  Med.  Ry.,  397,  564 

Paris  Metropolitan  Ry.,  31,  123,  519 

Paris-Orleans  Ry.,  123,  332,  519,  564 

Passenger  traffic  attracted,  96 

Patronage  on  railroads,  22 

Pattison,  Hugh,  526,  558 

Pennsylvania  Railroad: 

experimental  locomotive,  320,  357 

locomotives  at  New  York,  329 

locomotives,  steam,  66 

motor-car  trains,  50 

motors,  184,  208 

New  York  Tunnel  and  Terminal,  31,  545 

Philadelphia  Terminal,  548 

See  Long  Island  Railroad 

See  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad. 
Performance    characteristics.     See    speed-torque 
characteristics    of    locomotives,    under    Tech- 
nical Descriptions  . 
Permutator,  or  rectifier,  145 
Peters,  Ralph,  Long  Island  R.  R.,  112 
Philadelphia  &  Reading  R.  R.,  309 
Physical     advantages    of    electric     traction,    87, 

498 
Physical    characteristics    of    steam    locomotives, 

57 

Pittsburg  and  Butler  motor-car  train,  234 
Pittsburg,    Harmony,    Butler    and    New    Castle 

motor-car  train,  233 
Pole  change  in  motors,  217 
Poles,  cost  of  wooden,  458 
Poles  of  direct-current  motors,  421 
Pomeroy,  L.  R.,  279 
Portland  Ry.  &  Lt.  Co.,  38 
Power  curves  of  motors,  421 
Power  equipment  of  steam  roads,  467,  507 
Power  equipment  per  mile  of  single  track,  427 
Power  plant  installations,  steam,  473,  480 

dependence  on,  119 

gas-electric,  481 

hydroelectric,  484 

load  factor,  468 

number  of  plants  required,  475 

technical  descriptions,  485 
Power  Required  for  Trains,  Chapter  XI,  p.  400 

equipment   per   mile   of   single    track,  427 

for  acceleration,  417,  418 

for  auxiliaries,  420 

for  cars  per  ton  mile,  table,  429 

for  electric  locomotive  hauled  trains,  414 


Power  for   New   York,  New    Naven  &   Hartford 
trains,  429 

for  trains  per  ton  mile,  table,  429 

f fictional  resistance  tables,  409,  415 

losses  at  motors,  420 

per  mile  of  track,  427 

per  ton  mile  and  car  mile,  429 

regeneration  of,  424 

summary  on,  427 

tractive  resistance,  407,  408 

transmission,  148 

weight  of  cars,  403 

with  different  systems,  table,  166 
Practical  street  railways,  8 
Private  right-of-way,  23 

advantages  and  disadvantages  of,  23,  24 

economic  results,  24 

importance  of,  24 
Procedure   in    Railroad    Electrification,    Chapter 

XIV,  497 

Proportions  of  steam  locomotives,  56 
Prussian  State  Ry.,  locomotives,  386 
Puget  Sound  Electric  Ry.,  37 

Quill  suspension  of  motor  armatures,  208 

Railroads,  definition  of,  vii,  532 

electrification  in  competition,  504 

electrification  of,  Chapter  XV,  530 

mountain  grades  on,  33,  503 

operating  branches  by  electricity,  45,  532, 
534 

statistics  on  earnings  of  steam  railroads,  48 

switching  yards,  35 

terminal  electrification,  34,  88,  97 
Rails,  broken  by  steam  locomotives,  65. 
Rails,  impedance  data,  438,  461 
Railways,  definition  of,  vii 
•      early  electric,  1884,  1888,  7 

elevated  railways,  25 

interurbans  of  each  state,  15,  18 

operating  motor-car  trains,  258,  263 

practical  electric,  188,  8 

suburban,  10 

table  of  deveolpment,  13 

third-rail,  26 

Rating  of  motors,  182,  187 
Rating  of  electric  locomotive  motors,  compared, 

186 

Rating  of  railway  motors  with  forced  draft,  185 
Reasons  for  electrification,  498,  499 
Reciprocating  motion  versus  circumferential,  65, 

81,  91,  104 

Rectifier  plans,  133,  145 
Regeneration  of  energy,  92,  424,  426 

with  direct-current  motors,  425 

with  single-phase  motors,  426 

with  three-phase  motors,  425 
Relation  between  steam  pressure  and  speed,  73 
Relative  advantages  of  electric  systems,  147 
Relative  equipment  of  power  plants  and  railway 

motors,  468 
Reliability  of  electric  service,  94,  476,  483 


INDEX. 


581 


Repairs  and  renewals  of  steam  locomotives,  68, 

84 

Repulsion  motors,  174 
Resistance,  of  air,  407,  409 

of  copper  wire,  438 

of  curves,  413,  414 

of  motors,  216 

tractive,  407 
Retardation  rates,  417 
Revenue  of  freight  roads,  39,  96 
Rheostats,  water,  340,  343 
Rigid  wheel  base,  steam  locomotives,  58 
Rock  Island  Southern  motor  car  trains,  235 
Rosenthal,  L.W.,   439 

Rombacher-Huette  Ry.  locomotives,  334 
Rotterdam-Hague-Scheveningen   Ry.    electrifica- 
tion, 263,  565 

motor-car  train,  260 

Safety  in  electric  traction,  91 

St.  Clair  Tunnel.     See  Grand  Trunk  Railway. 

St.  Georges  de  Commiers  a  la  Mure,  335 

St.  Louis  and  Belleville,  44 

St.  Paul.     See  Minneapolis. 

St.  Polten-Mariazell  locomotive,  396 

Santa  Fe  Gergal  Ry.,  133,  565 

Savona  Ceva  Railway,  343,  569 

Schedule  speed  of  trains,  405 

Seebach  Wettingen  electrification,  355,  396,  567 

Selection  of  motor  capacity,  186 

Series  motors,  161 

Series -parallel  control,  215 

Shawinigan  Falls  Terminal  Ry.  locomotives,  382 

Shepard,  F.  H.,  multiple-unit  control,  247 

Shepardson,  Geo.  D.,  railway  motor  tests,  49,  219 

Short  Electric  Company,  9 

Shunt  motors,  11,  425 

Side-bar  suspension  of  motors,  205 

Side  rods  on  locomotives,  298;  on  Pittsburg  cars, 

301 

Siemens   &   Halske,   experimental  locomotive  of 
1879,  3,  339 

first  commercial  roads,  4 

single-phase  railways,  141,  142 

three-phase  railways,  134 
Siemens-Schuckert  locomotive,  339 
Simplicity  of  electric  traction,  91 
Simplon  Tunnel,  catenary  construction,  450 

locomotives,  electric,  346, 
Sinclair,  Angus,  69 
Single-phase  motors,  169,  189 

commutators,  178 

control,  177,  218,  248,  253 

list  of  motors,  187 

series-compensated  and  repulsion,  169,  175 

weight,  179,  193 
Single-phase  systems,  136 

motor-car  trains,  list  of,  256 

railway  installations,  138,  143 
Sixty  cycle  for  motors  on  locomotives  or  motor 

cars,  144,  213,  214 
Smith,  W.  N.,  525,  528 

Smoke  and  gases  from  locomotives,  116,  277 
Social  advantages  of  electric  traction,  114 


Southern  Pacific,  cost  of  electrification,  519,  555 

grades,  503 

Mallet  locomotives,  and  tests,  78,  81 
Southern  Ry.     See  French  Southern. 
South  Side  Elevated  R.,  Chicago,  25 
Spain,  railroad  electrifications,  565 
Speed  of  armatures,  peripheral,  201 
Speed  of  motors,  201 
Speed  of  railway  trains,  201,  291,  405 
Speed  of  trains  increased  with  electric  traction, 

405 

Speed-time  curves,  421 
Speed- torque  or  operating  characteristics: 

Bernese  Alps  Ry.,  395 

Boston  &  Maine  eectric  locomotives,  377 

electric  locomotives,  270,  273 

Grand  Trunk  electric  locomotives,  380 

Michigan  Central  locomotives,  321 

New  Haven  &  Hartford  locomotives,  366,  36 

New  Haven  &  Hartford  motor-cars,  253 

New  York  Central  locomotives,  316 

Pennsylvania  locomotives,  328 

Simplon  Tunnel  locomotives,  349 

Southern  Pacific  (Mallet)  locomotives,  78,  81 

Southern  Railway,  France,  385 

Spokane  &  Inland  locomotives,  361 

steam  locomotives,  71,  75 
Spokane  &  Inland  Empire  R.  R.,  359 
Sprague,  Frank  J.,  at  Richmond, 

electric  lines  in  1890,  8,  42 

on  control  plan,  33,  245,  249 

on  electric  systems,  153 

motor-car  train,  238 

on  locomotives  nosing,  288 

on  New  York  Central  locomotive,  288,  312 

on  regeneration  of  energy,  425 

technical  papers.     See  literature. 
Sprague-General  Electric  control,  246 
Standardization  of-motors,  A.  I.  E.  E.,  182 
Statistics  of  steam  and  electric  railways,  48 
Steam,   Gas,  and  Water  Power  Plants,   Chapter 

XIII,  466 

Steam  turbines,  474 
Steam  turbine  locomotives,  81 
Steam  and  electric  railway  statistics,  summary,  48 
Steel  towers  for  transmission  lines,  444 
Steinmetz,  C.  P.,  on  contact  lines,  448 

on  New  Haven  electrification,  180  • 

on  single-phase  motors,  176,  180 
StUlwell,  L.  B.,  278,  283,  301,  430 

on  electric  systems,  153 
Storage  batteries,  146 
Storer,  N.  W.,  167,  301 
Suburban  roads,  10,  101 
Subways  and  tunnels,  30,  32 
Superheat,  69,  474 
Suspension  of  motors,  204 
Sweden  and  Norway,  electrification,  563 
Swedish  State  Railway: 

electrification,  563 

locomotives,  382 
Swiss  Federal  Railway: 

electric  system,  133 

electrification,  567 


582 


INDP;X. 


Swiss  Federal  Railway: 
locomotives,  346 
power  required  for  all  trains,  430 
Switchwork  and  yards,  35,  449 
Switzerland,  railroad  electrification,  567 
Syracuse,  Lake  Shore  &  Northern,  452 
Systems    of    Electrification,     Chapter    IV,    126 
advantages     and     disadvantages,     of     each 

system,  147 
choice  of,  127,  154 
classification,  127 
combination,  144 
direct-current,  advantages  of,  148 

development  of,  128 

table  of  750  to  2000- volt  roads,  129 

table  of  1200-  to  1500- volt  roads,  130 
interchangeable,  146 
mercury  arc,  133 
permutator  plans,  145 
power  plant,  492 
rectifier  plan,  133,  145 
single-phase,  advantages  of,  149 

development,  136 

equipment  of  roads,  138,  143 

list  of  roads,  138,  139,  141,  143 

status  of  railway  work,  127 

summary  of  roads,  144 
three-phase,  advantages  of,  149 

development  of,  134 

equipment  of  roads,  135 

Italian  State,  152 

list  of  roads,  135 
three- wire,  128 

Technical  Descriptions: 

contact  lines,  449 

direct-current    locomotives,    Chapter    VIII, 
303 

motor-car  trains,  224 

power  plants,  485 

proposed  electrifications,  556 

single-phase   locomotives,  Chapter    X,  354 

three-phase  locomotives,  Chapter  IX,  323 
Temperature  and  power,  64,  271,502 
Terminals  of  railways,  25,  34,  97 

capacity  and  traffic,  97 

electrification,  497,  524 
Third-rail,  roads,  lists,  26 

Baltimore  &  Ohio,  26,  303,  550 

capacity  of  shoes,  446 

contact  lines,  455 

contact  surface,  447 

cost  of,  458,  460 

development  of,  26 

disadvantages  of,  457 

insulation,  456 

maintenance  cost,  460 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  27 

overhead  third  rails,  456 

return  conductors,  458 

table  of  roads,  28,  29 

1200- volt,  130 

voltages  on,  456 
Thomson,  Elihu,  electric  controller,  9 


Thomson-Houston  Electric  Co.,  9 
Three-phase,  alternating-current  systems,  133 

electric  locomotives,  list,  328 

motor  control,  214,  218 

railroad  equipment  and  mileage,  135,  621 
Three- wire  systems,  128 
Thury  Electric  Railway,  335 
Toledo  &  Western  R.  R.,  36 
Ton-mileage  of  electric  railways,  535 
Torque,  of  direct-current  motors,  210 

of  single-phase  motors,  179,  210 

of  three-phase  motors,  168,  210,  270 

See  drawbar  pull. 
Towers,  cost  of  steel,  458 
Track  destruction,  65,  104,  206 
Track  mileage.     See  mileage. 
Tractive  coefficient,  406 
Tractive  effort  for  railway  trains,  469 
Tractive  resistance,  407,  408 
Train    capacity    of    elevated    and    underground 

roads,  26 
Train-mile  data  on  operating  expenses  of  steam 

roads,  83,  107,  280 
Train  service  and  equipment  of  electric  roads,  532, 

533,  534 
Transmission  and  Contact  Lines,  Chapter  XII,  432 

cost  of,  458 

design  of  apparatus,  435 

development  of  high  voltages,  436 

energy  losses,  433 

on  electric  roads,  148,  478,  508 
New  York  Central,  424 
West  Jersey  &  Seashore,  434 

engineering,  439,  441 

high  voltages,  439,  441 

high-voltage  transmissions,  443 

impedance  and  resistance,  438 

laws  governing,  437 

losses,  119,  434 

pantographs,  446 

status  of  development,  433 

steel  tower,  444 

Trolley  wheels,  446.     See  contact  line. 
Trucks.     See  descriptions  of  locomotives. 
Tunnel  roads,  30,  31,  92 
Tunnel  data,  31 
1200- volt  railways,  130 
Twin   City  Rapid  Transit  Co. : 

power  plant,  489 

repairs  of  motors,  237 

rotary  converter  installation,  1897,  132 

See  Minneapolis-St.  Paul. 

Unbalanced  forces  of  locomotives,  64 

See  reciprocating  motion. 
Underground  Electric  Railway,  London: 

motor-car  train,  258,  260 
Underground  roads  using  electric  power,  31 
Universal  electric  systems,  146 

Valatin,  Bela,  342,  569 

Valtellina  Line  of  Italian  State  Railway,  568 

catenary  construction,  450 

cost  of  electrification,  521 


INDEX. 


583 


Valtellina,  locomotives,  339 

motor-car  trains,  253 

motors,  209 

powerplant  load  factor,  468 

system  used,  133,  152 

truck  for  motor  cars,  254 

See  Giovi  Railway 
Van  Depoele,  3,  4,  5,  200 
Variety  of  service,  471 
Ventilation  of  motors,  183 
Verola,  M.,  on  systems,  152,  569 
Visalia  Electric,  locomotives,  377 

motors,  173 
Voltage,  control,  218 

drop  in  circuits,  438 

of  high-voltage  transmissions,  443 

of  transmission  and  contact  lines,  437 

Wages  decreased  with  electric  traction,  105 
Walker  spring  suspension,  205 
Walschaert  valve  gear,  73 
Ward-Leonard  locomotive  and  system,  396 
Washington,  Baltimore  &  Annapolis: 

direct-current  system,  140 

single-phase  system,  139 
Water  power  plants,  481 
Water  supply,  473,  482 
Water  tube  boilers,  474 
Waterman,  F.  .V.,  472 
Watt  hours  per  car  mile,  429 
Watt  hours  per  ton  mile,  421 
Weather  ratings  .of  locomotives,  64,  271 
Weight,  analysis  of  electric  locomotives,  293 

factor  of  electric  locomotives,  291,  292,  293 

of  cars,  403 

of  direct-current,  railway  motors,  190 


Weight,  of  locomotives  per  foot  of  base,  56,  290 

of  motor-car  train,  distribution  of,  231 

of  single-phase  motors,  148,  179,  193 

of  steam  locomotives,  57 

of  three-phase  locomotive  motors,  192 

per  driving  axle,  57,  289 
Western  Railway  of  France,  564 
Westinghouse  Company,  9,  138,  141,  142 

control  for  trains,  246 

data  on  motors,  191,  194 

single-phase  motors,  193 

single-phase  railways,  138,  141,  142 
Westinghouse,  George,  286 
Westinghouse  Interworks  locomotive,  356 
West  Jersey  &  Seashore  R.  R. : 

earnings  and  expenses,  112,  547 

electric  system,  547 

electrification,  516,  546 

motor  cars,  256,  547 

motor-car  train,  232 

motor-car  truck,  232,  255 

power  plant,  488,  547 

reasons  for  electrification,  546 

transmission  and  contact  line,  000 

transmission  losses,  434 
West  Shore  R.  R.  electrification,  543 

motor-car  train,  233 
Wheel  base  of  locomotives,  58 
Wheels,  driver  diameters,  297 
Wilgus,  W.J.,  88 

Wilkes-Barre  &  Hazeltori  Railroad,  16,  2S,  256 
Winter-Eichberg  motor,  175 
Work  Done  in  Railroad  Electrification,  Chapter 

XV,  530 

Yoke  suspension  of  motors,  205 


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